The famous Christmas tree, with its ornaments, lights, a star on top (and perhaps presents underneath), signals the joyous festivities associated with the holiday season. In preparation for the upcoming celebrations, below are some facts on real and artificial Christmas trees.  

1. According to the US Department of Agriculture, the US cut more than 14.5 million Christmas trees in 2022, with an additional 3 million imported. 

2.  There are about 16,000 tree farms across all 50 states, where trees typically grow for seven years in the field. 

3. According to Michigan State University, real Christmas trees typically include the fir, pine, and spruce varieties. For example, the Fraser fir, blue spruce, and Scots pine have stiff branches suitable for hanging ornaments. 

4. Real Christmas trees can be reused or recycled through methods such as curbside pick-up, yard waste, mulching, nonprofit pickup, planting it in one’s yard, and soil erosion barriers.  

5. Artificial Christmas trees typically include the PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or PE (polyethylene) variety. PVC trees have PVC needles made to look like real pine trees, while PE trees are made from plastic injected into molds. 

6. The PVC and PE make artificial Christmas trees unrecyclable and they end up in a landfill. However, artificial Christmas trees can be reused, sold, or given to others over many years. 

7. A 2017 life cycle assessment by the American Christmas Tree Association found that, after myriad costs were calculated for about five years, using an artificial tree was more environmentally friendly than purchasing multiple real trees. 

Sources: 

• https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/chart-gallery/gallery/chart-detail/?chartId=110530  

• https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/choosing_the_right_christmas_tree  

• https://realchristmastrees.org/All-About-Trees/How-to-Recycle/  

• https://www.cybermondaychristmastree.com/pvc-vs-pe-christmas-trees/ 

• https://static1.squarespace.com/static/6272fe70ef0c091e820f4ac3/t/635833efdc3cc409cbf3670c/1666724850060/2018+ACTA.pdf  

Imagine if scientists could use AI to manipulate the genetic makeup of a single type of cell without affecting other cells in the body.

A new technological method appears to be opening a way to allow precise activation—or precise repression—of genes in specific tissues.

This could revolutionize gene therapy and biotechnology, said researchers from The Jackson Laboratory (JAX), Harvard University, Yale University, and the Broad Institute of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in a new report.

JAX is a leading biomedical research institution in Bar Harbor, Maine, with the mission of discovering genomic solutions for diseases, including how to prevent and treat cancers.

The new finding “creates the opportunity for us to turn the expression of a gene up or down in just one tissue without affecting the rest of the body,” said senior co-author Ryan Tewhey, PhD, about the JAX report, which was published in an Oct. 23 advanced online issue of Nature.

“Although every cell in an organism contains the same genes, not all the genes are needed in every cell, or at all times,” the report said.

The core of the report revolves around the human body’s natural gatekeepers called cis-regulatory elements (CREs).

“CREs themselves are not part of genes, but are separate, regulatory DNA sequences—often located near the genes they control,” the JAX release explained. “CREs help ensure that genes needed in the brain are not used by skin cells” or that genes needed for toddler development “are not activated in adults,” it added.

Tewhey and his colleagues broke new ground by designing synthetic CREs. Senior co-author Dr. Pardis Sabeti, a core institute member at the Broad Institute and professor at Harvard, developed a platform called CODA (Computational Optimization of DNA Activity). It “used their AI model to efficiently design thousands of completely new CREs with requested characteristics, like activating a particular gene in human liver cells but not activating the same gene in human blood or brain cells,” the JAX report said.

Tewhey, an associate professor at JAX, is excited that these “synthetically designed” switches “show remarkable specificity to the target cell type they were designed for.”

The group tested several synthetic CRE sequences in zebrafish and mice, “with good results,” the Jax release said. “One CRE, for instance, was able to activate a fluorescent protein in developing zebrafish livers but not in any other areas of the fish.”

There have been advances in gene editing in living cells. But prior to these researchers’ breakthrough, altering certain genes within targeted cell types or selected tissues had been difficult. This is because computer models were incapable of searching every possible combination of sequences in a typical human CRE, the JAX report said.

“[W]ith no straightforward rules that control what each CRE does, this limits our ability to design gene therapies that only affect certain cell types in the human body,” said Rodrigo Castro, PhD, a computational scientist in the Tewhey lab at JAX and co-first author of the new paper.

“This project essentially asks the question: ‘Can we learn to read and write the code of these regulatory elements?’” said Steven Reilly, PhD, assistant professor of genetics at Yale and one of the senior authors of the study. “If we think about it in terms of language, the grammar and syntax of these elements is poorly understood. And so, we tried to build machine learning methods that could learn a more complex code than we could do on our own.”

"Natural CREs, while plentiful, represent a tiny fraction of possible genetic elements and are constrained in their function by natural selection," said study co-first author Sager Gosai, PhD, a postdoctoral fellow in Sabeti's lab.

"These AI tools have immense potential for designing genetic switches that precisely tune gene expression for novel applications, such as biomanufacturing and therapeutics, that lie outside the scope of evolutionary pressures," Gosai said.

Sources:

• https://www.jax.org/news-and-insights/2024/october/researchers-flip-genes-on-and-off-with-ai-designed-dna-switches

• https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08070-z

• https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/10/241023130924.htm

World Food Prize 2020 winner and renowned soil scientist Professor Rattan Lal serves as director of the Rattan Lal Center for Carbon Management and Sequestration at The Ohio State University. Dr. Lal has been advocating for healthy and productive soil for much of his life. HJIFEP research director Dinshaw Dadachanji sat down with Dr. Lal for an interview, excerpts from which follow:

Earth & I: Dr. Lal, before we get into soil science and your advocacy for a Soil Health Act, could you tell us a bit about yourself? 

Rattan Lal: I have been working in agriculture since graduating from Ohio State University (OSU) with a PhD in 1968.   

Ohio State University had given my name to the Rockefeller Foundation with whom I had previously worked in India. They were developing facilities in the Philippines, India, Mexico, and Nigeria.

In 1969, I accepted the opportunity to work at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Ibadan, Nigeria, where I worked for 18 years before coming back to OSU in 1987.

That opened up a great opportunity for me to become a soil scientist and study problems in developing countries. I had the opportunity to travel to countries in Southeast Asia, like Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines; to almost all countries in Africa; South America, including Brazil and Argentina; and Central America, Mexico, and other countries.

I worked there [at IITA] for 18 years and became very familiar with the soils, problems, and climates of developing countries as a whole. It was God's gift that I had that opportunity, having come from a village in an isolated environment. Here, I was exposed to the entire world.  

Working on soils to make them productive became my mission, and I continued that mission upon returning to Ohio State in 1987. The goal was how to make agriculture not only good enough for food and nutritional security but also for climate security.  

That was a big, unique opportunity—that agriculture can be a part of the solution!  

Earth & I: How would you describe healthy soil?  

Rattan Lal: Scientists refer to soil health as its capacity to provide ecosystem services, such as food and nutritional quality, water filtration, and moderation of climate. These critical ecosystem services really come from soil.  

Then the question as a scientist is how to determine that quality. Soil organic matter content is the key, like for human health, you would look at body temperature, blood pressure, and so forth. 

The climate is a control factor at the heart of soil health.

In soil, it is all organic matter content and its ability to hold water and nutrients, and its ability to grow plants. And that's why the center where I'm working is a carbon sequestration center. The climate is a control factor of soil organic matter content and it is at the heart of soil health.  

Carbon sequestration is a mechanism to improve, protect, and sustain soil health. The reason soils in Africa have bypassed the green revolution is because they did not have fertilizer and irrigation, and the soil organic matter content was so depleted—at less than 0.5% in the root zone, where it should be 2 to 3 %. Therefore, the productivity of soils in Africa without fertilizer is extremely low. 

In India and Mexico, where the green revolution happened, they had access to rain (or irrigation) and fertilizers. The soil was in poor health, so they used fertilizer and doubled or tripled their production. But in the long run, we cannot continue dumping fertilizer. We must restore soil health. 

Earth & I: You mentioned often that there is a Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act here in the United States. However, we do not have a Soil Health Act yet, except in New York State, which recently passed the Soil Health Act. Could you say something about that?  

Rattan Lal: I'm really happy that New York State has now a New York Soil Health and Climate Resiliency Act and related legislation. I think it would serve as a role model for all states to follow, and hopefully the US Senate and Congress will follow a similar path of rewarding farmers for restoring soil organic matter content at US$50 per credit (one metric ton of CO2 equivalent). Such payment for ecosystem services would motivate farmers and ranchers, who are the biggest stewards of soil, to transform agriculture from a problem into a solution for restoring the environment and advancing food, nutrition and climate security. 

The reason I think there was a Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act was because air and water are easy to see. Air that is hazy, dusty, or smoky, as well as water that is muddy and polluted, are easy to see, but people do not see that clean air and clean water are, in fact, dependent on healthy soil. 

That link is not obvious. That is where there is a social disconnect. 

Clean air and clean water, as well as climate ... depends on the ability of the soil to be a sink of atmospheric CO2.

From that point of view, there is [also] a political disconnect. Clean air and clean water, as well as climate from that point of view, depends on the ability of the soil to be a sink of atmospheric CO2. That link is not easy to understand, because even now when you talk to people about soil as a potential solution to climate change, they always talk about fossil fuels as an issue since they do not see the link. 

The fact is that ever since agriculture began, going back 10,000 years ago, it and soil have been sources of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. As of today, soil and land that has been used for agriculture have contributed more than 550 gigatons of carbon into the atmosphere. Fossil fuels [used] between 1750 and now have also contributed about 450 gigatons.  

Earth & I: What features for the Soil Health Act would be most important?  

Rattan Lal: So, a soil health act would encourage farmers to mitigate and adapt to climate change, conserve, purify, and denature pollutants from water, and improve the activity and species diversity of the land.

I think there's a bright future, and that eventually people will realize it. I must say that the Ohio General Assembly invited me to talk to them a few years ago; I briefly explained that we need an Ohio Soil Act or Soil Health Act. I've been invited [to speak] by the Columbus (Ohio) City Council. They said we want to talk to you and learn what the city can do to improve urban land, so that came as a surprise to me. So, you never know whether [or not] the new government will consider this issue. 

Sometimes, people will go along with this and change their mind, but I'm convinced that it will happen—it's a matter of time. I'm optimistic that there will be a federal soil health act eventually.

The government policymakers realized the importance of air, water, soil, and biodiversity. They are four components of the environment that go together. Biodiversity, air, and water—[and] their foundation is soil. 

Now Europe is doing something like that. In Germany, there is the Federal Soil Protection Act. It is a soil health act that rewards farmers for following legislation. I think it will happen in the US as well. [Soil protection in Germany is carried out at many levels. The federal government lays down the legal frameworks, and the regional states implement them.]

There is something about the end of a meal that begs a touch of sweetness. While some people reject desserts for fear of added pounds—or blood sugar spikes—others won’t leave the table without a treat. Perhaps there is a better way to serve desserts so that guests feel great and grateful with no regrets.

Come explore alternatives to refined white sugar on this tour celebrating the sublime and divine. Get the current scoop on nutrients, environmental impact, taste profiles, uses, and more.

The Story of Sugar

Sugarcane was once a wild perennial grass. Around 10,000 years ago, it was domesticated in New Guinea for use as animal fodder and human consumption. Sugar was initially extracted from sugarcanes by chewing and extracting fluids via water. About 2,500 years ago, the first chemically refined sugar appeared in India. The process gradually spread to China, Southeast Asia, and eventually the world over.

Today, sugarcane is the world’s largest crop, with 1.86 billion metric tons produced in 2021, according to Statista.com. Most of it is grown in tropical regions like Brazil, India, China, Pakistan, Mexico, and Thailand.

Sugar beets are also used to produce refined white sugar. They are easily grown in temperate climates such as France, Germany, and the United States.

The purification process to make granulated white sugar is lengthy, and the sugar—whether it comes from cane sugar or beet sugar—is stripped of fiber, minerals, and vitamins. 

Not only is sugar non-nutritive, large amounts of sugar in one’s diet is linked to adverse health consequences, such as obesity, tooth decay, inflammation, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes. As a result, the American Heart Association recommends limiting daily added sugar intake to 25 grams (6 teaspoons) for women and 36 grams (9 teaspoons) for men. 

The purification process to make granulated white sugar is lengthy, and the sugar—whether it comes from cane sugar or beet sugar—is stripped of fiber, minerals, and vitamins.

The bad news is that sweetened foods are undeniably delicious and hard to resist, plus they stimulate the appetite and cause cravings for more sweet foods (i.e., sugar is addictive).

The good news is that anyone can limit the super-processed white sugar when they cook by substituting sweeteners that are more sustainably produced, less processed, and closer to the natural source.

Let’s break them into two categories: (1) nutritive and (2) non-nutritive.

(1) Natural Nutritive Sugar Substitutes

Fruit: 

Naturally sweet and full of nutrients, apples, bananas, berries, dates, and other fruits can be substituted for sugar in many dishes. Ditch the table sugar and top cereal with natural sugar in the form of strawberries and blueberries and get antioxidants at the same time.

Applesauce and mashed bananas can often replace sugar and oil in cookie and quick bread recipes (try these Oatmeal Cookies using banana as the sweetener). Finally, when craving sugar, eat a piece of fruit and see if it satisfies. The natural sugar in fruit is absorbed more slowly by the body than white sugar because fruit also has fiber.

