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By Rick Laezman* More than sixty years ago, the first satellite launches captured the attention of the world. Astronauts followed soon after, and the concept of space exploration leaped from science fiction into reality. Fast-forward to the new millennium. Space travel and more importantly, satellite technology, have evolved since those early days. At the same time, the world has a whole new set of problems to solve. The U.S. Government's National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) continues to occupy a lead role globally in the exploration of the skies. Of its many facilities, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in La Canada Flintridge, California, stands out as a premier facility for satellite technology. JPL has many satellite projects that gather valuable information about a multitude of subjects. It may come as a surprise to learn that not all these projects examine far-flung, extraterrestrial phenomena, such as pulsars and black holes. Many are gathering data that is vital to the study of problems right here on Earth. Of these, none is more pressing than climate change. Rendering Islands of Heat Global warming has manifested itself in many ways. For example, the accentuated effect of global warming's rising temperatures has been documented in urban environments. While buildings, roads, and other infrastructure give cities their unique character and iconic profiles, these man-made structures also absorb and re-emit the sun’s heat to a much greater degree than do natural landscapes, such as forests and water bodies. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), studies and data have found that in the United States, the heat island effect results in daytime temperatures in urban areas about 1–7°F higher than temperatures in outlying areas and nighttime temperatures about 2–5°F higher. When coupled with the already rising temperatures caused by the effects of greenhouse gases, this serves to only compound the problem for the occupants of cities, which is where more than half of the world's population (56%) resides. Data measuring heat islands is one of the products of the JPL ECOSTRESS mission. The device has been deployed on the International Space Station (ISS) since 2018, when it was launched on a SpaceX Dragon. It consists of a thermal radiometer which measures radiation emitted from the Earth's surface. The radiometer consists of a scanning mirror and telescope to focus the energy from a small spot on the Earth onto a very sensitive infrared detector. ECOSTRESS can map 90% of the continental United States in less than four days. Simon Hook, Principal Investigator for JPL on the ECOSTRESS project, describes the sophistication of the instrumentation. "We can measure the surface temperature of the Earth within a few tenths of a degree," he explains. "Measurements can be made in microseconds." The objective of the mission is to measure variations in ground temperatures to indicate how plants respond to water shortages. This will provide vital information to those studying the impact of drought and water use on agricultural practices. The information has also proved useful in the examination of heat islands. The JPL radiometer has produced a number of images that render the impact of extreme heat in urban environments. For example, an image posted to the mission website illustrates the dynamics of a heat wave that occurred in Las Vegas in June of this year. Air temperatures reached 109°F, but surface temperatures on the city's streets were much higher. The JPL images, where heat is rendered in various shades of red, show a grid pattern, mirroring the city's streets, where temperatures were measured in excess of 120°F. Heat islands present many problems for urban residents related to energy consumption and health. In some cases, the effects can contribute to higher mortality rates in heat waves. Taking account of heat islands can result in solutions that lessen their impact. The data that ECOSTRESS provides can help with the development and evaluation of those solutions. For example, the City of Los Angeles used ECOSTRESS to measure the impact of a test project to lower temperatures from paved surfaces. The city's Bureau of Street Services applied a cooling layer of white "paint" to certain test spots around the city. After application, the city measured the effects. Using data from ECOSTRESS, the city confirmed that the paint application had resulted in a temperature difference of 13°F between street surfaces in the same neighborhoods that had been painted and those that had not. Measuring the Dynamics of Dust JPL satellite technology is being used in other projects to study the effects of global warming. The Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation, (EMIT) will analyze dust carried through the atmosphere from dry regions to see what effects it has on the planet. Why dust? It's a fair question. After all, it is just, well, dust. The impact of these airborne clouds of sand and dirt is far greater than what the diminutive size of the individual particles would suggest. Across the globe, strong winds carry clouds of dust in concentrations that reach mammoth proportions. According to NASA, each year, strong winds carry more than a billion metric tons of mineral dust, equal in weight to 10,000 aircraft carriers. These clouds travel from Earth’s deserts and other dry regions through