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New Ways to Reduce Embodied Carbon in Construction By Dhanada K Mishra* Global efforts to reduce carbon emissions are well underway but need more impetus. Stepping up efforts to reduce the “embodied” carbon and energy maintenance costs in buildings and other construction activities offers renewed hope that the world can meet international net zero goals. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, or IPCC, recently released its AR6 Synthesis Report, which combines data from previous years’ reports on different aspects of climate change. The report’s overarching conclusion is that “human activities have unequivocally caused global warming of 1.1°C due to unsustainable energy use, land use, lifestyles, and consumption.” And now even the net zero emission target to keep net temperature increase to below 2°C by 2050 looks more difficult than ever to reach, according to the GHG emissions future trends assessment in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report. Thus, there is a race to control greenhouse gas emissions as fast as possible to try and avoid the worst effects of a climate catastrophe yet to come. Total emissions for 2021 stood at almost 55 billion tons of CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalents), and atmospheric CO2 concentrations are higher than at any time in at least two million years. In 2020, buildings were responsible for almost 40% of global energy-related carbon emissions, comprised of around 28% from operational emissions (such as the energy needed to heat, cool, and power them), and the remaining 11% from materials and construction known as embodied carbon (Fig. 1). Embodied and Operational Carbon in Buildings Embodied carbon refers to the greenhouse gas emissions arising from the manufacturing, transportation, installation, maintenance, and disposal of building materials. Operational carbon refers to greenhouse gas emissions due to building energy consumption such as lighting, heating/cooling, and other operations. The embodied carbon can account for as much as half a building's lifetime environmental impact. Every building comes with a large amount of embodied carbon. Raw materials, such as steel, concrete, aluminum, and insulation, are some of the major contributors to these emissions. Unlike the operational emissions, most embodied carbon is incurred upfront at the construction stage. With housing requirements projected to double by 2060, thanks to increasing urbanization and population growth, there is a renewed call to find solutions to reduce embodied carbon. Operational carbon is easy to measure from the energy consumed in buildings and forms part of the scope I and II GHG emissions. (Scope I emissions are from energy consumed that is generated in-situ, and scope II emissions are from energy consumed from external sources, for example power plants). In contrast, embodied carbon is both difficult to estimate and falls under scope III emissions (generated by sources that are not under the direct influence of the property owner). Therefore, the focus has been on reducing operational carbon emissions to meet the net zero targets. However, with housing requirements projected to double by 2060, thanks to increasing urbanization and population growth, there is a renewed call to find solutions to reduce embodied carbon. Construction Methods and Carbon Footprint Various construction methods have different carbon footprints. For example, timber (especially recycled or sourced from sustainably grown forests) has a lower carbon footprint than concrete or steel construction. The production processes of concrete and steel involve significant amounts of carbon emissions from the chemical reactions and high temperatures. While emissions per unit weight of concrete is much less than steel, the sheer quantity used (next only to water) makes it a source of significant emissions. On the other hand, some timber construction methods may result in clearing forests and harming ecosystems, which can increase the overall carbon footprint. Additionally, using recycled and low-carbon materials—such as recycled aggregates in concrete, fly ash (coal combustion residue from power plants), and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) as cement replacement—and reducing construction waste can help lower the carbon footprint. It's essential to evaluate the entire lifecycle of a construction method to understand its carbon footprint fully. It's essential to evaluate the entire lifecycle of a construction method to understand its carbon footprint fully. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) software tools, combined with large materials property databases that provide reliable embodied carbon figures, are now increasingly more sophisticated and readily available. Thus, it is easier now to calculate the embodied carbon of a building up front so that steps can be taken to minimize it. Reduction In Embodied Carbon There are several ways to reduce embodied carbon emissions in construction. Besides the ever-relevant principle of the 3Rs—Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse—innovative technologies to help reduce embodied carbon emissions are emerging. Some prominent examples are LC3 cement, which is made from calcined clay and lime; green hydrogen-based steel; 3D printing of buildings using sustainable materials; and incorporating carbon-capture technologies into concrete production. Examples of Low-Carbon Footprint Construction Several companies are pioneering low-carbon footprint construction and green building materials, and even deploying drones and AI to make inspection safe, efficient, and low cost, leading to better repair and maintenance. Here are a few examples: Cement—JK Laxmi Cement, based in India, plans to achieve its net zero emissions target by 2047 using LC3 cement and other technologies. LC3 cement reduces the clinker factor in cement by 50% and the carbon footprint by 40%. Clinker is a nodular material, the main ingredient in the production of cement, and produced by heating a mixture of primarily limestone (calcium carbonate) and clay (silica, alumina, and iron oxide), at very high temperatures, typically around 2642°F (1450°C). This process decomposes limestone into lime (calcium oxide) and forms various mineral compounds such as silicates, aluminates, and ferrites that give cement its binding properties. The production of clinker is very energy- intensive and a significant source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. CarbonCure Technologies is a leader in low-carbon concrete production. This company uses technology to inject carbon dioxide captured from various industrial sources, such as a thermal power plant's chimney, into concrete to reduce its carbon footprint. Green Steel—Many manufacturers worldwide are rushing to green hydrogen-based direct reduction of iron ore, followed by electric arc furnace steelmaking. Steel manufacturer Ovako has built a hydrogen facility at one of its steel mills in Sweden to produce low-carbon green steel. Cross Laminated Timber (CLT)—is a low-carbon building material that is gaining popularity in construction. Several companies are pioneering the production of CLT, including Structurlam, SmartLam, and Katerra. AI Inspection—Increasing the service life of built infrastructure by safe, efficient, and inexpensive automated inspection, leading to better maintenance and longer service life, is also an important strategy to bring down the whole-life embodied carbon footprint. Companies like RaSpect AI provide AI-powered drone inspection of infrastructure to provide such solutions. Green Bricks—Bricks are an important construction product. Alternative bricks and blocks, such as pressed clay blocks, fly ash bricks, aerated concrete blocks, and those made from biomaterials like sugarcrete and hempcrete (see: “Building with Hemp Raises Climate Awareness” (theearthandi.org), could play an important role in reducing the carbon footprint of construction. Bricks and blocks made from renewable plant-based sources have a lower carbon footprint than traditional building materials like concrete and steel. Beware the ‘Cobra Effect’ There is a lesson about unwanted policy consequences that may apply to construction reforms. In late 19th century British India, there was once a cobra problem—in the capital city of Delhi, for instance, many people died from cobra bites. The government responded with a scheme to reward any citizen who brought in a dead cobra. Naturally, people went after the killer snakes, and many were brought in dead. It appeared the problem had been solved, as the number of snakebite deaths fell, but then something unexpected happened. As people ran out of snakes in the wild to catch and kill, they started breeding and killing snakes for rewards. Realizing this, the government stopped the rewards, and of course, people had no option but to let all the snakes loose! The “Cobra Effect,” or “perverse incentive” theory, is a perfect example of a well-meaning policy yielding unintended consequences. Today’s policies pushing for efficiency and renewable energy have yielded good results in terms of new technology. But they have also helped increase consumption, creating more emissions rather than reducing them. It's time to re-examine the carbon challenge afresh. For instance, instead of Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse, podcaster Seth Scott recommends adoption of Replace, Remove, and Recover as core principles. Also, measuring efficiency isn’t enough to reach net zero emission goals. A far better approach is to replace the culprit, which is fossil fuel, and replace it with zero carbon alternatives. *Dhanada K Mishra is a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Michigan and is currently based in Hong Kong. He writes on issues around the environment, sustainability, climate crisis, and built infrastructure.