Vegetables: 

They aren’t called sweet potatoes for nothing! Beets, butternut squash, carrots, and sweet potatoes pack a sweet punch. They can be grated and used in sauces to balance acidity in place of white sugar; they can also be blended into breads, layered into lasagna, or eaten as dessert.

Oven roast any of these vegetables to bring out the sugars and munch a treat while getting in one’s daily dose of veggies. If a chocolate treat is desired, try baking these simple sugar-free brownies that use sweet potatoes.

Raw Honey:

Bees make honey using nectar from flowers. Raw honey retains small amounts of vitamins and minerals and holds antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. It’s a great substitution for white sugar in coffee or tea, and it doesn’t increase blood sugar quite as much as sugar. It has been used for medicinal purposes through the ages, and some say eating local honey can help with seasonal allergies.

Honey is one of the most sustainable natural sweeteners because it can be produced on one’s own property. But if beehives in the backyard aren’t on the bucket list, the best choice is buying raw honey from a local, small-scale producer.

Maple Syrup or Coconut Sugar: 

How are these two the same, one might ask? They are both made from tree sap. Maple syrup pours readily from maple trees and is boiled down to that thick delicious pancake topping. Coconut sugar is dehydrated coconut sap (and no, it does not taste like coconut). Both options are considered whole food sweeteners with vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. They are also very sweet and have more calories, carbs, and sugar than dieters will likely want to grapple with; however, its glycemic index—a measure of how food affects blood sugar levels—is lower than white sugar.

Blackstrap Molasses: 

A byproduct of the white sugar purification process, molasses contains iron and B vitamins. The thick texture of molasses can add moisture to baked goods, and its flavor adds depth to sauces. It is a bit high in calories and carbs, but it falls in the middle of the glycemic index, which means it’s better than white sugar.

Molasses definitely has a niche as a sugar substitute and in a recipe like Boston Brown Bread, where molasses and raisins provide the sweetness, cooks may find blackstrap molasses a pantry staple. (Molasses fan hint: try just a little on buckwheat pancakes.)

(2) Natural Non-Nutritive Sugar Substitutes

Monk Fruit: 

Also known as Luo Han Guo, monk fruit is crushed and the juice dehydrated to result in a dried powder. It’s a natural calorie-free sweetener with a glycemic index of zero, so it doesn't raise blood sugar levels. This is because monk fruit contains mogrosides, a natural compound that the body doesn't recognize as sugar or carbohydrates, and yet it’s about 200 times sweeter than table sugar.

It can be used in baked goods, beverages, and other foods; however, it should not be used for canning due to the lack of research on how the sweetener will affect the pH of canned goods. 

Be sure to look for pure monk fruit sweetener [because] many monk fruit products contain additional ingredients, such as dextrose or erythritol, to balance the sweetness, but they can have adverse effects on health.

Be sure to look for pure monk fruit sweetener. Many monk fruit products contain additional ingredients, such as dextrose or erythritol, to balance the sweetness, but they can have adverse effects on health. Erythritol and xylitol are manufactured “sugar alcohols” (neither sugar nor alcohol) that can cause gastrointestinal irritation. More concerning are recent studies that suggest that erythritol may cause increased risk of blood clotting, stroke, heart attack, and death in people at an elevated risk for developing heart disease.

The only drawback to pure monk fruit sweetener is perhaps the cost. It is difficult to grow, expensive to import, and not readily available on grocery shelves. For a sugar-free dessert made with monk fruit sweetener, these Blueberry Cheesecake Bars use just one bowl and seven ingredients.

Stevia: 

Stevia is made from the South American plant Stevia rebaudiana. It is 200 to 400 times as sweet as sugar, so only use a tiny amount to sweeten foods. It's also calorie-free and safe for people with medical conditions like high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes.

It’s popular as an addition to dressings, drinks, marinades, and sauces. Some people report that stevia leaves a bitter aftertaste in baked goods, even though there are stevia products specifically for baking. When cooking with stevia, look for recipes that are developed with measurements for stevia, such as these chocolate brownies.

As with monk fruit, stevia often has other chemical sweeteners (such as erythritol) added to it that may cause health issues.

Stevia is a fairly low-impact crop as it requires less land and processing than sugarcane. That being said, China is the biggest producer, and production methods there are not well documented. It is known that sustainable agriculture is not widespread in China.

Yacon Syrup: 

Native to South America, yacon syrup comes from a root vegetable. The syrup is low-sugar and low-glycemic while containing nutrients and prebiotics. It is said to taste something like honey, with less sweetness. Yacon syrup makes a great substitute for table sugar or honey and only has about 20 calories per tablespoon compared to honey’s 64.

The fiber in yacon can help relieve constipation and, alas, this means it can cause diarrhea in some people (especially those with irritable bowel syndrome or disease). Because the fiber is not digestible, it can also cause stomach upset and gas. Before becoming concerned about the side effects, though, consider that yacon syrup may be difficult to find and expensive. 

Allulose: 

Allulose is derived from plants such as figs, kiwis, and raisins. It’s found in very small quantities, so it is rare; however, new technology is being developed to extract this sweetener on a larger scale.

Allulose doesn’t cause blood sugar spikes and can be used in recipes for baked goods, drinks, and frozen desserts without the increased calories of white sugar.

Allulose doesn’t cause blood sugar spikes and can be used in recipes for baked goods, drinks, and frozen desserts without the increased calories of white sugar. Additionally, allulose does not have any of the unpleasant aftertastes associated with other natural sweeteners like stevia.

Unfortunately, human brains don’t know the difference between non-nutritive, nutritive, chemical, or any other sweetener. They just light up with the ding-ding-ding of the sugar reward and cause the desire for more sweets later.

But who says diners need a cookie or cake to call it dessert? Sun-dried persimmon is a naturally sweet snack in Asian cuisines and Nice Cream is a personal favorite dessert.

Strawberry-Banana Nice Cream

Ingredients:

• 1 large banana

• 1 cup strawberries

Directions:

Cut the banana and strawberries into chunks and freeze. Once frozen, pulse in a food processor until smooth, scraping the sides when necessary. Pour into dishes and enjoy.

For alternative or substitute sweeteners, try them in small amounts to be sure they agree with the body. Follow recipes created for sugar substitutes instead of doing a 1:1 replacement. As always, look for organic products to ensure purity. The Fairtrade Mark is the only label that indicates a product is certified by the most recognized ethical labeling system in the world. Overall sustainability is a little more difficult to ascertain, but one can start looking at how foods affect the environment and people at sites like Food Print or Sustainable Brands.

Since humans probably won’t lose their affinity to sweets any time soon, new natural sweeteners will likely continue being found and developed. As plants are further explored and identified, there may be sweet and sustainable ingredients at the local market that haven’t been dreamed of yet. Perhaps there will be a candy mushroom or some sort of delectable seaweed discovered that revolutionizes the sugar industry.

People can already grow their own herbs and spices at home; imagine being able to grow one’s own source of the perfect alternative sugar—wouldn’t that be sweet?

*Julie Peterson writes science-based articles about holistic health, environmental issues, and sustainable living from her small farm in Wisconsin.

*By Richard Park

Antibiotics are among the greatest medical advances of the 20th century. Their widespread use has revolutionized healthcare, increased life expectancy worldwide, and saved countless lives by effectively treating bacterial infections that were once fatal.

However, this progress is threatened by the rise of “superbugs”—antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and, more broadly, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among various microscopic pathogens, including viruses and fungi.

As a result, medical researchers, drug developers, and pharmaceutical companies are joining with health authorities and NGOs to find effective approaches for controlling AMR. Their strategies include developing new treatments, encouraging the prudent use of antibiotics, and finding ways to stop the spread of resistant pathogens.

History of Antibiotics

For millennia, diseases and life-threatening conditions caused by bacterial infection, such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, sepsis, and meningitis, were often deadly. In the mid-1300s, bubonic plague caused by the bacterium, Yersinia pestis, led to the Black Death, a pandemic that killed 75 million to 200 million people worldwide.

But in the 20th century, these lethal diseases were turned into treatable conditions. The modern era of antibiotics began in 1928 with the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming. This event marked the beginning of a new class of drugs capable of effectively and selectively killing bacteria or inhibiting their growth.

By the 1940s, antibiotics had become widely available. Penicillin dramatically reduced mortality rates from wound infections during World War II and successfully treated the ancient disease of gonorrhea. In addition to curing existing infections, antibiotics enabled major medical advancements, such as safer surgeries and complex medical procedures, by greatly reducing the risk of post-surgical infections. Because of their remarkable effectiveness and cheap manufacturing costs, antibiotics have also become widely used in agriculture to improve animal health and productivity.

The World Health Organization (WHO) now lists germ resistance as one of the world’s leading health challenges, and millions of deaths are already attributed to microbial pathogens that do not respond to the classes of drugs that once destroyed them.

By the mid-20th century, antibiotics were hailed as miraculous wonder drugs. However, their overuse and misuse paved the way for the dangerous rise of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria or superbugs. The World Health Organization (WHO) now lists AMR as one of the world’s leading health challenges, and millions of deaths are already attributed to microbial pathogens that do not respond to the classes of drugs that once destroyed them.

Development of Antibiotic Resistance

The struggle over antibiotic resistance was not unexpected.

The first widely recognized instance of a superbug was the emergence of penicillin-resistant strains of the bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus, shortly after the mass use of penicillin during World War II. In 1959, a groundbreaking new antibiotic, methicillin, was developed to combat penicillin-resistant bacteria. But by 1961, strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) were already identified. These sobering developments demonstrated the uncanny ability of bacteria to rapidly adapt to antibiotics and highlighted the necessity of cautious use and continued development of new treatments.

Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria—through genetic mutation, natural selection, and transfer of genetic elements—develop mechanisms to survive the drugs designed to kill them. The more antibiotics are used, the greater the selective pressure on bacteria, thereby accelerating their ability to develop resistance.

Eventually, the antibiotic eliminates the original bacterial strain, but the mutant bacteria that are impervious to the antibiotic remain and continue to multiply uncontrollably. When that happens, the once-miraculous antibiotic is no longer effective. A harmful bacterium that becomes resistant to several antibiotics has become a superbug.

Looming Global Health Crisis

The increasing prevalence of AMR and superbugs poses a serious global health crisis because it could return humanity to a situation in which common infections could again be life-threatening.

According to a study published in 2022 in The Lancet and referenced in the CDC's 2019 Antibiotic Resistance Threats Report, bacterial AMR was estimated to have directly caused 1.27 million deaths globally in 2019.  Another study published in The Lancet in 2024 found that, worldwide, an estimated “4.71 million deaths… were associated with bacterial AMR” in 2021 alone.

Although the 2024 study found that AMR-linked deaths fell by 50% among children under age 5 from 1990 to 2021, the death rate during the same period rose by more than 80% for adults 70 years and older. 

Deaths from MRSA have doubled since 1990 to about 680,000 in 2021, the 2024 Lancet study said. “Resistance to carbapenems [broad-spectrum antibiotics] increased more than any other antibiotic class,” it added.

In 2016, the Review on Anti-Microbial Resistance projected that AMR deaths could surpass 10 million annually by 2050.

In 2016, the Review on Anti-Microbial Resistance projected that AMR deaths could surpass 10 million annually by 2050 if the threat is not fully addressed. In addition, the World Bank estimates that AMR could reduce the global GDP by nearly 3.8% by 2050​.

Strategies to Deal with AMR

In response to the burgeoning threat to humanity posed by AMR, a concerted global effort is underway. Various strategies have been implemented to combat this crisis, ensuring the continued efficacy of antibiotics and preserving public health. These strategies include:

• Antibiotic stewardship. Antibiotic use is optimal when prescribed only when necessary to treat a known infection. Education and training for healthcare professionals can counter attitudes about prescribing antibiotics unnecessarily and encourage patient follow-up to ensure dosage compliance and track treatment outcomes.

• Surveillance and monitoring. Surveillance systems are necessary to track current antibiotic-resistant infections and to monitor trends over time. The WHO and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have established extensive surveillance networks.

• Development of new antibiotics. Given the rise in resistance, there's an urgent need for new classes of antibiotics. However, the pace of antibiotic discovery has slowed in recent decades, partly because antibiotics are less profitable for pharmaceutical companies compared to other drugs. Governments and health organizations need to incentivize antibiotic research and development through grants, subsidies, and public-private partnerships.

• Research and development of novel therapies. Alternative treatments to fight bacterial infections are being explored. Some of these include antimicrobial peptides, immunotherapies, and phage therapy, in which key viruses are deployed to attack certain bacterial pathogens.

• Reducing agricultural antibiotic use. Stricter regulations on the use of antibiotics in agriculture are essential. Policies should include improving animal welfare and hygiene to prevent infections and reduce the need for antibiotics.

• Global collaboration. AMR is a global issue requiring international cooperation. Global efforts, like the WHO’s Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance, can help combat resistance on an international scale.

Global Efforts Underway

This year, the WHO designated a full week in November to AMR awareness and to sound warnings about the threat of AMR.