the atmosphere. Across the globe, strong winds carry clouds of dust in concentrations that reach mammoth proportions. Scientists know that the dust affects the environment and climate, but they don’t have enough data to determine, in detail, what those effects are or may be in the future. EMIT can provide them with the data they are looking for. The state-of-the-art spectrometer was developed at JPL and launched to the International Space Station in June of this year. The instrument will collect more than a billion dust-source-composition measurements around the globe over the course of a year. Robert Green, Principal Investigator for the project at JPL, describes how each particle of dust is unique. "They give us signatures, like fingerprints." The instrument can detect these unique characteristics. It is "setting a new benchmark for the quality of this class of instrumentation," he explains. The information gathered by EMIT will contribute to scientific understanding of atmospheric dust clouds in five distinct ways. First, it will identify the composition of mineral dust from Earth’s remote and inaccessible desert regions. EMIT provides information on the color and composition of dust sources globally. This data will help scientists understand which kinds of dust dominate in particular regions, and it will advance their understanding of dust’s impact on climate and the Earth system. Secondly, EMIT data will clarify whether mineral dust heats or cools the planet. Currently, scientists aren't sure about the heating and cooling properties of dust because particles have different properties based on their color, which will determine if they absorb or reflect heat. EMIT will provide a detailed picture of how much dust comes from dark versus light minerals. Third, EMIT will help scientists understand how dust affects different Earth processes. Mineral dust particles vary in color because they’re made of different substances, such as iron, calcite or chlorite, and these substances have varying properties which can impact Earth systems in different ways. For example, mineral dust plays a role in cloud formation and atmospheric chemistry. When mineral dust is deposited in the ocean or forests, it can provide nutrients for growth, acting like fertilizer. When it falls on snow or ice, the dust accelerates melting, leading to more water runoff. And for humans, mineral dust can be a health hazard when inhaled. Fourth, EMIT will improve the accuracy of climate models. The data provided by the project's instruments will allow scientists to more accurately render the color and composition of atmospheric dust, and therefore to understand the effects this dust may have on climate, and that climate may have on the dust. Fifth and finally, EMIT will help scientists more accurately predict how future climate scenarios will affect the type and amount of dust in our atmosphere. As global temperatures rise, arid regions may become even drier, resulting in larger deserts with even more dust. With the help of EMIT, scientists will gain a better understanding of this compounding effect and the "feedback loop" it may have on climate itself. Understanding Global Warming from the Skies JPL and NASA have many other satellite projects underway, analyzing the endless mysteries of our skies. While "enchanted rocks" on Mars and life on distant worlds may grab headlines and pique the imagination of viewers at home, studies of Earth phenomena have equal importance. As the study of climate change becomes more earnest, the data from these projects carry greater significance and may lead to solutions that can help mankind ameliorate and cope with the monumental changes it faces. *Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California, US. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has been covering renewable power and other related subjects for more than ten years.

By Dr. Mahesh K. Gaur and Dr. Victor R. Squires* How Large Reforestation Projects Impact Water Cycles and Local Water Availability The need to reforest portions of Earth has been well documented. The known benefits of reforestation and afforestation are unquestioned and far-reaching, particularly when it comes to impacts on water. Reforestation greatly reduces annual rainwater runoff, for instance, leading to less soil erosion and unexpected flooding. Ample forest cover lowers surface temperatures and cools soils, lakes, rivers and landscapes. Forests also enhance water quality and reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Planting trees can increase carbon sinks that absorb and store carbon. In addition to climate-related benefits, reforestation can potentially protect endangered species. A restored forest can undo habitat loss and improve species health. Still, with all these benefits, Earth’s forested lands continue to shrink. A Crippling Trend According to the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the total forested area of Earth is about four billion hectares—31% of the global land area—or about 50 x 100m per person. Of this area, only about one billion hectares are primary, native forests that are largely undisturbed. The number of forested hectares is huge, but so is the number of hectares lost. According to the FAO’s 2020 edition of The State of the World’s Forests, the world lost about 420 million hectares (mha)— approximately 10% of its total forest area—to deforestation in the last thirty years. The FAO