So-called “disrupters”—political movements, technological developments, and so on—will, by definition, inconvenience or hurt some people, even as they help others. What about cryptocurrencies, lionized by some for their socioeconomic benefits and criticized by others for their associated energy costs via computers and electricity? Here are some of the numbers. The University of Cambridge Bitcoin Energy Consumption Index (CBECI), which regularly updates Bitcoin and Ethereum energy consumption demands, estimates annual energy consumption at 143.6 TWh for Bitcoin and 6.7 GWh for Ethereum. The energy consumption of a single Bitcoin transaction (703.25 kWh) is vastly greater than that of 100,000 VISA credit card transactions (148.63 kWh), Statistica says. In a September 23, 2022, article, EarthJustice stated that “the cryptocurrency mining industry already uses half the electricity of the entire global banking sector.” In a joint study with the Sierra Club, EarthJustice estimated that 38% of Bitcoin is mined in the US. The study also estimated that “in the year prior to July 2022, Bitcoin consumed around 36 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity,” equaling all the electricity consumed in that period by Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island together. Admitting the limitations of relying on “top-down” estimates of the electricity consumption of cryptocurrency mining in the US, EarthJustice says that their results “imply that the industry was responsible for an excess 27.4 million tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) between mid-2021 and 2022—or three times as much as emitted by the largest coal plant in the U.S. in 2021.” Dell reports that annual Bitcoin mining energy consumption is “equivalent to 0.4%–0.9% of global consumption, according to estimates in a report released by the Biden Administration. Such a range exceeds the global share of countries like Argentina and Australia. Despite efforts by the crypto industry to cut energy consumption, Dell sees these numbers posing a threat to international pledges to get to zero emissions by 2050. Sources: https://ccaf.io/cbnsi/cbeci https://www.statista.com/statistics/881541/bitcoin-energy-consumption-transaction-comparison-visa/ https://www.dell.com/en-us/perspectives/can-cryptocurrency-overcome-its-huge-energy-demands/

By Mark Smith* From electric vehicles and wearable technology to artificial intelligence and smart cities—the modern world is becoming increasingly complex. But what underpins it all are a handful of materials—called rare earth elements (REEs)—that are taken from the Earth. Without them, the trappings of modern life could never exist. The challenge is to collect these materials in a way that is reliable and doesn’t harm people or the environment. Mining carries its own inherent problems, so the idea of recycling REEs is being seriously (re)considered. Modern Technology Relies on REEs Rare earth elements refer to a set of seventeen metallic elements; these include fifteen consecutive elements in the periodic table from lanthanum to lutetium, plus scandium and yttrium. These metals form critical components of modern items ranging from computer hard drives and smartphones to catalytic converters in cars and the fiber-optic cables that make the Internet itself function. They’re also vital in the move towards green technology, as they provide key components in high-powered magnets and rechargeable batteries that electric vehicles and other renewable technology rely on. With REEs in widespread use since the 1950s, the REE market size has reached around $9.5 billion in 2022. It is projected to more than double, to $20.9 billion, by 2028. The REE industry, however, faces two quandaries—geopolitics and the negative impact of REE excavation on the environment. To deal with these dilemmas, a new generation of recycling methods—including one that has been used to make decaffeinated coffee—is being developed to provide more ways to harness the power of these metals. “The desire, and in fact need, to recycle the rare earths is probably greater than ever for a variety of reasons,” said Prof. Simon Jowitt, associate professor at the Economic Geology Department of Geoscience at the University of Nevada. “We've seen some progress in this area, but the fact is that we mine more rare earth elements than ever before, and they are crucial for the development of low and zero CO2 energy generation.” Challenges to Extracting Rare Elements Despite the use of “rare” in their name, REEs are actually quite plentiful in terms of their abundance in nature. Unfortunately, they are “rarely,” if ever, found in sufficient amounts in any one place. Extracting them is labor intensive and can have a negative impact on both the environment and human health. For instance, the REE mining process can require toxic chemicals and create waste gas, wastewater, dust—and even radioactive residue—that can contaminate groundwater, land, and waterways. Exposure has also been associated with illnesses such as endomyocardial fibrosis and anemia. The [REE] mining process can require toxic chemicals, and create waste gas, wastewater, dust—and even radioactive residue—that can contaminate groundwater, land, and waterways. Geopolitical Concerns Another pressing concern for Western governments and industry alike is China’s oversized role in REE production and the impact of global tensions. Although China has only about one-third of the world’s rare earth reserves, it has the bulk of the world’s REE mining operations. China now accounts for “60% of global rare earth mined production, 85% of rare earth processing capacity, and over 90% of high-strength rare earth permanent magnets manufactured,” wrote a professor at De LaSalle University in Manila, Philippines. By contrast, the US only has one REE mine, The Mountain Pass Rare Earth Mine and Processing Facility, in California, near the Nevada border. Recently, REEs were discovered in Brook Mine in Wyoming. The Biden administration has stated that mining domestic sources of rare earth elements is a matter of national security in terms of securing supply chains. “China does have significant control on rare earth element mining—although this is decreasing with mining now occurring in the US and Australia,” Prof. Jowitt told The Earth & I. “The Chinese government tried to restrict exports of the rare earth elements around 2009/2010, but this was ruled unlawful by the [World Trade Organization], and their export restrictions were removed, but only after a spike in rare earth element prices.” With a limited number of new mining operations in the West and the associated negative impacts of mining on the environment and on human health, the idea of recycling the REEs that people already have would seem to make sense. But doing so is far from simple or straightforward. Emerging REE Recycling Industry REEs are often blended with other metals for use in electronic components, so separating them from the unneeded elements—and in big enough quantities—is where the bulk of the recycling challenge lies. Some recycling processes require the use of hazardous chemicals, such as hydrochloric acid, which somewhat defeats the purpose of avoiding negative impacts of REE mining. And recycling REEs is not always cost effective, since only small amounts of REEs are reclaimed at the end of the process. But the demand for recycled REE is substantial. A study commissioned by Eurometaux predicts that between 45% (nickel) and 75% (lithium) of Europe’s clean-energy metal needs could be met through secondary supply (including recycling) by 2050. The REE metals recycling market itself also has a projected worth of $422 million by 2026. Between 45% (nickel) and 75% (lithium) of Europe’s clean-energy metal needs could be met through secondary supply (including recycling) by 2050. To help fulfill this demand while also avoiding negative environmental impacts, new methods of recycling are being tested and deployed. Lessons Learned from Decaf Coffee, Fungi, and Magnets One such method is to employ microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and algae, to absorb rare earths into their cells and cause them to ferment. Organisms such as Gluconobacter bacteria naturally produce gluconic acid that can pull rare earths in a fluid catalytic cracking catalyst. Such organic acids are less environmentally harmful than hydrochloric acid or other traditional metal-leaching acids. This type of technology is being developed by REEgain, a Czech-Austrian platform funded by the European Union. Another strategy uses copper salts to pull the rare earths from discarded magnets, a method developed by a team led by Ikenna Nlebedim, a materials scientist at Ames National Laboratory in Iowa and the Department of Energy’s Critical Materials Institute (CMI). In one projection, “recovering the neodymium in magnets from U.S. hard disk drives alone could meet about 5% of the world’s demand outside of China.” CMI researchers also developed a way to extract REE from the high-powered magnets in electronic waste. Due to the sensitivities about content stored on hard drives, they are usually shredded before being dumped. The new method takes the shredded mix and puts it in solution which targets just the magnet and leaves the rest of the components of the mixture undissolved. Other researchers are pondering ways to extract REEs in a similar manner to how caffeine is extracted from beans to make decaf coffee. That is what a team at the McKelvey School of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis is working on. They developed a process using supercritical CO2 that has been used in industry to extract caffeine from coffee beans since the 1970s. They used it to recover REEs from coal fly ash, a fine, powdery waste product from the combustion of coal. Project leader Young-Shin Jun, professor of energy, environmental and chemical engineering, said: “Supercritical fluid is considered as a greener solvent, is less invasive to the environment and allows us to extract REE directly from solid waste without leaching and roasting raw materials, so less energy is required for our new process, which also produces less waste.” Meanwhile, in Texas, Noveon Magnetics, which uses its proprietary technology to recycle REE magnets, is rolling out solutions at the commercial level. The firm takes magnets that have reached the end of their useful life in tech, such as electric motors and MRI scanners, and recycles them. It claims eleven tons of CO2 emissions are saved for every ton of magnets it produces. CEO Scott Dunn told The Earth & I: “We use a material agnostic, dry powder metallurgical process that harvests bulk scrap or pure materials, converts those materials to a fine powder, presses the powder, bakes the material in a vacuum furnace, and then creates newly engineered rare earth magnets with higher magnetic flux, increased resistivity, and superior thermal stability.” An Industry in its Infancy Prof. Jowitt said that while there are interesting developments in recycling rare earth elements from waste material like mining waste or coal ash, there are significant issues to overcome. “The Mountain Pass rare earth element deposit in California mines rare earth element ore at a grade of 8%—in other words, 8% of the ore mined is rare earth elements. “The coal ash that some say could be a source of rare earth elements contains about 500 parts per million, or 0.05% rare earth elements, mainly lanthanum and cerium, the ones that we don't want. “In other words,” he said, “you'd have to move 160 tons of coal ash to get the same amount of rare earth elements as a ton of ore mined at Mountain Pass. This has all sorts of logistical, transport, and emissions issues, so we need to think about how viable these alternative solutions really are.” As with other nascent industries, there are challenges tied to workforce development and equipment fabrication, said Mr. Dunn of Noveon Magnetics. “As a result, we’ve had to design and build a lot of our own machinery to create our own degree of supply chain resilience against the centralized forces.” *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