Meanwhile, other global gatherings have been convened this year to address the AMR threat:

• United Nations General Assembly High-Level Meeting (HLM)

  In September, the United Nations General Assembly held the second High-level Meeting (HLM) on Antimicrobial Resistance. Nations committed to reducing the global number of deaths associated with bacterial AMR (4.95 million deaths in 2019) by 10% by 2030. The main thrust of the HLM’s “political declaration” was to set targets, such as “strengthening governance mechanisms for the response to AMR, using a One Health approach, addressing AMR in human, animal and plant health.”

  
  

  “There is a great appetite to address the slow global, regional and national response that needs to be accelerated to address AMR and its dire effects on the One Health ecosystem,” said Dr. Mirfin Mpundu, director of ReAct Africa, at a UN plenary meeting held in February.  

“There is a great appetite to address the slow global, regional and national response that needs to be accelerated to address AMR and its dire effects on the One Health ecosystem.”

• World AMR Congress

  Also in September, the World AMR Congress was held in Philadelphia, with speakers from government, science, and industry addressing AMR mitigation strategies “from fundamental research to commercial production.” Speakers included representatives from the US CDC and Department of Health and Human Services, as well as the AMR Action Fund, and CARB-X.

  
  

• ReAct Africa Regional AMR Conference

  In July, ReAct Africa co-hosted the 2024 regional AMR annual conference in Zambia, under the theme “Global Accountability for AMR response: Investing in priorities for Africa.” The conference, funded in part by Wellcome Trust and the Ministry of Health Zambia, facilitates cross-learning to strengthen “the development and implementation of AMR National Action Plans (NAPs)” in African nations.

  
  

• BEAM Annual AMR Conference

  In March, BEAM (Biotech companies in Europe combating Antimicrobial Resistance) held its 8th Annual AMR Conference 2024, calling its gathering “the one-stop shop to catch up with the latest trends in the development of AMR products, by covering scientific, regulatory, financial and policy topics.”

  
  

  The BEAM conference typically brings together over 70 small to medium-sized European biotech and diagnostics companies that work to develop innovative products that fend off antibiotic-resistant pathogens. In addition, the BEAM Alliance supports “policies and incentives in antimicrobial research and development in Europe.”

Such international collaboration, exemplified by global action plans and high-level commitments, underscores the recognition of AMR as a shared health challenge that transcends national borders. With millions of lives already affected and projections warning of increasing AMR-associated mortality rates if left unchecked, the need for a unified global response is called for. By implementing prudent antibiotic stewardship, developing novel treatments, administering stricter agricultural policies, and fostering strong international cooperation, there is real hope that the AMR crisis can be effectively mitigated.

*Richard Park has 29 years of experience as an infectious disease scientist in academia and the biotechnology industry. He received his Ph.D. in Biology from Johns Hopkins University, and has held academic positions at Johns Hopkins University, Cornell University, and Yale University. Dr. Park was also Director of Research at Nuclixbio, Inc. He is currently a junior research faculty member at Yale University.

*By Rick Laezman

The growing concern about the world’s natural surroundings and the need to gather and share environmental information have fostered the growth of two innovations: so-called “citizen scientists” and “BioBlitzes.”

Citizen scientists aid their professional counterparts by contributing valuable information to support the scientific research of phenomena in the natural world. In a “BioBlitz,” professional and amateur scientists collaborate on data-collection in a fun and engaging way to understand and preserve the natural environment as it faces increasing threats from human activity.

The Rise of BioBlitzes

In 1970, during the first Earth Day, 20 million people across the US participated in rallies, marches, and educational events, raising awareness about the environment and the importance of its conservation and protection. The event marked the beginning of the modern environmental movement.

Twenty-six years later, in 1996, the first BioBlitz was sponsored by the National Park Service and the National Biological Service. It was organized by Sam Droege and Dan Roddy from the US Geological Survey at the Kenilworth Aquatic Gardens in Washington, DC. Susan Rudy, also of the National Park Service, coined the term bioblitz (also written BioBlitz) to describe the 24-hour event, according to a 2023 article in BioScience.

About 90 scientists, joined by the public and media, documented over 900 species in the gardens during that event. It demonstrated that urban, densely populated areas contained biologically rich ecosystems and merited study and protection just as much as state and national forests, parks, and preserves.

[A]mateur enthusiasts now flock to many scientific fields, bringing a unique level of energy and engagement.

Since then, BioBlitzes have gained in popularity, not just in the US but around the globe, and amateur enthusiasts now flock to many scientific fields, bringing a unique level of energy and engagement.

Engaging and Educating

BioBlitzes have contributed to the growth of and benefitted citizen science, which the National Geographic Society defines as “the practice of public participation and collaboration in scientific research to increase scientific knowledge.”

As citizen scientists, untrained individuals observe and record the behavior and survival of species in their natural environment. Although they are not professionals, their information is no less helpful because it adds valuable data for aggregate analysis.

Citizen science has a side benefit: Contributing to the collection of scientific information, and sharing those findings with fellow participants, expands the number of people who are engaged with and enthusiastic about scientific discovery. Moreover, citizen science encourages active participation. This is especially true for children—working with dirt, rocks, plants, and other natural elements generates enthusiasm, encourages support for science and conservation, and motivates more young people to take up science careers.

Citizen science aligns well with the goals of science education, and more specifically with ESD—Education for Sustainable Development.

Citizen science aligns well with the goals of science education, and more specifically with ESD—Education for Sustainable Development—because it engages people in the act of scientific discovery. This not only increases their knowledge but also changes their values, attitudes, and most importantly, their behavior.

The United Nation's Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) promotes ESD to “empower people with the knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and behaviors to live in a way that is good for the environment, economy, and society.”

Citizen Science in the Digital Age

Citizen science is aided by the growing use of digital applications (and smartphones) that have found their way into almost every aspect of modern life. Scientific observation is no exception.

One tool stands out—iNaturalist, an app and social media platform, which is distinct from Facebook or Instagram because it focuses on natural observations.

What started out as a master's degree project for some students in the UC Berkeley School of Information has evolved into a globally used social media platform.

iNaturalist identifies, records, and organizes nature findings. It also gives users a place to meet (online) and share information with other nature enthusiasts like hikers, hunters, birders, mushroom foragers, park rangers, ecologists, people who fish, and others.

Cari Seltzer, PhD, is the head of engagement for iNaturalist. She explains that the platform separates itself from other popular social media platforms because users engage with it through a “unit of sharing that is based on observation.” This gives them a jumping-off point for discussion.

iNaturalist is valuable for more than just its unique fusion of social media and citizen scientists. It also is contributing valuable data to the scientific study of the natural world.

The [digital] platform [iNaturalist] has amassed “the world's most diverse biodiversity set.”

According to Seltzer, the platform has amassed “the world's most diverse biodiversity set." It shares its data with more than 5,000 publications. By incorporating geolocation technology, the information is used to chart animal behavior and to model ranges for a number of species. It has helped rediscover lost species and even helped identify new species.

BioBlitzes in Action

A social media tool in the digital age is almost a given, if not a necessity. However, at some point, citizen scientists need to be out in the field. There is no better way to engage citizen scientists and to advance the goals of ESD than with a BioBlitz.

For instance, in 2013, several local mushroom enthusiasts and other members of the local scientific community organized the first ever BioBlitz on the Upper Delaware River where it travels along the border between the states of Pennsylvania and New York.

The Upper Delaware BioBlitz took place over the course of two days in June 2013. Professional scientists and volunteers listened to talks conducted by local experts and collected specimens together over a 24-hour period, from noon Friday until noon Saturday. They camped overnight on the location. Over 200 people participated, and more than 1,000 species were collected and identified.

Steve Schwartz is an environmental consultant who helped organize the event. He and his team have helped organize five more events since the first blitz.

Organizers hold an event at about the same time on a different site in the area every other year. The events are a “little bit of a frenzy," says Schwartz, but they are successful.

Schwartz adds that one of their primary goals is to “excite kids about science” and “it happens.”

The Upper Delaware blitzes’ ... observations included over 40 first-occurrence mosses, several algae diatoms, and even eDNA, or genetic traces, of the very rare and endangered American eel.

The Upper Delaware blitzes have also been successful at contributing to the scientific goal of collecting valuable data about biological life, including many so-called “first occurrences.” These are the first recorded observation of a species in a particular habitat. Their observations included over 40 first-occurrence mosses, several algae diatoms, and even eDNA, or genetic traces, of the very rare and endangered American eel.

The next Upper Delaware BioBlitz is planned for 2026.

Rocky Mountain BioBlitz

About 2,000 miles and several mountain ranges to the west, another BioBlitz engages citizen scientists in the Rocky Mountains. The Crown of the Continent Research Learning Center (CCRLC) is a National Park Service-affiliated operation dedicated to research in several parks along the continental divide. It supports research activities in Glacier National Park, Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site, and Waterton Lakes National Park in Canada.

The center, based in West Glacier, Montana, has an extensive citizen science program that includes monitoring endemic species like the common loon, mountain goats, and small, furry mammals known as pikas.

Tara Carolin, director of the CCRLC, is responsible for organizing and promoting the center's activities. She explains that before it launched the BioBlitzes, the center was “lacking a robust inventory” of data. At the time, they asked “How can the public be helpful?” in filling this gap.

In 2011 and 2012, the CCRLC began hosting events to monitor alpine aquatic insects. In 2014, it conducted a count of dragon fly nymphs as part of the National Park Service's Dragonfly Mercury Project, a nationwide study that works with citizen scientists to collect dragonfly larvae for the analysis of mercury contamination in water.

In 2017, the center hosted a more formal BioBlitz that included a butterfly count. Since then, the center has hosted BioBlitzes with different emphases, including a mushroom BioBlitz and BioBlitzes to count alpine birds and nocturnal pollinators (moths). In 2024, the center hosted a noxious weeds BioBlitz.

The center's BioBlitzes draw anywhere from 12 to over 100 participants, including “kids of all ages," according to Carolin. One of her favorite memories was watching a 5-year-old girl hold a butterfly during the butterfly count.

“Mushrooms are crazy … there is something different every year.”

The event that draws the biggest praise from the center's director is perhaps the mushroom BioBlitz. “Mushrooms are crazy … there is something different every year,” she says, adding, “there is a phenomenal amount of material even in a dry year."

Finding Nearby BioBlitzes

Whether it is to gather and identify “crazy” mushrooms, slithery American eels, or noxious weeds, BioBlitzes are helping to encourage volunteers, young and old, to engage with science and their natural surroundings across the continent and the globe. Beyond their own involvement and enthusiasm, these Citizen Scientists are also contributing to the collective gathering of valuable information, heightened awareness, and increased understanding of natural ecosystems and modern society's impact on their survival. They are also using modern digital tools to gather and share the information that they collect.

During this critical time when environmental systems are universally vulnerable, this convergence of engagement, enthusiasm, and active participation is more important than ever. So, if there is BioBlitz near you, what are you waiting for? Go out and collect something.

To find and conduct a BioBlitz, check these online resources: BioBlitzes: Bridging the Gaps and Inspiring Future Stewards (U.S. National Park Service), iNaturalist, SciStarter, and others. Furthermore, local nature centers, environmental groups, parks and recreation departments, and educational institutions with biology or environmental science programs sometimes host BioBlitzes or are aware of upcoming events.

*Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California, US. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has covered renewable power and other related subjects for over 10 years.

As one of two poles contributing to Earth’s magnetic field and the unofficially recognized home of Santa Claus, the North Pole is part of the arctic, with its tundra, polar bears, and marine life. Below are some facts on this mysterious, icy pole.  

1. The North Pole is warmer than the South Pole partly due to how the North Pole is surrounded by land (North America and Asia), while the South Pole is completely surrounded by water, allowing for a persistent circumpolar current that blocks it from warmer waters. However, the North Pole still has average temperatures of 32°F in the summer and -40°F in the winter. 

2. At the North Pole, the sun rises and sets once a year—leading to six months of continuous daylight (midnight sun) and six months of continuous night (polar night). 

3. According to National Geographic, no one lives in the North Pole, but drifting stations (such as by Russia) are sent every year for research. One discovery from these drifting stations was the Lomonosov Ridge, an underwater mountain chain from Siberia to Ellesmere Island, Canada. 

4. Polar bears rarely migrate to the North Pole, given its unpredictable habitat. There were about 26,000 bears in 2023, living primarily above the Arctic Circle.  

5. According to the Polar Science Center of the University of Washington, arctic sea ice volume at the end of 2023 was 14,122 cubic kilometers (about 3,388 cubic miles). This was still higher than the 2017 low point of 12,800 cubic kilometers (about 3,070 cubic miles). 

6. NASA reported that the annual September “minimal arctic sea ice area”—a term for the extent of summer sea ice—has been decreasing by 12.2% per decade. In 1980, the area was 7.54 million square kilometers (about 2.91 million square miles); in 2024, it was 4.28 million square kilometers (about 1.65 million square miles).  

Sources: 

• https://climatekids.nasa.gov/polar-temperatures/   

• https://www.americanoceans.org/facts/north-pole-vs-south-pole/   

• https://nsidc.org/learn/parts-cryosphere/arctic-weather-and-climate   

• https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/north-pole/   

• https://www.fws.gov/species/polar-bear-ursus-maritimus   

• https://psc.apl.uw.edu/research/projects/arctic-sea-ice-volume-anomaly/  

• https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice/?intent=121 

*By Yasmin Prabhudas

Southern England is home to unique freshwater ecosystems known as chalk streams. The name is derived from the rivers’ unusual chalk bedrock, formed during the Cretaceous period. 