report estimates that between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was ten million hectares per year. That is down from sixteen million hectares in the 1990s. Even so, the area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over eighty million hectares since 1990. Tree Planting has Side Effects The world is planting trees in response. The FAO says that 7% of the global forest area is currently planted. The area of naturally regenerating forests has decreased since 1990—at a declining rate of loss—but the area of planted forests has increased by 123 million ha. It is not easy, however, to successfully create—or recreate—a forest. According to an April 8, 2021 article in Yale 360, scientists and environmentalists have concerns about large-scale tree planting programs, as they can reduce water supplies and negatively impact agriculture and associated livelihoods. How might planting trees dry up water supplies? It has to do with a tree’s ability to absorb and evaporate water at relatively high rates. According to Filoso et al., the authors of a 2017 study inPLOS One, "forests have relatively high evapotranspiration (ET) rates in comparison to most other land use and cover types, which is why water yields usually decrease upon the conversion of different land uses into forests." While it is true that large scale plantings may generate more evapotranspiration and lead to higher rainfall, this is common. To be effective, it needs to cover an area about as big as Switzerland. The major concern is that many plantation species can tap the groundwater and make the conditions less favorable for local native forest species or can lead to creeks and ponds drying up. Water Impacts Can Be Felt Far Away It takes relatively few trees to intensify the water cycle. According to a UN University report, "more than two square kilometers of forest expansion can increase the possibility of rainfall." What's more, when trees, through evaporation, move water vapor into the atmosphere, it can travel far distances through "wind-driven circulation," thus increasing "the possibility of precipitation in another location," states the study’s author. This, the author writes, "indicates that, at a global scale, afforestation can indeed bring benefits to the water cycle." However, this does not take into account losses en route, such as if wind driven rain-bearing clouds pass over parched areas. Dijke et al. (2022) observed that the effects of "directly enhanced ET and indirectly enhanced precipitation" can cause shifting patterns of water availability. They found that "large-scale tree-cover expansion can increase water availability by up to 6% in some regions, while decreasing it by up to 38% in others." Actual decreases have been more commonly reported in places such as India, Ethiopia, and China instead. Large-scale tree-cover expansion can increase water availability by up to 6% in some regions, while decreasing it by up to 38% in others. The effects of drying out local regions and increasing rainfall in other places can be extraordinarily far-reaching, write the authors. "Tree-cover change in the Amazon forest could impact precipitation in Canada, Northern Europe and all the way into Eastern Asia." The study’s authors added that "several so-called hot spots for reforestation could lose water, including regions that are already facing water scarcity today." Such effects may not show up on trees themselves, but they could be impacting the water tables and small streams. Local Winners and Losers Dijke and colleagues predict local water-supply winners and losers (following reforestation), even though they see overall benefits for the planet. They write "that for half of Earth’s surface (47%), the indirect moisture recycling effects of large-scale tree restoration could offset the direct evaporation effects, thus resulting in slight increases in water availability rather than decreases." Where do the authors think local water losses from reforestation will occur? The United Kingdom (UK) is one such place. They write that the UK "has a high tree-restoration potential and therefore a high increase in evaporation." This will result in "low evaporation recycling [rainfall] due to the dominant westerly moisture transport [aided by winds] from the country towards Eurasia." Possible winners? "Low latitudes" enjoy an increase in water availability because local evaporation recycling is high. This is due to "strong convection above the tropical forest [and short] travel distances of the atmospheric moisture," according to Dijke et al. Possible Effects on Rivers Dijke and colleagues predict varying effects on streamflow (following reforestation) by combining the direct effects of reforestation "via increased evaporation" and indirect effects "through increased precipitation" for twenty-one large river basins from the Yangtze to the Mississippi. For all of them, "enhanced evaporation reduces streamflow (up to 9%)," they found. Why the potentially different streamflow outcomes? Some river basins benefit "when evaporated water rains out within the same river basin," say the authors. Those same basins might also recycle rain from regions upwind. For river basins in the tropics that enjoy high local evaporation recycling, the gains could make up for losses via evaporation, they write. What About Arid Regions? River basins with limited water (arid regions} have a low tree-restoration potential because arid regions often