A new survey on environmental, social, governance (ESG) finds that many US businesses are not ready to meet US Securities and Exchange Commission’s (SEC) proposed requirements for disclosing data and risks on ESG-related issues. Services and accountancy firm PwC recently published the results from the survey it did with Workiva in a report, “Change in the Climate: How US Business Leaders Are Preparing for the SEC’s Climate Disclosure Rule.” The PwC/Workiva survey queried 300 executives at US-based public companies with at least $500 million in annual revenue. They found that 39% of business leaders considered their companies “not fully prepared” to meet the SEC’s disclosure requirements. Some 85% of the leaders said they do not have “the right technology in place” to execute the requirements. Some 36% of them expressed concern that their company was “staffed appropriately” to do so. According to 61% of the executives, compliance costs in the first year would likely exceed $750,000. Since the SEC rule was proposed, 95% of the executives are “prioritizing ESG reporting more.” According to PwC, “seven-in-ten” business executives consider it “reasonable” to have at least two years—after the SEC rule goes into effect—to make their first required filing. Source: https://www.pwc.com/us/en/services/esg/library/sec-climate-disclosure-survey.html

Reversing Desertification in the Ever-Expanding Gobi Region By Yasmin Prabhudas* Every year, almost 1,400 square miles of the Chinese steppes turn into barren soil and enlarge the already-inhospitable Gobi Desert. This relentless “desertification” has consequences: the loss of productive soil makes farming difficult if not impossible, and the water shortages can lead to the endangerment and even extinction of species. What’s more, the massive sandstorms that arise from the vast Gobi Desert affect populations as far away as China’s coastal cities and in Japan and Korea. The Gobi Desert is the largest in Asia, covering more than 500,000 square miles across China and Mongolia. The name “Gobi” means “very large and dry” in Mongolian, and its hard-packed surfaces made it suitable as a trade route. Its rocky and varied terrain covers steppes, deserts and semi-deserts. Its largest sand dune ranges are more than seven miles wide, 112 miles long and 262 feet high. Temperatures are extreme—they can reach above 104 degrees Fahrenheit in summer and fall below -40 degrees Fahrenheit in winter. It has rainfall of between two inches and eight inches every year, which is very low. Only about 58,000 people live there. Desertification and Its Causes Desertification occurs when fertile soil is degraded by extreme weather and human activity and turns into desert. In Mongolia, more than 70% of the country’s landmass has become degraded. “The sand transformation of China’s territory is furthered by decades of deforestation,” Marijn Nieuwenhuis, assistant professor at Durham University, said in an article called “The Geopolitics of Desertification in China,” published in 2016 by the University of Nottingham’s Asia Research Institute. He cited Greenpeace, which today claims only 3.34% of China’s original forests exist. It isn’t just deforestation that is to blame—activities like allowing animals to overgraze and building infrastructure for mining also damage the land. But it isn’t just deforestation that is to blame—activities like allowing animals to overgraze and building infrastructure for mining also damage the land. The situation is only likely to get worse with climate change, as more of the region becomes affected by low levels of rainfall. Davaasuren Davaadorj, senior lecturer at the Department of Geography at the University of Mongolia, outlines the causes locally: “The Mongolian Gobi region is covered with barren land with shrubs and gravel covered soils. The dominant land degradation source is mining, … coal transporting, and climate change … with regional impacts. Some saline lakes are shrinking [because of] water support, … precipitation, and evaporation issues.” Effects of Desertification in the Gobi Desert Region The effects of desertification are devastating, leading to unproductive soil, causing income loss for those who live there and potential displacement. Its water shortages also impact biodiversity in plants and animals. As the desert expands, dust and sandstorms become more intense, affecting those in China and Mongolia and others further afield—for example, in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. The storms can have a negative impact on the health of animals and humans and are linked to cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses and even mortality. As the desert expands, dust and sandstorms become more intense, affecting those in China and Mongolia and those further afield—for example, in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. In their paper, “Desert Dust and Health: A Central Asian Review and Steppe Case Study,” Troy Sternberg and Mona Edward from the School of Geography at the University of Oxford, UK, found that the Gobi Desert in Mongolia was among the main sources of dust storms in Central Asia, with mining in the area having the potential to contribute to the problem. Ibrahim Thiaw, executive secretary of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, commented in Sand and Dust Storms Compendium: “SDS [Sand and dust storms] are natural phenomena with multiple impacts on both the environment and people. […] Although some SDS impacts can be positive, unfortunately many are negative and highly damaging. They include impacts on health, transportation, agriculture, air and water quality, and industrial production and other sectors. Such impacts disrupt daily life in the affected areas, disregarding political or geographic boundaries and affecting men and women, young and old alike.” The primary solution for desertification is forest restoration and “green wall” programs. One Billion Trees Program Previous initiatives—such as the Mongolian Green Wall Plan, launched in 2005 and aiming to establish a green belt forest of 3,000 km (1,864 miles)—were unsuccessful because of poor planning and management and a lack of funding. According to Mongolian government officials, a million saplings were planted in 2005, but, few, if any, young trees survived. It is expected that over 105,000 trees will be planted over thirty-seven hectares, creating 20,000 square meters (4.9 acres) of green space. In October 2021, Mongolia President Ukhnaagiin Khurelsukh initiated a One Billion Trees program, which is expected to counteract desertification and land degradation. Thirty-four projects out of about 200 linked to the program are receiving funding totaling 1.3 billion Mongolian Tugrik (about $370,000) in 2023. It is expected that over 105,000 trees will be planted over thirty-seven hectares, creating 20,000 square meters (4.9 acres) of green space. Grassland Management Initiatives to balance animal husbandry and a healthy ecology are also being established through “ecology-based overgrazing restoration technology,” as Davaadorj puts it. This means improving land management by regulating pasture use, reducing the number of livestock, developing small-scale reservoirs, assessing land degradation, and introducing drought-resistant crops. China’s Great Green Wall China’s Great Green Wall program started as early as 1978 and is expected to continue until 2050. It involves planting trees along the northern border of China to halt the desert’s expansion and provide a windbreaker against the sandstorms. Seeds are sown by spraying them by plane, helicopter or drone, and farmers are paid to plant trees and shrubs in arid areas. Sand-resistant vegetation and gravel aim to hold down sand. Since 1990, China had increased its forest cover from 16.74% to 22.5% by 2015. But some have criticized China’s approach. For example, the World Bank advised the Chinese government to prioritize the quality of its stock after storms in 2008 destroyed 10% of the forest. And Hong Jiang, associate professor at the Department of Geography and Environment at the University of Hawaii, expressed concerns about unintended groundwater loss in her paper, “Taking Down the ‘Great Green Wall’: The Science and Policy Discourse of Desertification and Its Control in China.” Other Programs Other initiatives have included the Beijing-Tianjin Sandstorm Source Control Project, which combines reforestation, grassland management, water and soil conservation as well as sand fixation. Recently, this reduced the number of sandstorms in Beijing from an average of thirteen a year to two or three a year. Recently, the Beijing-Tianjin Sandstorm Source Control Project reduced the number of sandstorms in Beijing from an average of thirteen a year to two or three a year. Meanwhile, a program to tackle desertification in the Liangzhou District in Gansu, China, part of which lies in the Gobi Desert, includes forestation initiatives, restoring and protecting land and preserving wildlife. New technologies are used, such as pre-treating seedling roots in mud and creating grids so sand can be fixed before planting. More than seventy square miles of desert have been reclaimed. Decisive Action is Needed In Global Land Outlook, Thiaw sums up: “It is no longer enough to prevent further damage to the land; it is necessary to act decisively to reverse and recover what we have lost. Restoration also prepares us for an uncertain future. Regenerating our land resources provides multiple benefits for people, climate, and nature in the form of improved food security and human health, meaningful green jobs, and drought resilience, just to name a few.” *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for non-profit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