Teeming with flora and fauna, England’s chalk streams are at risk from pollution, runoff, and other kinds of degradation. However, initiatives such as the Catchment Based Approach (CaBA) Chalk Stream Restoration Group is meeting the challenge of restoring these rare ecosystems.

Origins of Chalk Streams

Charles Rangeley-Wilson, chair of the CaBA Group, notes how chalk “accreted” or accumulated on the bed of the ocean over 60 million or 70 million years in very warm seas. A tiny, single-celled creature called coccolithophores, a type of phytoplankton, became encased in plating of calcium carbonate known as coccoliths.

These creatures “rained down onto the floor of the sea and formed a sort of deep porridge-like ooze, … and then that became chalk when the sea level retreated. … And then, by various forms of plate tectonic activity, those beds of chalk were forced to the surface,” he explains.

While some limestone may have been formed in a similar way, older forms have been buried under subsequent layers of geology, making it much harder as it comes under pressure, says Rangeley-Wilson.

“Chalk is very, very soft,” he states. “And it’s almost completely soluble. If you put a piece of chalk into a bucket of water, let it soak through, and then took it out and just exerted the tiniest pressure on it, it would just crumble to nothing. So, the glaciers obviously destroyed most of the chalk and washed it away, leaving behind the chalk hills that form our chalk streams.”

This makes chalk useful as a writing tool for chalkboards as well as in agriculture to change the soil’s acidity and as a construction material.

England’s Unique Chalk Streams

There are about 300 chalk streams in the world, about 85% of which are in southern England, says Stewart Clarke, PhD, who is with the National Trust, a CaBA Group partner, and is a specialist on national freshwater, catchments, and estuaries.

There are about 300 chalk streams in the world, about 85% of which are in southern England, says Stewart Clarke, PhD.

He credits the climate in the south of England and other parts of northwestern Europe, like northern France and Denmark, for creating the ideal conditions for chalk streams.

“You can go to lots of parts of the world where there is chalk, but the valleys tend to be dry,” he explains. Chalk streams emerge when “there’s enough water around during the winter months to give you that groundwater,” he says. “So, it’s a particular set of circumstances the chalk geology gives you in ... southern England, northern France, that creates this unique habitat, and that’s why they’re so rare globally.”

Havens of Biodiversity

Chalk streams have a distinct ecology. “In a natural situation, there’s this steady flow because the water coming out of the bedrock, [meaning] they tend to have a very even temperature regime,” says Clarke. As chalk streams are cool in summer but warm in winter, they can support certain species.

Clarke adds: “The filtering process also means that the water comes out very, very clean and very clear because it’s been forced through very tiny pores in the chalk bedrock.”

Because the water is clear, “lots of light gets to the bottom of the stream; we get plants like water crowfoot […] and now those plants growing submerged in the chalk stream create a set of habitat conditions in the river as well,” he says.

Salmon, brown trout and grayling, chub, barbel, roach, as well as the white-clawed native crayfish can all be found in chalk stream rivers. The habitat is also ideal for mammals, such as the water vole, otter, and beaver.

Clear, clean gravels are important for fish spawning and for invertebrates, like mayflies. Salmon, brown trout and grayling, chub, barbel, roach, as well as the white-clawed native crayfish can all be found in chalk stream rivers. The habitat is also ideal for mammals, such as the water vole, otter, and beaver.

Chalk streams are also carbon stores. The flood plains create the perfect conditions for the formation of peat, the remains of dead vegetation.

If peat dries out, carbon “gases off into the atmosphere,” but if it remains wet, carbon stays trapped within the peat, Rangeley-Wilson says. 

Pollutants Endanger Chalk Streams

This rare ecosystem is in danger, however. Water companies are guilty of abstraction, which involves draining the rivers for purposes such as irrigation and drinking water.

Pollution is another problem. Clarke states: Treated and untreated sewage from water companies “is one part of a bigger picture around sewage. In rural areas, lots of people are not on main drainages.” Thus, the septic tanks that people have in their homes “can be contributing, if they’re close to the river,” he says.

As reported by BBC earlier this year, there are major concerns about sewage pollution in the River Kennet, one of England’s most important chalk streams and one of the largest tributaries to the Thames River.

Other pollutants, such as nutrients and sediment from agriculture as well as herbicides, also cause problems.

According to charity Wildfish Conservation’s 2021 Riverfly Census Report, about 26,200 tons of phosphorus are lost into the aquatic environment each year. Chemical pollution can form “an unknown, poisonous cocktail which can devastate freshwater biodiversity,” the report says. Sediment can also clog gills of fish, kill invertebrates and fish eggs, block out light, and bind to chemicals, causing them to remain in rivers for longer.

But that’s not all. Over time, rivers have been straightened and deepened, which means habitat variability has declined. Clarke says if rivers are altered, “you’ve effectively got a straight channel, just with water in it; you’ve got less opportunity for plants to take up and soak up nutrients.” And water is carried away much faster.

River Restoration Work

The CaBA Group has established an agreed-upon set of actions to tackle these problems in Norfolk and Lincolnshire. The communities, water companies, industry, the government, environmental regulators, and individuals are all involved.

Rangeley-Wilson claims: “The restoration work has to be three-dimensional. … You’ve got to address the water quality, the pollution, … the over-abstraction and … the fact that we’ve changed the rivers physically.”

Rangeley-Wilson claims: “The restoration work has to be three-dimensional. … You’ve got to address the water quality, the pollution, … the over-abstraction and … the fact that we’ve changed the rivers physically.”

For instance, in Norfolk, long sections of rivers like the Nar and Stiffkey have been moved from their channels and re-established as meandering rivers across the flood plain. In collaboration with Norfolk Rivers Trust, a 2-kilometer section of River Stiffkey was reunited with its floodplain in 2023, and results have shown improved numbers of fish and a diversity and abundance of insect and plant life.

Restoration work on the River Bure, also in Norfolk, included working with farmers to create a track to redirect silt-laden water into a silt trap. They then clean water through the installation of dams and an outfall pipe to collect and hold water, so sands and soil can “drop out.” Deadwood and overhanging vegetation were also removed to provide wildlife and plant habitat.  

Elsewhere, Chalk Streams of Lincolnshire have been improving rivers around the Lincolnshire Wolds. The River Rase had been widened and diverted to power a water mill. Silt had eroded the banks, and there were overhanging trees. Recent restoration work involved narrowing the river by repairing the banks and protecting them with coir (fibrous material from coconut husk) matting, and introducing a chalk lining, along with a mix of gravel.

Volunteers Play a Key Role

Volunteers help create new channels using diggers, monitor water quality, and collect samples to build up a picture of the species living in the river—for example through the Riverfly Monitoring Initiative.

Volunteers help create new channels using diggers, monitor water quality, and collect samples to build up a picture of the species living in the river—for example through the Riverfly Monitoring Initiative.

Jade Oliver, who has volunteered at the Lincolnshire Chalk Streams project, says mornings consisted of conducting a Riverfly survey at one of the chalk streams in the Lincolnshire Wolds.

She adds: “Waders on, it’s time for a kick sample, after which we identify the invertebrates found to use as a guide to the chalk stream’s health.”

Oliver also logs in to images from night vision cameras to establish the whereabouts of mammals, such as the water vole and otter.

“One of my favorite things about volunteering is learning all about the amazing local wildlife found around our rare and beautiful chalk streams, teaching other people to love it too, and getting hands on and out and about in this incredibly varied and rewarding volunteer role,” she concludes.

*Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for non-profit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

Research has already shown that adults who ate sugary foods in their childhood are at greater risk for tooth decay and its associated health impacts.

Now a study—based on an extraordinary cohort of people who were born during wartime sugar rationing—is showing that eating excess sugar in early childhood is associated with higher risks for diabetes and hypertension.

The study, published in Science by University of Southern California (USC) researchers, used data from UK Biobank—a large biomedical database with health statistics from half a million UK participants.

During World War II, the UK rationed sugar for its population from 1942 to 1953. The USC researchers used this data to study the impact of “early-life sugar restrictions on health outcomes of adults conceived in the UK just before and after the end of wartime sugar rationing.

The team found that a reduced sugar exposure during pregnancy and an infant's first two years of life could substantially reduce the risk of mid-life development of diabetes and hypertension.

Indeed, children who experienced sugar restrictions a full 1,000 days out from conception had a 35% lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes and up to a 20% lower risk of developing hypertension in adulthood.

The team added that sugar-rationing in-utero accounted for about one third of the risk reduction.

"Studying the long-term effects of added sugar on health is challenging," the study’s corresponding author, Tadeja Gracner, said in a report on the study in Science Daily.

"It is hard to find situations where people are randomly exposed to different nutritional environments early in life and follow them for 50 to 60 years. The end of rationing provided us with a novel natural experiment to overcome these problems," said Gracner, senior economist at the USC Dornsife Center for Economic and Social Research.

Science Daily noted that UK diets during the rationing period “generally appear[ed]” to have fallen within today's US Department of Agriculture and World Health Organization guidelines of no added sugars for children under age 2 and not more than 12 teaspoons (50g) of added sugar daily for adults.

In the Science Daily report, study co-author Claire Boone, assistant professor at McGill University, noted the significance of the study’s findings: “Parents need information about what works, and this study provides some of the first causal evidence that reducing added sugar early in life is a powerful step towards improving children's health over their lifetimes.”

Sources:

• https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/10/241031185320.htm

• https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn5421

*By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe

In a world that depends on liquid fresh water, almost all of it—99%—lies buried beneath the Earth’s surface, with the remaining 1% found in rivers and lakes.  

Since ancient times, people have tapped groundwater through wells, with many going to only shallow depths, but some reaching aquifers as far down as 200 or 300 feet. 

In the 1860s, the first super-deep aquifer was discovered in the upper Midwest in the US. Known as the Deep Sandstone Aquifer, it is still supplying millions of gallons of water every day to Chicago and four other states. 

Technological advances have now revealed the existence of many more large bodies of water lying far below the Earth’ surface.

With drought or extreme stress threatening people in 36 countries, new efforts are underway to harvest … massive sources of fresh water—including those located in difficult terrain.

About 2 billion people already lack access to safe drinking water, the UN says in its Sustainable Development Goal Report 2022. With drought or extreme stress threatening people in 36 countries, new efforts are underway to harvest these massive sources of fresh water—including those located in difficult terrain.

Adding to the urgency are growing concerns about pollution contaminating these precious resources and how to best harvest them safely.

Self-Replenishing Aquifers Abound

Around the world, four billion people depend on shallow groundwater sources to produce food and drink, according to the Canadian charity The Groundwater Project. About 25% of all freshwater is used for irrigation, and half of the freshwater is used for domestic purposes, says the UN’s Water Development Report 2024.

Most of these underground sources fully replenish themselves—or grow—via snow, rain, and other avenues, but some do not.

In a 2024 study, researchers found that out of 1,693 globally distributed aquifer systems, groundwater levels have grown in 617 (36%) of them while only 97 (6%) became shallower over time.

The researchers also gathered trend data for 542 of these aquifer systems from 1980 to 2000. They could see that 30% of these systems saw groundwater-level decline at an accelerated rate. However, almost half (49%) saw increased groundwater levels.

Groundwater Contamination Worries

In addition to concerns about access to fresh water, there is worrisome evidence about groundwater contamination from long-lasting per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), a group of manufactured chemicals found in everyday items such as food packaging, fabrics to make clothes, and contents used in firefighting foam, that can accumulate in people and the environment.

While PFAS are hailed as effective synthetic chemicals for industry, critics are calling for their ban due to detrimental health effects and their potentially negative impact on groundwater. One study published in 2022 in Environmental Science & Technology Journal analyzed 254 groundwater samples taken from Eastern US states in 2019. The researchers detected at least one PFAS in 54% of samples, while at least two PFAS were found in 47% of them.

Overall, the USGS researchers’ model indicates that as many as 95 million people ... may rely on pre-treated groundwater with detectable PFAS for their drinking water.

In a 2024 study by the US Geological Survey (USGS), researchers assessed 1,238 groundwater samples from across 48 US states. At least one PFAS was detected in 37% of the samples taken. Overall, the USGS researchers’ model indicates that as many as 95 million people in these states may rely on pre-treated groundwater with detectable PFAS for their drinking water.

Delving Deeper into Groundwater Sources

Finding and developing new underground deep-water sources will be necessary as populations grow and some aquifers shrink.

In the US, the largest underground body of water is the 36,293-square-mile Ogallala Aquifer, which spans High Plains states from Texas to South Dakota.

While most of its operational parts are up to 200 feet deep, it has system components that reach between 1,000 feet and 1,200 feet deep. This range gives companies the potential to access groundwater and develop sourcing capabilities.

The availability of water from the Ogallala Aquifer “is critical to the economy of the region, as approximately 95% of groundwater pumped is used for irrigated agriculture,” says the Texas Water Development Board.

Moreover, throughout much of the aquifer, “groundwater withdrawals exceed the amount of recharge, and water levels have declined fairly consistently through time,” the Texas board says.