lack enough groundwater to support tree growth. In such cases, state the authors, there is likely to be "a small absolute change in evaporation and precipitation" following reforestation. The authors speculate that some arid regions might benefit from tree planting because trees can increase soil porosity and soil organic carbon, thus promoting the infiltration capacity and water storage capacity of local soil. There is also a need to factor in seasonal impacts for arid areas that receive most of their precipitation on a few occasions per year. Despite these factors, the authors affirm their hypothesis that post-reforestation "streamflow will decrease for most of the world’s important river basins despite the indirect effect of evaporation recycling." In the past, afforestation has failed unless it is done with an aggressive weedy tree such as the Acacia nilotica or Prosopis juliflora, which was officially grown in the Thar Desert of India in the 1930s to afforest the desert wasteland. India: Learning from Possible Miscalculations Just because an area is without tree cover does not mean it is time to start planting. According to a 2015 study, The World Resources Institute (WRI) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) once "misidentified nine million square kilometers of ancient grassy biomes as providing ‘opportunities’ for forest restoration." In reality, establishing forests in such grasslands, savannas, and open-canopy woodlands would "devastate biodiversity and ecosystem services," according to the study’s authors. Fortunately, missteps based on miscalculations can be avoided. In the case of India, an Expert Technical Committee constituted by the Madras High Court recently found the Uppanar backwater region unsuitable for mangrove reforestation because of the area’s steep slope and tidal conditions in which mangroves would not thrive. The investigation was ordered to address concerns over reforestation proposals for the area. India’s Rajasthan State: Reforestation Success India has seen hydrological benefits from reforestation, however, even in arid regions such as The Rajasthan State. Rajasthan receives 16.05 billion cubic meters of water from rainfall annually but loses four billion cubic meters of that to runoff. Despite the heavy losses, work done under the Mukhyamantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan—Chief Minister’s Water Self-reliance Campaign (MJSA)—has raised average ground water levels in local villages by nearly five feet in twenty-one of Rajasthan’s non-desert districts. In addition, the need to supply locals with water via tankers has fallen to about 56% due to this project. Soil erosion has also declined and soil fertility has improved in the region, resulting in increased agricultural production. MJSA, which was launched in 2016, has been linked to the "Van Kranti" (Afforestation Mission) and the planting of about 148 lakh (1 lakh=100,000) saplings across the state. Thousands of newly constructed or renovated water structures under MJSA are being covered or surrounded by saplings to retain groundwater levels, reduce soil erosion, and boost biodiversity through the protection of local wildlife. According to the Chief Minister of Rajasthan: "It is a foregone conclusion that MJSA has been a huge success and a trendsetter in the country on [the] water management front. In many ways, MJSA is an important step towards ‘climate proofing’ the State." Conclusion Taking into account both the global benefits and possible negative local water impacts of reforestation, Dijke and colleagues call for more careful planning. "We emphasize that future tree-restoration strategies should consider these hydrological effects." *Dr. Mahesh K. Gaur is Principal Scientist at the ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India. He specializes in aridlands geography and the application of satellite remote sensing, GIS and digital image processing for natural resources mapping, management and assessment and also researches drought, desertification, land degradation, indigenous knowledge systems, and the socio-economic milieu of the Thar Desert of India. He is author/editor of 8 books on Drylands, Desertification, Watershed, Food Security, Remote Sensing, etc. A member of the Association of American Geographers and the Society for Conservation Biology, and several editorial boards of journals, he has been awarded the Citizen Karamveer Award 2011 by iCONGO; the Millennium Award and recognitions by the UGC of India and Scientific Assembly of the International Committee on Space Research (COSPAR). *Dr. Victor R. Squires is a Distinguished Guest Professor in the Institute of Desertification Studies, Beijing. An Australian with a PhD in Rangeland Science from Utah State University (US), he is a former (retired) Foundation Dean of the Faculty of Natural Resource Management at the University of Adelaide and author/editor of 22 books on Drylands, Desertification, and Ecological Restoration. He has been a consultant to World Bank, Asian Development and various UN agencies in Africa, China, Central Asia and the Middle East. He was awarded the 2008 International Award and Gold Medal for International Science and Technology Cooperation by the Government of China and in 2015 was honored by the Society for Range Management (USA) with an Outstanding Achievement Award and was recognized a member of the Order of Australia for services to ecology, especially rangelands.