A recent study published in Science shows that around half of Earth’s largest lakes are losing water. An international team of scientists looked at three decades of satellite observations to measure global lake water storage and attribute drivers of change. Climate change, human consumption, and sedimentation were listed as probable causes of lower lake water levels. The team used close to 250,000 lake-area snapshots captured by satellites between 1992-2020 to survey the area of 1,972 of Earth's biggest lakes. These 1,972 lakes represented about 96% of natural lake water storage. The researchers found that 53% of those lakes had lost water, with total losses equivalent to losing 17 Lake Meads, the largest reservoir in the US. One lake—the world’s largest inland water body, the Caspian Sea—accounted for 49% of the total decline in lake water storage. On the other hand, 24% of the largest lakes saw “significant” increases in water storage, mainly those near dam-construction hotbeds or underpopulated areas, such as the Inner Tibetan Plateau. The authors cited the example of Lake Sevan in Armenia that saw increases due to conservation measures. Despite these successes, the authors expressed concern that perhaps 2 billion people, or a quarter of humanity, lives around a shrinking lake basin. Source: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/05/230518172007.htm

Innovations for Food Preservation and Waste Prevention By Danielle Nierenberg, Founder of Food Tank* Every year, the world’s farmers and other food producers provide a prodigious amount of food for humanity—around 4 billion metric tons. But out of that bounty, a stunning one-third—or 1.3 billion metric tons—is estimated to be lost due to production-to-processing problems and wasteful discarding of consumable foods, says the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Thus, the safe preservation and reliable distribution of food are essential tasks to resolve world hunger and food insecurity. Focusing on what it takes to protect food from waste and loss, including greater investment in locally appropriate practices and improved storage policies, will help make sure that food gets to people who need it the most. The Dimensions of Food Waste In developing countries, 40% of harvests never reach people’s stomachs, says the FAO. In sub-Saharan Africa and other parts of the developing world, equal proportions of food are lost because of poor infrastructure, pests, and disease. Food loss and waste tend to be insidious—a little bit is lost in the field; a little bit is lost in storage; a little is lost in transport; and finally, a small percent is lost at home. In industrialized countries, the latter is the larger issue: In the United States, for instance, as much as one-half of consumable food is thrown away. This is because people buy too much, misjudge expiration and “sell by” dates, and deem too much produce to be “blemished;” and there is massive “plate waste,” in which people in homes, hospitals, schools, restaurants, and nursing facilities discard food that has been served to them. Food loss is a major reason 1 in 10 people in the world are malnourished, says the World Resources Institute. Food loss is a major reason 1 in 10 people in the world are malnourished, says the World Resources Institute. Inexpensive Techniques Prevent Food Loss and Waste The good news is that preventing food loss and waste can be simple and inexpensive. For instance, the World Vegetable Center has research centers across sub-Saharan Africa devoted to finding ways to breed vegetables for taste and resilience—and helping farmers figure out how to keep those crops from going to waste. According to estimates from the World Vegetable Center, more than half of fruits and vegetables, around half of roots and tubers, and almost a third of oilseeds and pulses in Africa are lost post-harvest. In Bamako, Mali, researchers at the local World Vegetable Center office are working with farmers to develop preservation techniques to make vegetables available year-round and transform them in the ways women want and need. Okra powder, for example, is commonly used in Mali for sauces. The World Vegetable Center is also working with women farmers to develop recipes to make greater use of vegetable products. As these powders and dried vegetables become more available year-round, they can combat micronutrient deficiencies while also providing an extra source of income. The same is true for preserving fruits like mangoes that have abundant but short growing seasons. As these powders and dried vegetables become more available year-round, they can combat micronutrient deficiencies while also providing an extra source of income. In Burkina Faso, for example, an entrepreneur named Christiane Coulibaly started a mango-drying business in 2008 with help from a project funded by the World Bank. As of February 2020, she had expanded her workforce to a dozen employees and nearly 500 seasonal workers, most of whom were women. Her business is also providing an incredible nutritional resource. Mangoes are often the only source of vitamin A in local communities. In fishing communities in The Gambia and other coastal areas, women are also drying fish, providing an inexpensive and important source of protein throughout the year. Storage Makes a Difference Carefully designed and executed storage systems that use locally sourced materials can help farmers protect their crops. These include solar dryers and zeer pots that use evaporation to cool foods, and “mud silos,” or storehouses made of mudbrick and wood, to reduce losses of grain and other foods. A new technology has been introduced by Apeel Sciences. The company has developed an invisible, edible skin, which is applied postharvest, that acts as a second peel to protect and preserve crops like apples and avocadoes. Grains and pulses are at high risk from a variety of storage hazards, such as rats and other vermin, fungi, and toxins. The organization One Acre Fund is helping farmers improve their storage techniques for maize crops by tracking what they are growing and how much is lost. The farmers can use simple tracking sheets—literally using pencil and paper—to see how much they grow and how much is saved from each season. The sheets let the farmers understand how to adjust their storage use so that they lose as little product, nutrition, and income as possible. Good Nature Agro, an organization that works in Chipata, Zambia, is creating a network of farmer-led extension workers who attend agronomy courses. In addition to learning about new growing practices, students study harvesting and storage techniques. This organization is also helping farmers use hermetic storage products, like Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags, which were developed several decades ago in Cameroon by Purdue University researchers and partners. PICS bags are a simple and cost-effective way of storing grain and seed without using chemicals to control insects. A typical bag holds about 50 kilograms (110 pounds) and has three layers—two liners fitted inside a woven sack. The bags allow farmers to store a variety of legume and cereal crops for more than a year after harvest. That enables farmers to preserve their crop for household consumption or wait for higher market prices. Infrastructure to Prevent Loss and Waste Infrastructure is a vital part of the solution for food loss and waste. Infrastructure means secure, reliable, and well-maintained roads and bridges as well as rail and port systems. Transportation routes are critically needed in rural, sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia to link fields to markets. Food that rots in transit does not get sold or eaten. Poor market systems also lead to large food losses in developing countries. There are not many wholesale, supermarket, and retail facilities that can provide adequate storage for food when it is ready for market. In addition, markets in developing countries are often lacking sanitary conditions or cooling equipment. Poor market systems also lead to large food losses in developing countries. There are not many wholesale, supermarket, and retail facilities that can provide adequate storage. Investment in alternative forms of refrigeration is part of the solution. It may not be realistic to expect developing countries to have refrigeration systems like those in wealthy countries, but developing countries may have the opportunity to leapfrog and develop more energy-efficient systems. For example, investment in solar-powered refrigeration systems and evaporative cooling systems should reduce food loss due to rotting. Having insulated on-farm buildings to keep crops cool before shipment can also help maintain the quality of crops. There is growing global interest and investment in climate-friendly cooling and cold chain systems. Food Waste in Wealthy Nations Food waste and loss are not just issues for developing countries. In the Global North and other industrialized nations, food waste occurs for a variety of reasons—cosmetic standards; confusing “sell by,” “use by,” and expiration dates; oversized portions; consumer expectations; perceptions of abundance by retailers and restaurants; and perhaps most important, the low value placed on food because it tends to be inexpensive and plentiful. Food waste happens in the Global North for a variety of reasons—cosmetic standards, confusing sell by, use by, and expiration dates, oversized portions, [and] consumer expectations… In the US, the Food Recovery Network (FRN) recovers food from events on and off college campuses. The student-led organization has recovered and donated millions of pounds of food that otherwise would have gone to waste, corresponding to more than 3.2 million meals that have gone to those in need. Their work has diverted food waste from landfills, thus preventing more than 6.8 million pounds of carbon dioxide from reaching the atmosphere. Tapping the Power of New Technologies Fortunately, new technologies are enabling many companies to make tremendous strides in preventing food waste. For example, Winnow Solutions is cutting food waste in hospitality and food services in more than forty countries by using the power of artificial intelligence. The system takes photographs of wasted food as it is thrown away, and using the images, the machine trains itself to recognize what has been thrown in the bin. This technology helps commercial chefs and kitchen staff track food waste and guides them on how to adjust their menus and food servings for efficiency. Winnow Solutions estimates that each year it has saved more than $32 million for food service, diverted more than 36 million meals from the bin, and saved about 61,000 tons of carbon dioxide emissions. Meanwhile, in Nigeria, software engineer Oscar Ekponimo has developed an app called Chowberry that connects bargain-hunting consumers to supermarket foods that would ordinarily end up in the trash. Retailers use the Chowberry app to scan the barcodes of food products. The app informs them when these products have reached their “best before” date and automatically offers the items for sale at a reduced price via the app and the accompanying website. As products near their latest possible selling date, their prices fall. As a result, consumers have access