Indeed, the Ogallala Aquifer’s water levels experienced an estimated decline of 15.8 feet from 1950 to 2015, based on USGS data. This indicates that new sources of groundwater are needed.

Accessing Deep Aquifers

AquaterreX LLC, a global environmental services operation with offices in California, Florida, and Australia, is known for its ability to reach “Deep-Seated Water” (DSW), a trademarked term describing high-quality groundwater, typically sourced from deeper aquifers that are located below shallow aquifers.

[AquaterreX] uses a geospatial data analysis and assessment method to find water that is 200 to 300 meters (around 656 feet to 984 feet) below the Earth’s surface.

The company uses a geospatial data analysis and assessment method to find water that is 200 to 300 meters (around 656 feet to 984 feet) below the Earth’s surface.

The company, which says its approach is designed to mitigate any environmental impacts and concerns, has done groundwater projects in New Mexico; Texas; Australia; and now Chile, among others, since its founding in 2018.

“AquaterreX is the only company employing this combination of technology to locate and bring this source of fresh water to the surface,” says AquaterreX President James D'Arezzo. “In addition, DSW is a supplemental source of water that has not been made available to solve the planet's water challenges.”

Aquifers are replenished through the rain and snow that flow into local catchment basins. Since DSWs are deeper than shallow aquifers, they are less impacted by abrupt changes in regional hydrological cycles relating to rainfall and climate, AquaterreX notes. In addition, the vast amounts of water in these subterranean bodies can be used to locate deeper sources. 

AquaterreX states that the world is not facing a lack of water but rather a lack of knowledge on where to find it. A 2015 study estimated there were 22.6 million cubic kilometers of groundwater in the top 2 kilometers of the Earth’s crust. That is enough water to supply Earth for over 5,700 years at today’s global freshwater consumption rates of 3,949 billion cubic meters (or 3,949 cubic kilometers), based on the UN Food and Agriculture Organization’s AQUASTAT Dissemination System’s estimate in 2021.

[22.6 million cubic kilometers] is enough water to supply Earth for over 5,700 years at today’s global freshwater consumption rates of 3,949 billion cubic meters (or 3,949 cubic kilometers).

While alternative sources to groundwater exist—such as desalination and unsustainable water management practices—these are expensive and/or entirely inaccessible for populations living in poverty.

Non-profit Background

The research and development behind AquaterreX's DSW wells originated with AquaterreX’s non-profit parent organization, The Lawrence Anthony Earth Organization (LAEO). As LAEO co-founder and International President Barbara Wiseman explains in her biography, she “came across a relatively unknown science for water.” This led to a team of scientists developing the Deep Seated Water Technology, a registered term, to “locate sustainable water resources in drought-prone regions.”

In 2018, the for-profit company, AquaterreX LLC, was established. “Since then, the technology has been significantly improved to the point where AquaterreX has a near-100% certainty in locating underground water sources,” says D’Arezzo.

One of the obvious places to use the DSW technology was Australia, D'Arezzo says. Australia is the world’s driest inhabited continent and “one of the leading countries in terms of mapping its natural resources, including geology,” he says. 

Methodology Limitations

Despite its development over almost two decades, challenges remain within AquaterreX’s DSW groundwater process. For instance, assembling vast amounts of data and processing it through AquaterreX’s proprietary computer algorithms is a complex process.

“[A]cquiring, geologic, hydrologic, atmospheric, topographic, well log data, satellite imagery, and other information, which, when combined will reveal the optimum locations for ‘Deep-Seated Water’ (DSW).”

“This means acquiring, geologic, hydrologic, atmospheric, topographic, well log data, satellite imagery, and other information, which, when combined will reveal the optimum locations for DSW,” says D’Arezzo. Additionally, AquaterreX must then conduct an on-site survey, which can pose challenges regarding weather, terrain, and accessibility.

Despite these hurdles, DSW technology has been used to find groundwater in over 1,500 wells across Australia, the US, Africa, and Asia. The company states these drills have occurred in wells “where no water can be found.” In addition, it states that utilizing its technology enables AquaterreX to identify groundwater with nearly 100% certainty compared to an “industry average of 40%.” 

Digging in Chile’s Atacama Plateau

AquaterreX’s current projects include locating DSW on the Atacama Plateau (or Atacama Desert) in Chile, an exceptionally dry region near the Salar de Atacama—the world’s largest source of lithium.

“We did this for Kinross Mining of Canada, as they wanted to locate water that would not interfere with the water needs of the Indigenous Tribes that live in the area,” says D’Arezzo.

As part of its Chilean project, AquaterreX performed its typical Phase I and II activities, which included sending a team to survey the area of interest at 12,000-14,000-foot elevations.

As part of Phase I, AquaterreX used satellite imagery and data analysis to identify potential water locations. The company used a combination of geologic, hydrologic, atmospheric data, and advanced algorithms to locate areas of interest.

AquaterreX then moved on to Phase II and underwent a field assessment on site using its patented seismic and electro-resistivity technologies. These were employed to pinpoint well bores and identify the specific area AquaterreX would probe for groundwater.

Using above-ground data, AquaterreX developed a clear picture of how much freshwater was contained within the targeted area before digging. Virtual well data gave information on various factors, including the depth of groundwater, the thickness of water-bearing strata, estimated flow rates.

In August, AquaterreX reported that it had located the deep water with precise well locations and could “meet the water volume requirements desired by the mining company ... without disrupting the shallow aquifer ecosystem” that local populations depend on.

Editorial notes

Source: Interview with James D'Arezzo, President of Aquaterrex

*Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 10 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences.

A potential “game-changer” lithium reserve has been discovered in southwestern Arkansas, says a recent US Geological Survey (USGS) study.

There are an estimated 5 million to 19 million tons of lithium reserves in the Smackover Formation, a Jurassic-era limestone and dolomite area that stretches across six states from Texas to Florida.

If commercially harvested from the Smackover oilfield brines, the lithium would contribute greatly to US domestic energy resources, the USGS said. “Using these predicted lithium maps with reservoir parameters and geologic information, we calculated that there are 5.1 to 19 million tons of lithium in Smackover Formation brines in southern Arkansas, which represents 35% to 136% of the current US lithium resource estimate,” wrote Katherine J. Knierim, lead author of the USGS study published in Science Advances in September.

The discovery also has global implications.

“The low-end estimate of 5 million tons of lithium present in Smackover brines is also equivalent to more than nine times the International Energy Agency’s projection of global lithium demand for electric vehicles in 2030,” the USGS said.

According to Statistia.com, global demand for lithium is projected to rise “from 720,000 metric tons in 2022 to 3.1 million metric tons” in 2030. Much of this growth is due to the market for electric vehicles batteries.

The new lithium discovery, which was done using a combination of water testing and machine learning, was described as a “treasure trove,” by industry newsletter Supply Chain Dive. It could also be “a game changer” for the US domestic production of lithium, the newsletter said.

Currently, 60% of the world’s lithium is produced in Chile, Argentina, China, and in Nevada’s Clayton Valley in the US. Currently, the US relies on imports for more than 25% of its lithium.

Lithium and Brine

According to the study, the Smackover lithium reserves are dissolved in brine at concentrations as great as 400 milligrams of lithium per liter of brine, or more. The lithium was brought to the surface within brines that were produced as waste streams from oil, gas, and bromine operations. The researchers calculated that 5,000 tons of dissolved lithium were brought to the surface within brines in 2022, citing the opportunity of potentially extracting a valuable commodity from a waste stream.

Though lithium recovery technologies from brines are still in the testing and implementation phase, Metal Tech News reports that Mobil Lithium (a division of ExxonMobil), Albemarle Corp. (the world's largest lithium producer), and Standard Lithium Ltd (a US Department of Energy grant recipient for its South West Arkansas lithium project), are all working to develop the commercialization of direct lithium extraction technology.

"We have the technology that can extract lithium with fewer carbon emissions,” said Patrick Howarth, lithium global business manager at ExxonMobil Low Carbon Solutions.

Stanford Direct reported in August 2024 that Stanford University researchers had developed a lithium extraction method that promises to be far cheaper and more environmentally friendly than current brine extraction methods using drying ponds.

The USGS Study Backstory

In the USGS-led study, the researchers used “published and newly collected brine lithium concentration data” to train a “random forest machine-learning model” and create a continuous spatial map of predicted lithium in Smackover Formation brines. These were then used “with geologic and reservoir characteristics—such as formation thickness, porosity, and water-to-oil ratios” to calculate the mass of lithium in the brines.

Prior to the USGS-led study, scientists were already aware of the presence of lithium in oil field brine waste streams at various concentrations and volumes at locations within the Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania, for instance, and were aware that using machine-learning models trained with “explanatory” geologic variables might help predict groundwater chemistry.

There had also been investigations into how brine geochemistry can help predict lithium in the Smackover Formation, but, according to the USGS-led team, that investigation had “only predicted lithium at brine sample locations.”

According to the team, two of the five most important variables for predicting lithium in Smackover brines were dissolved hydrogen sulfide (H2S) concentrations in the brines and the depth of the brine samples.

They said other geologic information may become important for predicting lithium quantities and can be tested in future modeling efforts.

Sources:

• https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/unlocking-arkansas-hidden-treasure-usgs-uses-machine-learning-show-large

• https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp8149 

• https://www.sciencealert.com/a-giant-hidden-source-of-lithium-was-just-discovered-in-arkansas

• https://www.foxbusiness.com/economy/massive-lithium-discovery-california-could-boon-us-supplyhttps://www.techspot.com/news/105252-massive-lithium-reserve-discovered-arkansas-could-power-global.html#:~:text=A%20joint%20study%20led%20by%20the%20US%20Geological,for%20lithium%20in%20car%20batteries%20nine%20times%20over.

• https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/unlocking-arkansas-hidden-treasure-usgs-uses-machine-learning-show-large

• https://www.sciencealert.com/a-vast-untapped-source-of-lithium-exists-in-the-us

• https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/lithium-smackover-formation

• https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/21fd/b1311d417523bd7e4fcd70bca39573688d23.pdf 

*By Alina Bradford

Around the world, healthcare professionals are collaborating to harness the benefits of whole-food, plant-based diets to address chronic diseases, improve patient outcomes, and support planetary health.

Organizations such as The Plantrician Project, Doctors for Nutrition, and the International Journal of Disease Reversal and Prevention (IJDRP) are at the forefront of this effort. Through their work, they aim to transform healthcare by tackling fundamental causes and risk factors of various chronic diseases and illnesses using dietary and lifestyle changes.

“The growing movement stems from mounting evidence linking whole-food, plant-based diets to improved health outcomes,” says New York City-based nutritionist Bharathi Ramesh. “Conditions such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and obesity have been shown to improve or even reverse with such diets.”

A paradigm shift will recognize food as medicine and address the need for sustainable, preventive healthcare, Ramesh says. “Educating practitioners empowers them to guide patients toward dietary changes, aligning treatment with evidence-based nutrition practices. This movement also addresses the environmental and ethical concerns tied to traditional diets.”

The Plantrician Project—Eating Well for Health

The Plantrician Project, a nonprofit organization, is a key advocate for integrating plant-based nutrition into medical practice.

Their mission focuses on combating the global epidemic of chronic diseases, including heart disease, diabetes, and cancer, by equipping physicians and healthcare providers with evidence-based education and tools through programs and events like the International Plant-Based Nutrition Healthcare Conference. They also offer resources such as toolkits and patient education materials that allow practitioners to incorporate plant-based nutrition into their clinical approaches.

Collaborations with groups like the American College of Lifestyle Medicine and the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine strengthen this eating-well-for-health initiative.

Prominent figures in the field, such as Dr. T. Colin Campbell, Dr. Michael Greger, and Dr. Dean Ornish, further support the project’s efforts, emphasizing the importance of dietary change in preventing and managing chronic diseases.

Doctors for Nutrition—Leadership from Australia

In Australia, Doctors for Nutrition plays a leading role in advocating for plant-based diets to prevent, manage, and reverse chronic illnesses. Founded in 2018, this organization educates healthcare professionals and the public about the scientific evidence supporting whole-food, plant-based nutrition. According to Doctors for Nutrition, “As much as 88% of health loss can be attributed to non-communicable diseases, many are preventable through diet.”

Through partnerships with physicians, dietitians, and researchers, Doctors for Nutrition has successfully integrated plant-based practices into healthcare systems, influencing both practitioners and patients.

Through partnerships with physicians, dietitians, and researchers, Doctors for Nutrition has successfully integrated plant-based practices into healthcare systems, influencing both practitioners and patients.

Scientific Journal Builds Evidence

The International Journal of Disease Reversal and Prevention (IJDRP) is another vital player in this movement. Since its launch in 2019 by the Plant-Based Nutrition Movement, the IJDRP has published research focused on preventing and reversing chronic diseases through plant-based nutrition and lifestyle changes. 

This peer-reviewed, open-access journal is a critical resource for clinicians, researchers, and the public. It publishes studies on the effects of plant-based diets on conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity while also featuring case studies that document patient outcomes. By making research accessible to everyone, the IJDRP ensures that the benefits of lifestyle medicine are widely understood and implemented.

Evidence Behind Plant-Based Diets

Scientific evidence has reinforced the work of these organizations. A recent study published in the IJDRP detailed the reversal of lupus nephritis in patients following a six-week raw vegan diet. Another study published in American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine highlighted the complete reversal of type 2 diabetes (T2D) in patients who adopted a whole-food, plant-based diet. 