to affordable products, and retailers end up saving money because they throw away much less food. Ekponimo understands that low-income people may not have smartphones to use the app. So, his company also works with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to connect Chowberry to a larger group of people who purchase and distribute the lower-cost food as part of their own outreach projects. Better Policies, Less Waste Governments are also tackling food loss and waste. In 2018, for example, Australia became the first country to set a target to reduce the amount of food waste it generates by 50% by 2030. The financial cost of food waste to the Australian economy is currently estimated to be $20 billion per year. Australia became the first country to set a target to reduce the amount of food waste it generates by 50% by 2030. To achieve its food waste target, the Australian government decided to invest $1.2 million over two years to support food rescue organizations, including Second Bite, FareShare, OzHarvest, and Food Bank Australia. In 2016, France became the first country to prohibit supermarkets from throwing away unsold food, requiring them, instead, to donate it to charities and food banks. South Korea is also proving that government policies can make a huge difference. In Seoul alone, the volume of food waste has been reduced by 10% (more than 300 tons per day), compared to a few years ago. Also, in 2013, a policy was implemented in Seoul that required households to pay for recycling according to the amount of food they throw out. This policy has been adopted in sixteen other Korean cities. Conclusion Preventing food loss and food waste holds many benefits for nations, farmers, entrepreneurs, consumers, and other stakeholders. Moreover, young people are seeing they have a role in managing food systems so that waste, loss, and hunger all become minimal or nonexistent. According to UNICEF, more than 820 million people go to bed hungry every night, while 1.3 billion tons of food goes to waste every year. This is unacceptable. The time to act is now. *Danielle Nierenberg is President and co-founder of Food Tank: The Think Tank for Food, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. She has conducted fact-finding missions to more than 70 countries, meeting thousands of farmers, researchers, government leaders, academics and journalists, documenting what is working to help alleviate hunger and poverty while protecting the environment. Editorial Note: Author Title: “Key Issues in the Preservation and Distribution of Food,” Presentation by Danielle Nierenberg at the Twenty-Sixth International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences (ICUS XXVI), February 2020, Seoul, Korea.

In March 2023, the World Resources Institute (WRI) updated its list of top greenhouse gas (GHG) emitting nations. Here are some of the WRI’s findings: According to the WRI report, the top three emitter nations (China, the US, and India) contribute 42.6% of total global GHG emissions. The bottom 100 nations contribute only 2.9%. The energy sector contributed 76% of global GHG emissions in 2019. Though energy emissions have increased by 61.9% since 1990, their increase has slowed to 4.4% over the past five years. Industrial emissions, however—the third largest contributor by sector—have increased by 203% since 1990. Though they have increased their total emissions since 1990, the US, EU, Russia, and Japan have “peaked” their per capita emissions since then. Global carbon dioxide emission growth has slowed from 2013 to 2019 as the global economy grew during the same period, with twenty-one countries proving that decoupling emissions from economic growth is possible. Source: https://www.wri.org/insights/interactive-chart-shows-changes-worlds-top-10-emitters

Old Wisdom and New Technologies for the Next Wave By Gordon Cairns* Above the Pacific coastline in Iwate Prefecture in the northern Tohoku Region of Japan stands an ancient moss-covered stone, carved with a clear instruction to future generations. Like many others that dot the Japanese landscape in strategic, high places along the coastline, it cautions: “A home built high above waters provides ease to our children and grandchildren. Remember the calamity of the great tsunamis. Do not build any homes below this point.” This stark warning from the ancients was either forgotten or disregarded, as modern settlements were built below the high-water line of an earlier tsunami south of Sendai, with buildings stretching all the way down to the shore. Tragically, in 2011, when the Great Tōhoku Earthquake shook the land, the resulting tsunami devastated the area and killed more than 18,000 people. Is building in tsunami zones simply an example of modern hubris ignoring the lived experience of the forebears? Or is economic necessity the driver, coupled with Japan’s increased population density along its coastal areas? Expertise Gained from Decades of Fieldwork To tsunami expert, Dr. Emile Okal, preparing and planning for these gigantic, powerful waves cannot be discussed enough. For four decades, Dr. Okal saw many examples of widespread damage left by tsunamis. As a member of dozens of international survey teams investigating tsunami disaster zones, Dr. Okal helped collect eye-witness accounts, runup, and inundation data—the maximum heights waves reached on shore and the distances inland that the waters stretched. Using this data, Dr. Okal has been instrumental in advising communities how best to limit the destruction of tsunamis and save lives. In 1999, for example, relying on this data, the remote village primary school in Omoa on the Marquesas Islands in the Pacific Ocean was moved and rebuilt a kilometer (around 1,093 yards) inland after the original beachfront schoolhouse was destroyed. The reasons people in Japan risk settling below the tsunami stones—or people anywhere build in tsunami zones—are basically the same: The coastlines are alluring, and people have a tendency to forget previous disasters, says Dr. Okal, now professor emeritus at the Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois. “Japan is a heavily populated country where most of the areas that are easy to live and build on are close to the sea,” he explains. As the world’s population has grown, he adds, people need more space to live and will naturally migrate towards the shore. “Coastal communities have always been attractive places to live because of economic activity. It’s very difficult to tell a fisherman, ‘Go and live in the mountain at the back of the valley.’ Furthermore, most of the trade in global economic activity around the world goes by sea, and so you have to have boats and big harbors to accommodate these ships—obviously, you can’t just locate them inland.” It is the population spreading seawards—not increased frequency or strength of tsunamis—that has led to greater death and destruction. It is the population spreading seawards—not increased frequency or strength of tsunamis, which has remained the same for probably tens of thousands of years—that has led to greater death and destruction. “We are really confident when we say the Sumatra tsunami of 2004 was the largest such event in terms of fatalities in the history of mankind, because the population has increased so much,” Dr. Okal says, referring the December 26 tsunami that killed nearly 228,000 people in Indonesia and surrounding areas. The disaster’s extraordinarily massive waves, some reaching 167 feet high, were triggered by a nearby Indian Ocean earthquake that registered a 9.1 magnitude or higher. Education is Crucial The infrequency of tsunamis allows new generations of coastal dwellers to forget their sudden and overwhelming powers of destruction. According to Dr. Okal, people must personally and regularly hear about tsunamis to take the risk seriously. “This is why coastal fishing communities in many countries, such as Peru, have acquired a certain resilience because they learned these things happened and your grandfather had to run away.” But in places where ancestral education has disappeared, classroom instruction and other forms of instruction about tsunamis are crucial. “The best thing to do is to educate people,” Dr. Okal says. “A tsunami is something you have to live with—it will come back in the future.” And if people “lose awareness, they don’t evacuate.” Even the simplest forms of information can make a difference. In 2009, the Samoan islands, comprising American and independent Samoa, were hit with a nighttime “doublet” of earthquakes. The tsunamis they launched—with waves higher than 70 feet tall—annihilated villages and killed almost 200 people. Experts believe one of the reasons many islanders escaped the deadly waters was because of a basic form of advertising—roadside signs saying “Tsunami Zone: Caution.” Another reason was public education on both islands about evacuating instantly whenever earthquakes are felt. Japan’s highways also have similar warning signs, pointing the direction people should drive towards safety. Leaflets distributed to the population say “Keep moving to the highest ground possible,” and every Japanese schoolchild knows a red-and-white checkered flag on the beach means evacuate immediately in the event of a tsunami. The first day of September is known in Japan as Disaster Prevention Day. This public holiday—in which the public practices emergency evacuation drills—coincides with the anniversary of the Great Kantō earthquake a century ago. Despite these best measures, when the Great Tōhoku Earthquake and tsunami struck Japan in the afternoon of March 11, 2011, 18,000 people lost their lives. The tragedy could have been worse—social scientists estimated 200,000 people were living or working in the area where the tsunami inundated the shore. To Dr. Okal, the public response to this natural disaster showed the benefits of regular training about evacuation. People survived “because they had these drills, because everywhere you go in Japan you have these little symbols that tell you to run away in that direction, and they knew exactly what to do,” he says. Tsunami Defense Innovations There are, of course, efforts to find more reliable ways to save lives than evacuating to higher ground. Sea walls have long been a traditional coastal defense, but they are useless against waves of water travelling up to thirty miles an hour. Sea walls have long been a traditional coastal defense, but they are useless against waves of water travelling up to thirty miles an hour. One idea has been to replace sea walls with waterfront parks featuring rolling hills that dramatically reduce the amount of kinetic energy from the water. These “tsunami mitigation parks” are currently being developed in Chile, Indonesia, and Japan. So far, none have been tested by a real-life emergency. Buildings in tsunami zones are now being constructed to survive the onslaughts of water. Some buildings resemble traditional housing built on stanchions above the water. “It turns out a bridge is better than a dam at resisting a tsunami. There has been a push in certain communities, including Hawaii, to build structures where the first floor is open, essentially built on pillars, and this has proved to be quite efficient,” says Dr. Okal. Another method has been to utilize fluid dynamics through examining a city map and discovering how many people are in each building. During an evacuation procedure, the evacuation modelers create pathways to maximize the flow of people safely from each area of the city to pre-existing shelters. Early Warnings and the Basics Earthquake and tsunami early warning systems are improving with time, and wave-detection devices on the ocean floor are opening a new avenue of research. “We have made great progress in detecting the early stages of generation and propagation of the tsunamis because we have made progress in monitoring the earthquakes responsible for a tsunami,” Dr. Okal says. However, closer to shore, he admits that the basic response remains the same: “If you feel the Earth shaking, that is a warning. If you are close to a beach, you evacuate without thinking, without waiting for any order from the authorities. You take your life in your own hands, and you run.” *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

By Nnamdi Anyadike* Man-made islands are being built “on a scale never seen before,” Dr. Alastair Bonnett, geography professor at Newcastle University, UK, wrote in his 2020 book, Elsewhere: A Journey into Our Age of Islands. In media interviews, like this one with the BBC, and in papers and books, Dr. Bonnett has explained why he thinks humankind has entered the “age of islands.” But no one can fully predict the impact of these islands on geopolitical issues, the environment, tourism revenue, or overcrowded urban areas. In fact, it is not always certain that artificial islands will be—or stay—usable. A Japanese airport built in 1994 on two man-made islands has sunk about 38 feet by 2018, and is continuing to slowly “subside,” according to Smithsonian Magazine. Island Projects Abound The lure of reclaiming land from water remains strong around the world. One of the largest ongoing projects is the island of Lynetteholmen, off the coast of the Danish capital Copenhagen, that will be home to 35,000 people. China is building artificial islands in the South China Sea to augment its military strength in the region and reinforce its claims to those portions of the sea. In South Korea, the Incheon International Airport was built with tidal land between Yeongjong Island and Yongyu Island. It opened in 2001 and was recently named fourth best airport in the world, according to SkyTrax and the 2022/2023 World Airport Survey. In the Middle East, the Palm Islands of Dubai were built to create more coastal real estate and attract tourists to the city. There are also the proposed 1,000-hectare Kau Yi Chau artificial islands off the coast of Hong Kong and the Penang artificial islands project off the coast of Malaysia. Struggles to Regulate Island Development The construction of artificial islands is covered under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982, article 47. This permits the construction of artificial islands by member nations in their own territories. However, there are restrictions particularly where these artificial islands impinge on maritime access and environmental considerations of neighboring countries. According to the Convention, the territorial sea of states is twelve nautical miles (Article 3). After this territory is the contiguous zone which is also up to twelve nautical miles (Article 33). In articles of the convention pertaining to the exclusive economic zone, it is a principle of international economic and environmental law that countries that construct artificial islands should not invade shipping lanes or otherwise unduly affect their neighbors. The difficulties of island-building can be seen in the Persian Gulf. Proponents of artificial islands in the Gulf suggest that the region can be changed into a haven of peace and economic activity through tourism and other economic activity. However, according to a 2018 study in the Ukrainian Journal of Ecology, the region is one whose environmental conditions are both “special” and fragile. [The Persian Gulf] island projects … would “destroy about 63 km­2 of the Persian Gulf ecosystem.” “Each 4 to 5 years, its water changes, and any changes in the form of the sea will have unpleasant impacts on all coastal states,” says the study’s authors, who list water turbidity, the suffocation of the local wildlife, a change in coastal sediments, and the transformation of sands into a swamp as potentially adverse outcomes. The study also estimates that should all the artificial island projects go forward, it would “totally destroy about 63 Km2 of the Persian Gulf ecosystem.” China’s Islands Projects Face Criticism Concerns have also been raised about the Kau Yi Chau project in Hong Kong, where the government has proposed to construct three artificial islands. Edwin Law Che-fen, executive director of The Green Earth, says in a letter, “Carbon emissions arising from reclamation and building public facilities, such as bridges to connect the 1,000-hectare Kau Yi Chau artificial islands, will be enormous compared to the baseline, which is zero.” He continues, “If the climate impact of this project were to be assessed, it would most likely be found to affect the city’s 2050 carbon neutrality goal, not to mention the impact of harsher weather on more than 7 million Hongkongers.” He added, “The EPD’s [Environmental Protection Department] refusal to incorporate climate impact assessments into the EIA ordinance implies that the artificial island development will work against carbon neutrality.” Elsewhere in the South China Sea, China is building “airstrips, ports, and other facilities on disputed islands and reefs,” which are destroying key coral reef ecosystems. They also heighten the risks of a fisheries collapse in the region. Satellite imagery shows that China has so far constructed seven artificial islands in the Spratlys, with three of them designed as military bases. Nearly six square miles of artificial islands have been built on disputed reefs in the sea, primarily in the greater Spratly Islands, according to a 2016 study by four researchers, including John McManus, professor of marine biology and fisheries at the University of Miami. The study indicates that the total damage from island building and dredging has already affected “more than 10 percent” of the islands’ total shallow reef area. [McManus’s] study indicates that the total damage from island building and dredging has already affected more than 10 percent of the islands’ total shallow reef area. Denmark Promotes Island as ‘Green’ Solution Meanwhile, Copenhagen’s €2.7 bn ($2.9 bn) “green” island Lynetteholmen project is also facing a backlash from environmentalists. The island is meant to protect the Danish capital from floods and provide housing. However, critics say there is no evidence Lynetteholmen will help achieve those kinds of goals. Ole Damsgaard, vice chair of the NGO Danmarks Naturfredningsforening (Danish Society for Nature Conservation), says the project’s impact on the environment and the climate wasn’t sufficiently assessed at the outset. This, he said, was because the project’s initial environmental impact assessment, which was required under EU law, only evaluated the impacts of the deposit of soil needed for construction, and not for the infrastructure projects relating to the island. Lynetteholmen risks reducing water flow into the Baltic Sea, harming the ecosystem’s biodiversity, he said. Construction of the foundation should be finished by 2035. However, even if things go according to plan, the whole project won’t be fully completed until 2070, according to some estimates. Malaysian Project Creates Controversy Meanwhile, in Penang, the Danish firm Bjarke Ingels Group is the lead masterplan designer for the Penang project, which plans construction of three artificial islands at the southern tip of Penang Island. Environmentalists, fishermen, nature lovers, and Penang’s prominent civil society groups are up in arms over the project, and in May, the Consumers Association of Penang urged the state government to rethink the reclamation, “even in a scaled-down form.” Dubai’s Ambitious ‘World’ Island Project Makes Progress Perhaps the most famous artificial archipelago is Dubai’s World Islands, built about 2.5 miles off the city’s coast. The project consists of seven sets of islands symbolizing the seven continents, Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe, North America, Oceania, and South America. The Anantara World Islands Resort opened in January 2022. The World Islands project was temporarily put on hold during a financial crisis, but a scaled-down version is now being constructed. The Kleindienst Group, which is developing luxury villas and hotels on the island, says that its project will be completed by 2026. The group is the largest European property developer operating in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Its $5 billion luxury “Heart of Europe” project on Dubai’s World Islands includes almost fifty floating “seahorse” villas as well as palaces with private beaches. “Everything that’s consumed [on the World] gets shipped in.” Criticism of the project flared up in 2018 when one of the floating villas sank into the sea, near the Burj Al Arab. Others question the sustainability of these islands. “Everything that’s consumed [on the World] gets shipped in,” Jim Krane, a fellow at Rice University’s Baker Institute, told the Financial Times. The World Islands project remain the most ambitious of the artificial island projects in the region. Dubai’s three other artificial islands—Palm Islands: Palm Jumeirah, Deira Island, and Palm Jebel Ali—are in various stages of completion. Palm Jumeirah, which began construction in 2001 and was completed in 2006, welcomed its first residents in 2007. This was followed by Palm Deira, which opened in January 2020. Palm Jebel Ali’s progress has been less straightforward. Construction stopped in 2009, only to be subsequently re-launched. In January 2023, it was reported to be in the final stages of construction with Dubai’s real estate giant, Nakheel, seeking contractors to complete the reclamation works. Marine scientists and others are keeping an eye on the effects of artificial islands on coral reefs. Satellite information, computer-modeling data, and previous studies of human impacts on coral reefs show that damage is being done to coral reefs in the Spratlys. Deep-water dredging is also lowering the existing seafloor, changing wave patterns, and inhibiting the growth of the red algae that are essential to reef calcification and sedimentation. Governments and project managers who back these developments will need to carefully consider whether the potential for environmental damage done by artificial islands outweighs their potential for economic benefits. *Nnamdi Anyadike is an industry journalist specializing in metals, oil, gas, and renewable energy for over thirty-five years.