In the T2D study, mostly elderly patients (mean age 71.5 years) at a US wellness clinic were treated with a “low-fat, whole food, plant-predominant diet while receiving standard medical treatment.” According to the research team, 37% of the patients achieved T2D remission.

Here are more studies that link plant-based eating to healthier bodies:

• A 2024 study in The Lancet Planetary Health affirmed that a plant-based diet called “Planetary Health Diet” lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease.

• A 2023 study found that vegetarian diets were associated with significant improvements in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

• Another 2024 study published by the American Diabetes Association found that the average total daily dose of insulin decreased significantly, and insulin sensitivity increased significantly for subjects on a vegan diet in just 12 weeks.

• Meta-analyses, including one from 2024, confirm the reduction in mortality risk associated with plant-heavy dietary patterns. 

Better Personal Health and the Planet

Studies have also shown this plant-based focus is good for the environment as well as the body. Reducing reliance on animal agriculture helps decrease greenhouse gas emissions and conserve natural resources, aligning with global efforts to mitigate climate change. By addressing both human and planetary health, plant-based diets are increasingly recognized as a powerful tool for a sustainable future.

[I]n 2023, New York City Health + Hospitals introduced plant-based meals in 11 of its hospitals.

For example, in 2023, New York City Health + Hospitals introduced plant-based meals in 11 of its hospitals. Patients could choose, for instance, a dinner of Fiesta Black Bean Burger on a Whole Wheat Bun with Cauliflower, Whole Wheat Sicilian Pizza with Plant-Based Cheese, or Red Curry Vegetables with Roasted Tofu, the hospital said.

The patients didn’t feel restricted, as the meal program received a patient satisfaction rate above 90%. This not only benefits the patients but also the healthcare system, potentially leading to cost savings.

A Vision for the Future

The combined efforts of The Plantrician Project, Doctors for Nutrition, and the IJDRP are not just shifting the healthcare landscape but are shaping a global movement.

Meanwhile, practical resources and collaborative efforts ensure that plant-based nutrition messages reach diverse audiences. Ramesh says some key programs and initiatives that aim to transform global healthcare by integrating dietary strategies into patient care include:

• The International Plant-Based Nutrition Healthcare Conference (Plantrician Project): A global forum to educate healthcare providers on integrating plant-based nutrition.

• Nutrition in Medicine: Free resources to teach medical students about the role of diet in health.

• Forks Over Knives: Encourages public and professional awareness of plant-based diets.

• Doctors for Nutrition Summit: A conference showcasing scientific findings and practical guidance.

“Together, these initiatives have led to improved patient outcomes, including weight loss, better glycemic control, reduced medication dependence, and overall enhanced quality of life,” says Ramesh.

As the evidence grows, the importance of plant-based nutrition in healthcare becomes clearer. By addressing the causes of chronic diseases and prioritizing prevention, these organizations create a roadmap for a healthier, more sustainable future. 

*Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert who has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com.

1. Ideal soil is said to be 50% pore space (for water and air), 5% organic matter (organisms, sugars, and plant matter), and 45% minerals (such as sand, silt, and clay). 

2. Soil is considered a renewable resource but with an extremely slow formation rate—one inch of topsoil can take hundreds to over a thousand years to form depending on the region. 

3. Soil is categorized into six horizons (layers) given by a single letter: O, A, E, B, C, and R. For simplicity, “O” is the organic layer (with humus), “A” is topsoil, and “R” is bedrock. 

4. Earthworms are beneficial to soil by increasing its porosity (for water), excreting materials with beneficial microbes, and consuming dry matter and mixing it with the soil. 

5. The US Department of Agriculture has a Soil Textural Triangle to help determine the type of soil based on percentage of clay, silt, and sand found once separated. For example, soil that is 30% sand, 35% clay, and 35% silt is clay loam. 

6. To raise awareness about the importance of creating and maintaining healthy soil, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) established World Soil Day in 2014. 

7. According to the FAO, “33% of the Earth’s soils are already degraded and over 90% could become degraded by 2050.” 

Sources: 

• https://digital-media.fao.org/CS.aspx?VP3=SearchResult&VBID=2A6XUVAWZV15&PN=1&WS=PackagePres  

• https://extension.sdstate.edu/what-makes-healthy-soil  

• https://www.soils.org/about-soils/basics/ 

• https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/what-are-soils-67647639/  

• https://extension.psu.edu/earthworms 

• https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-11/Texture%20and%20Structure%20-%20Soil%20Health%20Guide_0.pdf  

• https://www.fao.org/about/meetings/soil-erosion-symposium/key-messages/en/ 

Over the last 50 years, wild vertebrate populations have dropped by 73%, the World Wildlife Fund said in a 2024 report released in October. The group collected 34,836 population trends on 5,495 vertebrate species—including mammals, marine life, and birds—in its “Living Planet Index” (LPI). Although many wildlife populations are stable or increasing, the global LPI estimated, on average, populations fell by 73% between 1970 and 2020, with an annual decline of 2.6%. 

1. Declining species include the African forest elephant (78% to 81% decline between 2004 and 2014) due to poaching for ivory trade, Chinook salmon (88% decline from 1970 to 2020) due to dams blocking cold water needed for their survival, and Chinstrap penguin (61% decline on average between 1980 and 2019) due to changes in sea ice and shortages of krill. 

2. Increasing species include the European bison (0 to 6,800 increase from 1950 to 2020) from large-scale breeding, reintroductions, and translocations, as well as the mountain gorilla (3% increase per year between 2010 and 2016) from close monitoring and intervention services. 

3. The LPI for marine species indicated a 56% decline due to declining fish stocks. Meanwhile, the LPI for freshwater species saw a decline of 85%, caused by changes to their habitats.  

4. For terrestrial species (such as animals living in forests, deserts, and grasslands), the LPI indicated a 69% decline. 

5. By region, Latin America and the Caribbean had the highest decline of 95% for its 3,936 populations and 1,362 species, primarily due to conversion of grasslands, forests, and wetlands; overexploitation of species; and introduction of alien species. Meanwhile, Europe and Central Asia had the lowest decline of 35% for its 4,615 populations and 619 species. 

6. The dominant drivers of change were habitat loss/degradation, overexploitation, climate change, pollution, invasive species/genes, and disease. 

7. Typically, habitat loss/degradation had the greatest impact in all regions across almost all species categories.** 

Note: The breakdown of species and populations is given below. 

*There is overlap between some species, making the total above 5,495. 

**Species categories are amphibians, birds, fishes, mammals, and reptiles.  

Source:  

• https://files.worldwildlife.org/wwfcmsprod/files/Publication/file/5gc2qerb1v_2024_living_planet_report_a_system_in_peril.pdf

Since the dawn of civilization, humans have used wood as a primary building material. Strong, bountiful, easy to shape—its suitability for construction is well-established.

Other materials, such as steel and concrete, have long supplanted wood as staples of the building and architecture sectors, but both steel and concrete leave enormous carbon footprints. Concrete is used so abundantly worldwide that it was estimated to be responsible for about 8% of the world’s total CO2 emissions by The Royal Institute of International Affairs in 2018. Steel use, which involves mining, processing, and smelting, is estimated to account for more than 7% of CO2 emissions, according to Carbon Chain, a company that tracks carbon emissions in the global supply chain.

In comparison, timber has multiple benefits when it comes to sustainability and eco-friendly construction. Wood captures and stores carbon, is renewable, and produces minimal waste. It is also biodegradable, and efforts to source it are fairly easy. In addition to its green credentials, wood is also versatile, strong, and flexible. It also provides good insulation and is easy to maintain.

‘Mass Timber’ Movement

Not surprisingly, wood is once again becoming a desired building source for architects. A “mass timber” movement is growing, especially in Europe, according to a 2022 Axios article titled, “The race to build wooden skyscrapers.”

“Today, the tallest mass timber building is the 25-story Ascent skyscraper in Milwaukee, completed in 2022,” Kurt Kleiner wrote in Knowable Magazine in October. As of 2022, Kleiner added, “there were 84 mass timber buildings eight stories or higher either built or under construction worldwide, with another 55 proposed.” A report from the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat said 70% of projects were in Europe, with another 20% in North America.

Modern wood construction uses new methods—such as cross-laminated timber (CLT), in which multiple layers of wood are glued together—to help stabilize tall buildings without using concrete.

One example is the stunning Sara Kulturhus Center in Sweden. Designed by White Arkitekter and standing at around 75 meters (246 feet), the timber development features a 20-story tower made of prefabricated timber modules that the company said will be “carbon negative” over its lifetime. The timber used within the building sequesters twice as much carbon as the embodied carbon emitted during the building's construction. 

Built from a combination of CLT and glued laminated timber (glulam)—where smaller layers of timber are glued together to make a larger, single component—the project in the city of Skellefteå includes a theater, gallery, library, museum, and hotel. The use of wood is something its designers say is a huge boost to the sustainability agenda.

“The primary benefit of using wood structures is the lower environmental impact,” says Oskar Norelius, partner at White Arkitekter.

The firm is one of Scandinavia’s leading architectural studios, and its vision is that by 2030 all its architecture will be regenerative and climate neutral. Its impressive portfolio includes Stockholm Wood City, slated to be the world’s largest urban development project constructed entirely from wood and spanning 250,000 square meters (2.7 million square feet).

“The greenhouse gas emissions related to the production and construction of a timber structure are significantly lower compared to conventional solutions, meaning less embodied carbon.”

“The greenhouse gas emissions related to the production and construction of a timber structure are significantly lower compared to conventional solutions, meaning less embodied carbon,” said Norelius.

The need for change is driven by environmental challenges facing the world, said Dean Maltz, managing partner at the Shigeru Ban Architects New York office. The company was founded by Shigeru Ban, a Pritzker Architecture Prize-winning Japanese architect, humanitarian, and author of Timber in Architecture (2022).

The company has designed temporary timber housing for earthquake victims, along with some of the world’s most iconic wooden buildings. Projects have included the Swatch and Omega Campus in Biel, Switzerland, and the recently completed Toyota City Museum in Japan—the first museum to receive ZEB (Net Zero Energy Buildings) Ready certification.

Maltz—who counts the Aspen Art Museum as one of his favorite structures that incorporates wood—said: “I think sustainable practice is becoming more prevalent now due to the extreme weather conditions suffered the world over and the recognition that we, as responsible citizens, must do something about it. As buildings account for 40% of the carbon expended globally, through sustainable practices, we as architects can support carbon reduction.”

Good for Earth and Soul

But beyond the environmental benefits of wood construction, there are those associated with mental and physical health. The term “concrete jungle” is a byword for ugly cityscapes that can make people feel worse about their immediate environment. Wooden structures, on the other hand, are known to slightly decrease cortisol (stress) and modestly decrease blood pressure.

“Wood is also an attractive material. The tactility, warmth, and softness add value to buildings inside and out,” Norelius said. “Studies have also shown that timber structures have a positive effect on occupiers—students concentrate better, patients in hospital heal faster, and office workers have lower stress levels and heart rates.”

“Studies have also shown that timber structures have a positive effect on occupiers—students concentrate better, patients in hospital heal faster, and office workers have lower stress levels and heart rates.”

Deforestation Fears

A material that can reduce carbon emissions, produce stunning buildings, and improve health and mood sounds ideal. It also prompts critical questions, such as where will all that wood come from? This can lead to fears that increased demand for wood for construction could contribute to deforestation.

The Earth loses an area the size of Portugal in forests every year, with only around half of that offset by growing more trees, according to OurWorldinData.org.

The key, said Norelius, is to ensure the wood used is part of a circular economy and that timber taken for building projects is replaced.

“Sustainable forestry is key for sustainable construction,” he said. “In terms of carbon, replanting ensures that the forest is not eradicated. In Sweden, the forest is larger in 2024 than it was in the 1920s, and it is growing year by year.”

But he also cautioned that deforestation is not simply about the removal of trees.

“Forests are a habitat for many species, a space for recreation, and in many cases, a space with strong cultural connotations for local communities. The impact of forestry on biodiversity, land use and other potentially conflicting interests must be taken into consideration.”

Maltz agrees, but said it was a “myth” that greater timber use in construction will destroy that resource.

“The reality is that the greater use of wood is beneficial to the planet if the wood is harvested through sustainable practices,” he said. He added that by using sustainably sourced wood with certifications, like FSC (Forest Stewardship Council in America) or PEFC (Program for the Endorsement of Forest Certification in Europe), the industry can ensure the viability of forests and their ability to thrive.

“In our Swatch/Omega Campus, comprising over 500,000 square feet of construction with three buildings, we utilized 160,000 cubic feet of certified wood from Switzerland. Despite the enormity of the project, the timber utilized takes 10 hours to regrow in the Swiss forests,” he said. (The 10-hour figure is based on “the total annual growth of Swiss forests volumetrically,” according to a 2024 Texas Architect article.)

Fire Risks

Building tall structures with wood is not without its difficulties, including one that once made building with wood unpopular—fire.

Think of the Great Fire of London in 1666, where a small blaze in a bakery near Pudding Lane tore through the city due to all its wooden houses. The blaze destroyed 13,000 homes, 87 churches, and St. Paul’s Cathedral. A royal proclamation that followed stated: "No man whatsoever shall presume to erect any house or building, whether great or small, but of brick or stone."