How Traditional Oriental Medicine Treats Depression By Yuka Sakai and Sang Hyun Lee* The recent COVID-19 pandemic, with its shocking range of associated illnesses, frequent deaths, and extensive lockdowns on everyday life, led to a sharp increase in mental health concerns around the world. The World Health Organization cited a 25% spike in rates of worldwide anxiety and depression. What impact did Traditional Oriental Medicine—known for its practices of acupuncture, healthy diet, herbal therapy, meditation, physical exercise, and massage—have in alleviating these often-debilitating conditions? Yin and Yang Traditional Oriental Medicine is associated with and influenced by the ancient Taoist concept of Yin and Yang. The Yin Yang symbol is familiar to many, yet its profound meaning often remains elusive. Representing the concept of duality, Yin and Yang encompass the entirety of the universe. These contrasting yet interconnected energies are mutually dependent, just as day emerges as night recedes, and vice versa. Symbolically, white embodies Yang, while black embodies Yin. Intriguingly, within Yin, there resides a touch of Yang, and within Yang, a trace of Yin. This interplay signifies the potential for transformation, with Yin morphing into Yang and vice versa under specific conditions. In a harmonious state, Yin and Yang undergo constant, balanced changes. However, when imbalances arise, four distinct conditions manifest: Excess of Yin Excess of Yang Deficiency of Yin Deficiency of Yang Imbalances in these aspects can lead to the onset of disease. Restoring the Balance of Yin and Yang in the Body Traditional Oriental Medicine adopts the Yin Yang concept to restore equilibrium within individuals, promoting health and wellness. When Yin and Yang achieve harmony, the mind, body, emotions, and spirit adapt well to external circumstances. When Yin and Yang achieve harmony, the mind, body, emotions, and spirit adapt well to external circumstances. The human body's various components can be classified as Yin or Yang, reflecting their inherent qualities: Yang - Yin Hot - Cold Exterior - Interior Active - Stationary Function - Structure Immaterial (e.g., thought and emotion) – Material (e.g., physical) Qi (body’s vital energy) - Blood and Body Fluids Upper Body - Lower Body Back - Front The body encompasses five major Yin organs: lungs, spleen, heart, kidneys, and liver. Their corresponding Yang counterparts are the large intestine, stomach, small intestine, urinary bladder, and gallbladder, respectively. Qi (pronounced “chee”)—the body's vital energy—and blood flow throughout, nourishing and fortifying these organs. When the delicate balance of Yin and Yang is disrupted, various aspects of the body can be affected. Trained Traditional Oriental Medicine practitioners possess the knowledge to identify and restore this balance through the use of acupuncture and herbal medicine. Acupuncture and Depression Acupuncture involves the precise placement of single-use filiform needles on key locations called acupuncture points. Practitioners develop personalized point prescriptions targeting imbalanced organ meridian systems, using acupuncture to reinstate harmony within the body. Depression is a complex issue and should not be self-diagnosed or self-treated. Oftentimes, they will also utilize herbal medicine to enhance the treatment. A 2015 review examined the mechanisms of action in some of the commonly used herbs, such as ginseng, that practitioners typically use to help with depressive symptoms. However, as will be shown further in this article, depression is a complex issue and should not be self-diagnosed or self-treated. It is especially important when dealing with herbs to consult a licensed practitioner to properly prescribe an herbal medication. Approaches to Managing Depression In the realm of Traditional Oriental Medicine, mental and physical health hinges upon the quality, volume, and unimpeded movement of Qi and blood. Mental disorders, such as depression, can arise from disruptions in the spirit due to constrained Qi flow, suppressing the spirit of the different organs. However, depression can also result from deficiencies in Qi, blood, Yin, or Yang. Each Yin organ is associated with a representative spirit or mental aspect, which may be affected when imbalances occur: Heart - Shen: Responsible for mental activity, perception, conscious awareness, and the ability to experience emotions. Liver - Hun: Associated with creativity, intuition, the unconscious mind, and the ability to plan and persevere. Lungs - Po: Aids in developing a sense of self and establishing clear boundaries. Spleen - Yi: Responsible for concentration and the ability to focus on simple tasks. Kidneys - Zhi: Associated with memory, motivation, ambition, willpower, and stability during times of change or adversity. Depression can be categorized as an excess or deficient type under Traditional Oriental Medicine. The excess type is often attributed to stagnant Qi caused by factors like improper diet, unprocessed anger, lack of movement, or exercise. On the other hand, the deficient type arises from insufficient Qi, blood, Yin, or Yang due to overwork, exhaustion, inadequate sleep, or inherent weakness in one or more organs. To effectively address depression, practitioners focus on identifying the root cause. In a study involving 755 depression patients, there was a significant reduction in the severity of depression when both acupuncture and counseling were utilized.> For Qi-constrained depression, the treatment principle involves promoting Qi movement through exercise and resolving emotional trauma. For deficiency-type depression, the treatment aims to address the specific weaknesses presented by the individual, as treatment strategies are tailored to each person's unique needs. In a study involving 755 depression patients, there was a significant reduction in the severity of depression when both acupuncture and counseling were utilized. As such, in all cases of depression, combining Traditional Oriental Medicine with therapy allows patients to address unresolved emotional issues and better supports the overall treatment. It is worth noting that depression may present alongside other symptoms such as fatigue, menstrual disorders, sleep problems, breathing difficulties, or weakness. These signs are particularly characteristic of deficiencies in Qi, blood, Yin, or Yang. Pain is typically associated with Qi constraint but may also manifest in deficiency conditions. Recent Developments In recent times, the COVID-19 pandemic has amplified the number of patients seeking assistance for mental health. While anxiety-related cases have predominated in the authors’ patients, fellow practitioners have reported an increase in depression cases in the same clinic. Regardless of the specific condition or the situation, the treatment principle remains consistent: identifying the root cause and tailoring the treatment accordingly. Many of the authors’ patients have faced challenges in accessing timely primary care, with wait times extending to weeks, and in some cases, months. According to the 2022 Survey of Physician Appointment Wait Times and Medicare and Medicaid Acceptance Rates, the average wait time to see a physician in 2022 was twenty-six days across five specialties in fifteen US cities. Encouragingly, a bibliometric analysis conducted in 2021 reveals a growing interest in acupuncture as a treatment for depression, as evidenced by an increasing number of publications from 2011 to 2020 (except for one decrease in 2016 to 2017). One can infer that, given how difficult it is to see primary care physicians in a timely manner, people are seeking alternative means of treatment. Hope for a Holistic Future Traditional Oriental Medicine offers a holistic approach to managing depression by restoring the delicate balance between Yin and Yang energies. By recognizing the interplay of these dual forces within the body, practitioners aim to harmonize the mind, body, emotions, and spirit, allowing individuals to thrive. Acupuncture and herbal medicine serve as powerful tools in this endeavor, enabling practitioners to restore balance and promote wellness. While challenges persist in accessing timely care, the growing interest in acupuncture for depression treatment brings hope for a future where holistic approaches to mental health are readily embraced. By integrating Traditional Oriental Medicine and therapy, individuals can embark on a journey of healing, addressing not only the physical aspects but also the emotional and spiritual components of their well-being. *Yuka Sakai is an alumnus of Wongu University of Oriental Medicine, currently studying for her board exams to be a licensed Oriental Medicine Doctor in the state of Nevada. *Sang Hyun Lee, DAOM OMD, is a President of Wongu University of Oriental Medicine in the state of Nevada, and Oriental Medical Doctor in Nevada. Sources: Maciocia, G. (2009). The Psyche in Chinese Medicine: Treatment of Emotional and Mental Disharmonies with Acupuncture and Chinese Herbs. Churchill Livingstone. Maciocia, G. (2015). The Foundations of Chinese Medicine: A Comprehensive Text. Elsevier. Xinnong, C. (Ed.). (1999). Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion. Foreign Languages Press.