The fire ended the widespread use of wood for building in that city, as anyone found to be flouting the rules would be punished by having their house pulled down.

“The benefit of wood is that wood burns at a predictable rate as compared to concrete and steel. That predictability allows wood to be used as a fire protective layer.”

“The challenge with wood is that it burns,” said Maltz. However, “the benefit of wood is that wood burns at a predictable rate as compared to concrete and steel. That predictability allows wood to be used as a fire protective layer,” he said.

When an exposed wood surface burns, it creates a charred layer that is naturally protective, acting as insulation, retarding heating of the core. Mass timber construction facilitates fire resistance by means of the insulation of inner layers. The solid block construct technique of mass timber inhibits air flow and fire spread. According to an article in Arch Daily, a 7-inch thick (about 18 cm) wall of plaster-coated CLT lasted 3 hours and 6 minutes in a fire test, one hour longer than fire code requirements.

Moisture in tall wood buildings is also a concern due in part to potential deterioration from fungus and termites. Architects design heat and ventilation systems to prevent moisture from accumulating, use treated wood, or surround wood at the ground level with mesh or other physical barriers.

Another challenge in building with wood is acoustics. While wood structures are marvelous for concert halls, anyone who has lived in an old wooden home knows it creaks and groans. This is because a light, rigid material with a smooth, compact surface doesn’t have the ability to suppress noises like voices and footsteps, according to a 2021 article on premanufactured wooden homes.

“That said, all these issues are manageable if tackled with an innovative mindset,” said Norelius. When the process for the Sara Kulturhus Center began, some of these solutions were not yet available, so we adopted innovative and holistic strategies to implement integrated solutions.”

Cultural Shift

While mainstream architects are looking more at the use of wood, certain parts of the globe—such as Scandinavia and Japan—have long used it.

In Japanese culture, the term “mottainai,” roughly translated as “what a waste!” is a concept that encourages people to reduce waste and recycle.

“Shigeru Ban Architects has been engaged in sustainable design since the beginning of our practice, even before sustainability started being embraced at large by the design community. Our position on sustainability inherent to our work comes from a desire to not make waste,” said Maltz.

Norelius added: “What is interesting is that timber construction is evolving differently across countries due to local building culture, regulations and legislation. For instance, Belgium is very advanced in natural materials that complement timber very well, while Germany has developed an array of hybrid structural systems. The key to decarbonizing the construction industry lies in cross-border knowledge-sharing and exchange of experiences.”

What Does the Future Hold?

Maltz said he is excited about how the use of wood is developing.

“As for now, most buildings in mass timber are residential and commercial buildings. I am also excited about the opportunity to develop more types of structures for project types not traditionally using wood, such as concert halls and laboratory buildings,” he said.

In Kleiner’s article, posted in November in JSTOR Daily, he wrote, “Though still relatively uncommon, it is growing in popularity and beginning to pop up in skylines around the world.”

As industries look to the future as well as the past for solutions to the most pressing climate and sustainability issues, it is becoming clear that wood can once again become a staple of construction.

*Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

Canadian registered nurse Janna Greir always loved the idea of living in the country and operating a small farm, but her hopes to become a first-generation farmer seemed dim until she discovered a new collaboration between raising animals and solar farms.

Today, Janna and husband Ryan oversee a flock of 1,000 sheep who graze on the vegetation on a huge solar farm, enabling both industries to prosper. This mutually beneficial arrangement, known as agrivoltaics, is in its infancy in Canada, but holds great potential for expansion.

‘Solar Grazing’

“My husband and I are both from Vancouver Island,” says Janna. “We didn't grow up on farms … but we knew that we had an interest in agriculture.”

Previously, they both worked in a city while dabbling in farming. “We started with a small acreage and a few animals and quickly grew a passion for it and a passion in particular for sheep.”

After Ryan found work in Alberta, Canada, they bought Whispering Cedars Ranch, just outside of the town of Strathmore. Then Janna discovered “solar grazing” from some friends who were doing it in Ontario. By coincidence, electric power producer Capital Power was building a solar farm just a short distance from their Strathmore ranch.

Janna and Ryan did their homework on solar grazing, and although agrivoltaics was fairly new at the time in Alberta, Janna approached Capital Power in 2021 with a plan, and “they were just as excited about it as we were.”

“It's created this unique partnership where it's allowed us to grow,” says Janna. “At one time, we only had one sheep and then 10 sheep, then 60 and 100 sheep. And now we have 600 breeding animals,” says Janna, whose flock now numbers 1,000 sheep.

This partnership works because of two intersecting interests: Capital Power needs to control vegetation on their solar farm, and the Greirs need range and forage to graze their sheep.

Since taking an interest in solar grazing, Janna has developed significant expertise in vegetation management, improving soil quality, and planting the right species to improve the land and growth of her sheep. She now owns Solar Sheep Inc. and is doing consulting for the solar industry, procuring custom seed mixes, all while expanding her own ranch operations to other solar farms.

The Strathmore Solar project has a capacity of 41 megawatts on a total of 320 acres, with 240 acres inside the fence and another 80 acres outside the fence.

In the first year, Janna ran 400 sheep in the solar farm; just a few years later, she supports 1,000 sheep on the solar farm, and there’s room for more.

Janna has a contract to manage the vegetation, inside and outside the fence, of the solar farm. In the first year, Janna ran 400 sheep in the solar farm; just a few years later, she supports 1,000 sheep on the solar farm, and there’s room for more.

“The sky's the limit with this site in particular because of the vegetation, and the way that it's managed allows it to rebound so quickly.”

Asked about their own adoption of solar energy, Janna replies, “It's funny you should ask that.”

“We have a 28.8-kilowatt solar install [on our ranch] very similar to this. We put it in last year, and essentially, that brings our farm to net zero,” she says.

It also looks like the sheep at the ranch like the solar arrays. Sheep are lambing beneath the solar modules, which provide protection from sun, heat, wind, rain, and snow.

Pigs and Solar

The success with sheep has inspired Janna to branch out into other species. As she walks behind a row of solar panels, small pigs can be seen grazing beneath them.

“These are a specific type of grazing pigs. They're called Kunekune, and they come from New Zealand.” These pigs have upward-turned snouts, she says, and “they are not like traditional pigs where they root up the ground and they dig for all kinds of things.” Instead, the pigs eat like lawnmowers and also eat things left behind by the sheep, including parasites and worms, which interrupts the life cycle of the parasites.

“The idea is not only to adapt and to allow for multi-species grazing, but the cool thing is when you're running more than one species of livestock, they eat different plants,” says Janna.

Expanding Agrivoltaics

Janna jumped at the chance to join the board of the new Agrivoltaics Canada organization set up to create awareness, provide education, influence policy, and “take agrivoltaics to a whole new level,” she says.

“Canada is just in its infancy with regard to agrivoltaics. We've only just got our foot in the door,” she says. “There're tons of room for food production under solar. That could mean anything from grazing to crop production—they're even looking into berry production under solar, and specific types of gardens.”

In the United States, the Inspire Project, supported by the US Department of Energy, has mapped 589 agrivoltaic projects. Inspire tracks projects with crop production, habitat improvements, grazing, and greenhouse operations.

The state of Minnesota is a hot spot where sheep grazing is the most common application, although garden operations are increasingly emerging on solar farms.

Inspire has also created the Agrivoltaics Calculator to help evaluate low-impact solar development strategies.

Back in Janna’s home province of Alberta, Claude Mindorff, founder of Agrivoltaics Canada and a former farmer, now works with solar companies. He’s jazzed about the potential of agrivoltaics, is keen to educate farmers on the potential, and is working on various models of farming integration.

He’s working with Shawn Morton, a fourth-generation farmer from Joffre, Alberta, who runs a cow-calf operation and partners with various farming operations as well.

Keeping the Farm in the Family

When Morton was first approached with the idea of solar on his land, he did what farmers usually do: “You always say no,” he says.

But the solar guys were patient, and eventually, he met Mindorff and now has a 48-megawatt solar farm on his land. And part of his deal with the solar developer is to continue farming and grazing on the lands.

“If we can continue to use it in agriculture, I think the benefits are tremendous,” Morton says, standing between two rows of solar modules on his farm. Initially, he intends to hay the site and eventually run a herd of sheep on it.

“As you can see up and down these rows, we're in the middle of May and already the grass has grown probably four inches,” says Morton, adding there was no impact on the quality of the land.

More significantly, these new revenues from the solar lease have transformed his thinking about farm succession and his young daughter. 

“I hope that my daughter will farm, or if she doesn't choose a career in agriculture, she'll have the benefit of being able to stay in agriculture with the revenue from the solar park.”

“There's a financial benefit [in the long run]. I think it'll keep a lot of farmers on the land,” he says, adding “I'm able to farm full time with the financial benefit of the [solar] park.”

“I hope that my daughter will farm, or if she doesn't choose a career in agriculture, she'll have the benefit of being able to stay in agriculture with the revenue from the solar park.”

This is music to the ears of Mindorff, who explains there are essentially three kinds of agrivoltaics. 

Three Kinds of Agrivoltaics

One kind is “field agrivoltaics, where you have cereal grains. There are designs for vertical panels where you can grow tall crops like corn, grain, and canola in between,” he says.

“Then there is what we call the market garden approach,” where the solar canopies almost touch at the top or they are V-shaped and almost touch on the sides. “They provide shade and shelter for tender fruits like strawberries, bench strawberries, blackberries, blueberries, or haskaps (honeyberries).”

Mindorff says one can also grow leafy vegetables. “Any of the nightshades, potatoes, beets, tomatoes, or peppers grow incredibly well under solar,” he notes, adding that there is now ongoing research in Oregon, Arizona, and other places.

The third kind of agrivoltaics “is what you see here [at Joffre], where you have single ground mount panels or single axis tracking where grazing is the primary activity underneath. You rotate crops in every few years to reduce the site becoming root-bound.”

“[I]t would take less than 1% of the agricultural lands, under utility-scale developments such as [in] Joffre” to “provide Canada’s electricity,”

Mindorff notes that critics worry that solar farms will take up valuable land. However, Dr. Joshua Pierce of Western University in Ontario has found it would take “less than 1% of the agricultural lands, under utility-scale developments such as [in] Joffre” to “provide Canada’s electricity,” says Mindorff.

Solar rarely, if ever, goes on prime farmland because farmers already know the best use for that land.

Agrivoltaics’ Potential to Improve Productivity

In many cases, the quality of the farmland and productivity is increased in agrivoltaics. As ranchers such as Janna Greir bring their expertise to vegetation management, soil quality improves, and so can biodiversity. And with growing expertise, innovation is coming fast.

For instance, Janna has some ideas for solar farms to use solar trackers with slightly different spacing and the placement of some of these mechanisms and cables out of the way or underground, so that solar farms could drastically improve the potential of the land.

“For instance, we could come early in the season, and we could hay it. And we'd have extra forage for our animals throughout the winter,” says Janna. In the northern climate of Alberta, her sheep can stay on the solar farm from May until the end of November, but in the winter, they must be fed back at their ranch.

“We've got forage for animals for six, seven months of the year on the solar farm,” she says. “But feeding them for those additional six months is extremely expensive.”

“Being able to produce forage and/or crops underneath solar that you could continue to use it for your operations at home throughout the winter. ... That would be a game changer, for sure,” she adds.

*David Dodge is an environmental journalist, photojournalist, and the host and producer of GreenEnergyFutures.ca, a series of micro-documentaries on clean energy, transportation, and buildings. He’s worked for newspapers and published magazines and produced more than 350 award-winning EcoFile radio programs on sustainability for CKUA Radio.

The UN Environment Programme’s (UNEP) 15th Emissions Gap Report 2024 is sounding alarms about the world’s faltering efforts to limit global temperature increases to 1.5°C (2.7°F) in the next decade, as declared by the Paris Agreement. Instead, current policies have led to record high greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2023, UNEP said in its new report, which is called, “No more hot air…please!” and urges redoubled efforts to meet GHG goals. 

1. Total global GHG emissions in 2023 were 57.1 gigatons of carbon dioxide-equivalent (GtCO2e). This was a 1.3% increase from 2022. 

2. From this total, the power sector (such as electricity production) was the highest contributor at 15.1 GtCO2e (26%). This was followed by transport (8.4 GtCO2e or 15%), agriculture (6.5 GtCO2e or 11%), and industry (6.5 GtCO2e or 11%). 

3. In terms of countries, China was the highest contributor of GHG emissions at 16,000 MtCO2e (megatons of carbon dioxide-equivalent or 30% of the total). The US was second, with 5,970 MtCO2e or 11%, and India at 4,140 MtCO2e or 8%. 

4. In terms of regions, the G20 (excluding African Union) contributed 40,900 MtCO2e or 77% of the total. In contrast, the African Union (55 countries) added just 3,190 MtCO2e or 6% while the EU had slightly more emissions at 3,230 MtCO2e, also 6% of the total. 

5. Nations should “collectively commit” to cutting 42% of annual GHG emissions by 2030 and 57% by 2035, and “back this up with rapid action,” said the UNEP report, which called for “a quantum leap in ambition” and “accelerated mitigation action in this decade.” 

Source:

• United Nations Environment Programme (2024). “Emissions Gap Report 2024: No more hot air … please! With a massive gap between rhetoric and reality, countries draft new climate commitments.” Nairobi. https://doi.org/10.59117/20.500.11822/46404 

*By Robert Selle 

Solving environmental woes is going to take a mass movement, says Columbia University Professor Steven Cohen, PhD, who has long stressed the importance of the one-two punch of individual consciousness and government/corporate action on environmental issues.

“If we're going to have sustainability, it's organizations, businesses, nonprofits, universities, schools, eventually households that have to act,” according to Cohen, who is former executive director, and now senior advisor, of Columbia University’s Earth Institute. Although he was speaking these words in 2015 to an audience at the Ross School in East Hampton, New York, his views today haven’t changed.

 “To some considerable degree, we have to translate these [sustainability] concepts into behaviors at the organizational level and at the individual level,” he added, noting that media messages and elementary school curricula can be enlisted in the effort.

In a recent interview with The Earth and I, Cohen was sanguine about the dawn of an unprecedented global environmental movement. It is a movement to ameliorate and eventually reverse environmental decline, and it is already here, albeit still in its growth stage, he says.

“A concern for environmental sustainability has entered our culture,” says Cohen, who has taught public management and environmental policy at Columbia since 1981.

“The environmental issue has gone from the fringes of our consciousness to the center.”

Evidence for this is everywhere, he says. “Young people are allowing it to impact their consumer choices and the organizations they are willing to work for. ... The environmental issue has gone from the fringes of our consciousness to the center.”

Sustainability Woes

Despite being a buzzword, sustainability is an often-hazy idea.

The UN’s Brundtland Commission, in its 1987 report “Our Common Future,” defined sustainability as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Today’s economic development, however, while effectively meeting the needs of the present in many well-off countries, is increasingly recognized as being unsustainable. In the words of the Commission, development today is “compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

[W]ithout individual and family-level buy-in, regulations imposed from the halls of government power can spark collective resistance and protests.

Cohen believes emphasis on households and individuals is important because without individual and family-level buy-in, regulations imposed from the halls of government can spark collective resistance and protests.

In terms of environmental vision, goals, and improvement, not only are individual and household levels important, but government leadership is essential.

Some environmental leaders push for systemic change. For instance, Berlin, Germany, Professor Anders Levermann of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, has called for “a new industrial revolution” to combat environmental problems.

“Personal sacrifice alone cannot be the solution to tackling the climate crisis,” Levermann told The Guardian in 2019.

“[R}eaching zero emissions requires very fundamental changes. Individual sacrifice alone will not bring us to zero. It can be achieved only by real structural change, by a new industrial revolution. Looking for solutions to the climate crisis in individual responsibilities and actions risks obstructing this.”

In his comments to The Earth & I, Cohen noted that human beings are biological creatures who depend on having a healthy natural world from which to draw water, food, and air. “We don’t get that without functioning ecosystems,” he says.

With 8.3 billion people on Earth—which is growing to probably 9 or 10 billion—"we cannot go back to nature,” Cohen says. “There's too many of us, and there's not enough nature. But we have to figure out a way to live on this planet without destroying nature.”

[T]he vital question is, “how do we manage this high-throughput economy without destroying the planet?”

So, the vital question is, “how do we manage this high-throughput economy without destroying the planet?”

The Need for More Education

To aid the environment, Cohen told his audience at the Ross School, “We have to learn a lot more about the planet.”

“[At Columbia’s] Earth Institute,” he continued, “we have environmental scientists from all over the world, all over America, trying to understand the basics of what the impact of human behavior on ecology is—what is happening to our ecosystems.

“You would think we know a lot about it,” Cohen says. “We know a lot more than we did 20, 30, 40 years ago, but our ignorance is still fairly profound. We need to learn a lot more than we know.”

But even without perfect environmental knowledge, there are clearly things individual citizens can be educated and incentivized to do to promote the health of the planet’s water, air, and earth. Among them:

• Avoiding excessive use of fossil fuels by, for example, biking to work (see: Electric Bikes: Revolutionizing Personal Transportation).

• Using energy-efficient appliances and light fixtures at home and in the office (see: Deep Energy Retrofit—Total Residential Makeover Raises Energy Efficiency).

• Adding solar panels to home, apartment building, and/or office building (see: ‘Balcony Solar’: Harnessing Power from Sunlit Spaces).

• Saving table scraps and adding them to a backyard or community compost heap (see: Stopping the Food Waste—An Introduction to Composting).

• Recycling batteries and electronic devices and accessories at one’s local waste facility (see: Recycling Gives Lithium-Ion Batteries a ‘Second Chance’).

• Participating in a cleanup of a street, neighborhood, or local park—increasing one’s number of friends as a bonus in the process (see: Japan’s Kamikatsu: A Model of Zero-Waste Living).

• Saving water, an increasingly scarce commodity in many areas (see: When the Water Dries Up). 

These and other kinds of individual, community, and industrial actions around the world inspire hope for the future.

A few years ago, Cohen wrote in a Columbia University newsletter, called “State of the Planet,” that, for individuals to be incentivized to become creators of eco-beneficial change, their thought processes and values need to be respectfully addressed so they can decide on their own to take responsibility to shift their behavior.

“Individual change and collective system-level change are interconnected,” he wrote.

Moreover, he told The Earth & I, “People who have grown up on a warming, crowded, polluted planet know they must change the way we produce and consume.”

*Robert R. Selle is a freelance writer and editor based in Bowie, Maryland.

In November, the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization published its 2024 State of Food and Agriculture report on global “agrifood” or the entire food supply chain. The report highlights the hidden costs—environmental, social, and health—of these systems in 2023, based on the US dollar’s purchasing power parity in 2020. An estimated 1.23 billion people are employed in agrifood systems. 

1. The global hidden cost of agrifood was estimated to be almost $11.63 trillion, of which about $2.95 trillion (25% of total) were environmental.  

2. Of the of hidden environmental costs, about $1.45 trillion (49.2%) were from nitrogen (emissions and runoff), $1.26 trillion (42.7%) were from emissions of greenhouse gases, and almost $237 billion (8%) were from land-use change. The latter refers to any kind of human modification of land. 

3. Countries with the highest hidden costs from nitrogen were China ($306 billion), Brazil ($173 billion), and US ($26.4 billion). 

4. The three countries with the highest hidden costs from greenhouse gas emissions were China ($1.82 trillion), US ($1.44 trillion), and India ($1.33 trillion). 

5. Meanwhile, countries with the highest hidden costs from land-use change were Australia ($114 billion), US ($26.4 billion), and Indonesia ($24.8 billion).  

6. Some countries had hidden benefits from land-use change, e.g., return of forest or other land—with the top three being Kazakhstan ($6.07 billion), Argentina ($6.02 billion), and China ($3.63 billion). 

Sources: 

• FAO. 2024. The State of Food and Agriculture 2024 – Value-driven transformation of agrifood systems.  Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd2616en  

• https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/75774813-6846-48fc-810d-9e35fa3c8b68/content  

*By Gordon Cairns

Around the world, bread is a beloved staple of billions of people’s diets, with an estimated 100 million tons produced each year. Many millions of people prayerfully give thanks for their “daily bread” while others use it as a way of describing the money in their pockets.

Yet, an astonishing amount of bread is thrown away every year—around 1.2 million tons a year in the UK, according to a 2013 study. “Bread has been one of the highest food waste categories,” said a 2022 study in Molecules journal.

Efforts to reuse or recycle bread products are underway, but much of the moldy, inedible excess still ends up in landfills or is otherwise discarded.

Enter a Danish company called Eat Wasted, which is turning stale bread into pasta. Since 2022, the company founded by Leif Friedmann and Jorge Aguilar has reused 50,000 slices of stale bread (1400 kg or about 1.5 tons) to produce 100 kg (220 lbs.) of pasta every week. Demand by local restaurants and cafes in the Copenhagen area is so great that the company could sell more, but their small pasta factory is already at capacity.

Bread Demand and Waste

The idea of recycling bread into another food comes at a time when countries are struggling with food waste.

A report published in 2023 found for every five loaves of bread bought in the United Kingdom, one was thrown away unopened. A more recent report found British consumers put £620 million ($785 million) worth of uneaten bread into the garbage every year simply because it hadn’t been used in time. And UK shoppers are not alone in being so wasteful: In Sweden, a 2021 study calculated that bread waste made up the largest part of all of that country’s total food waste, with each person annually discarding 8 kg (17.6 lbs.) of their daily bread.

Discarded bread is part of a bigger picture. The United Nations Environment Programme reports that more than 1 billion tons of food was wasted in 2022, with more than half being generated by households (632 million tons). Incredibly, every year, each person throws away the average body weight of an adult human in food.

The UN agency believes food waste to be a failure of the market, with more than $1 trillion lost every year. It is also an environmental failure, generating an estimated 8% to 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions while filling up the equivalent of nearly 30% of the world’s agricultural land. And yet, as bread is thrown away, people go hungry.

[L]andfills remain the most common destination for bread waste—in the US, around 800 million bread loaves are thrown in the trash, according to a 2024 study.

Obviously, stale, moldy bread cannot be sent to anyone in need, but better management of bread products could lead to lower grain prices. Africa is reliant on wheat imports, as it spends up to $75 billion annually importing 100 million tons of cereals. Wheat, instead of being processed into bread products that are often wasted, could instead be transported to a part of the world where it would not be wasted.

Converting Bread Waste into Pasta

Others are looking at what to do with all of that uneaten bread. Some excess bread is converted into substances such as fuels, chemicals, and enzymes through fermentation. Some is converted to animal feed, as has been done for centuries, the Molecules study noted. Hundreds of thousands of pounds of bread also go to food banks and pantries, where it has a short shelf life. But landfills remain the most common destination for bread waste—in the US, around 800 million bread loaves are thrown in the trash, according to a 2024 study “Breaking bread: Assessment of household bread waste incidence and behavioural drivers” in the Journal of Cleaner Production.

Eat Wasted project manager Evalotta Spangenberg said that their business of recycling bread is not a new concept.

“This is an old technique used by Italian grandmas. Making something out of waste is not something our generation came up with,” said Spangenberg.

“This is an old technique used by Italian grandmas. Making something out of waste is not something our generation came up with.”

But what is new is that the company has upscaled from grandmother’s kitchen. Rather than using household crumbs, they gather old bread from an industrial bakery and freeze it. It is then converted into breadcrumbs and then flour before being used in the pasta recipe making up 25% of the whole ingredients.

It took a lot of experimenting to produce the perfect product, Spangenberg said, adding that some earlier versions were “horrible.” “We have now created a recipe where the taste and texture is very close to normal pasta. I think it has a great texture and a nice bite. People say it is super-close to normal pasta.”

Eat Wasted plans to expand its product beyond the wholesaler directly to Danish consumers and then deliver it around the world. “We would like to be a staple on the supermarket shelves to allow people to buy a more sustainable, mission-driven product. That’s the overall mission, but it will take a lot of small steps to achieve,” she said.

The Danish start-up further wants to use its products to bridge the gap between food waste and food-insecure people. Spangenberg explained how over the first two years of the company’s existence they have been feeding people pasta dinners.

“We started hosting weekly community dinners, which started with 10 people showing up, and it grew until we had a 100 every week. The community became like a little restaurant where people could exchange different ideas about ways of living in a more sustainable way,” she said.

The company has expanded by introducing their pasta to tables all over the world at special events and now wants to expand by creating a bread pasta factory in Italy to make casarecce pasta, a Sicilian pasta with short, edged noodles. She added: “Our core vision is donating food to the local community and to the people who are food insecure a proportion of everything we sell.”

However, people don’t need to buy Eat Wasted’s pasta to cut down on bread waste—they can actually make it in their own kitchen without too much difficulty. A recipe from the Nolla restaurant in Helsinki, mixes 100 grams of stale sourdough bread with the same amount of pasta flour and two eggs, making enough pasta for two. 

[T]here are plenty of other alternative dishes made from out-of-date bread that have been part of classic cuisine from countries across the world [including] … gazpacho, … croutons to have with onion soup, … [and] bread pudding dessert.

And there are plenty of other alternative dishes made from out-of-date bread that have been part of classic cuisine from countries across the world. Spanish cold soup gazpacho uses stale white bread to thicken a mixture of tomatoes, cucumber, olive oil, and peppers. The French turn their old baguettes into croutons to have with onion soup, while in England, bread pudding dessert is made from slices of day-old bread.

Buying Less Equals Less Bread Waste

The simplest method for not wasting bread is not to let it become stale in the first place, which apart from reducing food waste will also save money. Surely, many people come home from the bakery with fresh bread only to find there is still half a loaf sitting in the kitchen; yet checking what food is in the cupboard before grocery shopping shouldn’t take long.

When leaving a loaf of bread at home, store it in paper rather than plastic, as this will delay the development of mold. Unsurprisingly, storing bread in a bread bin will also keep it fresh for longer, but perhaps less obvious is the importance of where it is kept. While putting the bin within easy reach on top of the fridge can be handy, this will cause the bread to dry out due to the heat from the appliance. Instead, keep it in a cool dark corner.

When bread does go stale though, there are many recipes to choose from to transform that bread into something delicious. Choose a recipe and try it at home!

*Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.