By Robin Whitlock* In developed countries, easy access to clean water that is safe for drinking and bathing is the norm. Prior to the 1900s, however, life was very different, and waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid were commonplace. Today, the water that is delivered from lakes, wells, and a variety of other sources has been made safe from bacteria, viruses, other disease-causing microorganisms by disinfection. In most communities, disinfection of water is achieved by addition of chlorine or chloramine to water; these processes, called water chlorination or water chloramination, respectively, are considered to be among the most significant advances ever achieved in the history of public health. Having clean water that is safe from pathogens and abundant for drinking, washing, and bathing is truly a remarkable achievement. However, this common chemical may also cause a range of adverse effects in humans in certain circumstances—especially regarding skin and hair and particularly among people who suffer from eczema and psoriasis. Despite such cautions, there are ways in which the ill effects of chlorine on the body can be countered and any potential health risks reduced. Water Chlorination and Its Uses Chlorination is a process used to disinfect water and deliver water that is safe for human consumption (according to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)), and for washing, bathing, and swimming. It works by killing harmful germs and other microorganisms that are naturally found in raw water sources, such as rivers, lakes, and groundwater. Some of these microorganisms (pathogens) may cause diseases in humans and can be transmitted to humans through domestic water distribution systems and through water used in swimming pools. Chlorine was discovered in 1774 by Swedish-German chemist Karl W. Scheele. Its first use in a water treatment process occurred in 1897 in Maidstone, Kent, in the United Kingdom, when a bleach solution was used to disinfect a water main following a typhoid outbreak. Regular use of chlorine for water disinfection began in 1902, with the first continuous application of the substance taking place in Middelkerke, Belgium. In 1908, in the US, George A. Johnson added “chloride of lime” to contaminated river water. This marked the beginning of the proliferation of chlorination as a water treatment process in numerous countries. Chlorine in the form of hypochlorous acid is usually used to eliminate microbes in drinking water and in public swimming pools, and it does so quite effectively. Bacteria exposed to hypochlorous acid lose viability within 0.1 seconds. It is reported that the dosage of hypochlorous acid that neutralizes 50% of a bacterial population is 0.0104–0.156 parts per million (ppm), and 2.6 ppm is sufficient to prevent 100% of bacterial growth within five minutes. Despite these potent anti-bacterial effects, chlorine levels up to 4 ppm is considered safe in drinking water with harmful health effects unlikely to occur at this concentration. Chlorine levels up to 4 ppm is considered safe in drinking water with harmful health effects unlikely to occur at this concentration. In addition to killing pathogens, chlorination is also used to destroy organisms and substances that give unpleasant tastes and odors to water and can foul equipment. It also oxidizes undesirable substances such as ferrous iron (Fe2+) and manganese (Mn2+). The process can be used at various points in the treatment process, such as: Prechlorination of raw water prior to any water treatment Added in the treatment process Added after treatment but before distribution Added during distribution Miscellaneous use during maintenance activities Some protozoan cysts, such as Cryptosporadium and Giardia, are resistant to chlorination. In these situations, alternative treatment processes—such as ozone and ultraviolet (UV) radiation—have proven to be effective. Where these protozoans are not present, chlorination is used because, in comparison to other water treatment processes, it is an inexpensive but highly effective method of eradicating many other possible contaminants. Potential Adverse Effects of Chlorinated Water If people spend hours in a chlorinated pool and don’t shower before and after swimming, they can get a chlorine rash, which is a form of irritant dermatitis. Competitive swimmers, lifeguards, and others who swim regularly in pools can experience this red, itchy rash, typically within hours of exposure. The reason for this is that chlorine can make the skin increasingly porous as well as removing its protective oil (sebum), which then allows the chlorine to enter the underlying cells. These, in turn, react to the chemical, causing inflammation, redness, swelling, and itching. People with existing skin conditions, such as eczema or psoriasis, can be affected more easily. Even in mildly chlorinated water, the combination of ammonia (in sweat and urine) with chlorine can form (mono)chloramine. However, chlorine rash can usually be treated effectively by application of over-the-counter hydrocortisone cream. People with existing skin conditions, such as eczema or psoriasis, can be affected more easily by chlorine rash. Swimming regularly in chlorinated pools may also cause dry skin, in which the skin becomes rough, itchy, flaky, or scaly. As for hair, chlorine can cause damage by eating away at the protective cuticles and exposing the cortex layer. It can also break down amino acids, depleting the hair’s natural strength and drying it out, and remove melanin from hair strands, potentially lightening hair and even turning hair green because of chlorine’s bleaching effect (a phenomenon known as “pool hair”). Split ends, hair frizziness, and an itchy scalp can all be common outcomes of heavy pool use. A Few More Things to Watch For Finally, chlorination can result in the formation of certain “disinfection by-products.” One such group is called trihalomethanes (THM), described by the EPA as chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. These by-products are found to be associated with increased risk of asthma and allergic diseases in children, and a study of THM levels in drinking water in the EU found an increased risk of bladder cancer after exposure. THM risks are small—“Drinking water every day with concentrations of [Total Trihalomethanes] TTHMs at or below the standard for your entire lifetime is unlikely to cause illness,” says the Florida Department of Health. Public officials can ensure water safety with optimized water treatments, and consumers can remove THM with activated carbon water filters. Still, chronic exposure to high doses of common types of THM can cause liver and kidney cancer, heart disease, unconsciousness, and death. Due to their potential carcinogenicity, regulations often require monitoring of these THM compounds in public water distribution systems. Other by-products of chlorination include haloacetic acids (HAAs), which are produced when the chlorine interacts with naturally occurring organic matter. Canadian guidelines recommend running an annual average concentration of 80 micrograms per liter (μg/L) for HAAs in drinking water. In June 2004, a report published by the Oregon Department of Human Services found that although the level of toxicity caused by exposure over a short term to HAAs is low, such exposure over a longer term at levels above the maximum contaminant level can “cause injury to the brain, nerves, liver, kidneys, eyes and reproductive systems.” Animal testing has also indicated that HAAs may be a possible human carcinogen. Haloacetic acids (HAAs), [by-products of chlorination,] can “cause injury to the brain, nerves, liver, kidney, eyes and reproductive systems.” An alternative to chlorine is monochloramine (NH2Cl), which has a longer retention time. However, this process can lead to nitrification, which in turn can stimulate the growth of heterotrophic bacteria, such as that found in composting or biomass decay. Although this presents no significant risk to humans in itself, it can indicate favorable conditions for growth of other, more dangerous bacteria, such as Legionella or E.coli, as well as causing slime growth or corrosion in pipes. Reducing Exposure to Chlorine In summary, it’s always a good idea to shower before entering a chlorinated pool to reduce any possible sweat or urine traces on the body and thus reduce the risk of chloramine production. Showering after a swim will help reduce the drying effect of chlorine on the skin. While chlorinated water is widely considered safe to drink, water filters can help to reduce the amount of chlorine present in tap water. Beyond that, if ever there is a chlorine taste or smell in drinking water, pour it into a clean jug, cover it with a cloth, and allow it to stand for a while. This will help to reduce the chlorine level in the water, but such water should be consumed within 24 hours. *Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests, including green transportation.