By Alina Bradford* Fresh produce often comes straight out of the ground, so it’s born dirty. Though it looks clean by the time it gets to the store, don’t assume that it is. Even organic produce can be covered in bacteria and other contaminants. Here’s what consumers need to know about the cleanliness of produce and how to make it safer to eat. How Dirty Is Produce? It all depends. Each piece of produce that ends up in a shopping bag took a different journey to the store. Fruits and vegetables are often exposed to rodents; unwashed hands; bugs; airborne germs; and particulates, fertilizer, and more as they travel. Moreover, most produce is exposed to pesticides. The Environmental Working Group's 2022 Shopper's Guide to Pesticides in Produce listed strawberries and spinach as the two top produce items that contain the highest levels of pesticide contamination. Next on the list were kale, collard and mustard greens, nectarines, apples, grapes, and varieties of peppers. Try to buy produce locally. Shorter shipping distances mean that contamination is less likely. It’s best to assume that the fresh fruits and vegetables brought home are pretty filthy. Though this may make some people wary of eating store-bought produce, there’s no need to avoid it. Produce can be made safe to eat. How Can Consumers Make Produce Safe? The safest way to ensure that raw food won’t cause an illness is to wash it, and then cook it, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The heat from cooking can kill any bacteria that might remain after washing. Also, try to buy produce locally. Shorter shipping distances mean that contamination is less likely. Of course, the safest produce is homegrown, garden-to-table food since consumers know exactly what the fruits and vegetables were exposed to. What Is the Right Way to Wash Produce? Produce should be cleaned as soon as possible so this step won’t be forgotten later. Plus, clean produce won’t contaminate the refrigerator or countertops. First, start with clean hands. Wash your hands for at least 20 seconds with soap and water. Also, make sure your kitchen surfaces, like your sink and countertops, have been cleaned and sanitized. Once the surfaces are clean, remove the "extra parts" of the produce. Remove the outer leaves from lettuce, the loose, outer skins of onions, and eyes from potatoes, for example. Also, discard berries or leaves that are damaged. Next, scrub the fruits and vegetables under lukewarm running water. Vegetable brushes are nice, but they are not required—the running water and clean hands are fine, according to the Colorado State Extension Office. Conversely, a brush may help get the dirt off of root vegetables like potatoes, carrots, and turnips. Do Consumers Need a Special Cleanser for their Produce? The CDC, US Department of Agriculture, and federal Food and Drug Administration don’t recommend washing produce in anything other than water. That means consumers can skip those fancy veggie washes seen in stores or the well-intentioned homemade cleaning recipes posted on the internet. Fruits and vegetables are porous. They can absorb the washes, and possibly cause a sickness or alter the taste of the food. Besides, these washes haven’t been proven any more effective than water. When the first batch of produce is cleaned, place it into a clean colander while the other items are washed. What About Produce with Inedible Peels? Yes, even if the plan is to remove the banana, avocado, melon, orange, grapefruit, or lemon peel, the produce should be washed. Hands or knives touching the peel can contaminate the fruit underneath. Moreover, washing bananas when they first come into the kitchen can banish any fruit-fly eggs that tagged along. Does Organic Produce Need to Be Washed? Even if the produce has never been touched by pesticides, there is a good chance it has been touched by dirty hands, rodents, and bugs. So, give organic produce a good wash, too. How About Pre-washed Packaged Produce? The CDC says that food that’s labeled as washed doesn’t need further cleaning, but many consumers do so anyway. In 2021, eighteen people became sick with listeria after eating Dole pre-packaged salads. There have been other recalls of contaminated pre-packaged produce in the last few years, as well. What Happens if the Produce Isn’t Washed? At the very least, consumers will ingest the waxy preservatives the store uses to keep the produce looking fresh. At the worst, they could consume pesticides or dangerous bacteria. Around 1 in 6 Americans (or 48 million people) get sick, and 3,000 die, from foodborne diseases. While a lot of times foodborne illnesses come from animal products, produce is often contaminated, too. For example, in early 2022, a recall was issued over contaminated baby spinach. Four people needed to be hospitalized after fifteen became ill. Some common food contaminants include Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Norovirus, and Listeria monocytogenes. They can cause diarrhea, headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, fever, hallucinations, paralysis, and death. While most people will just suffer what is thought of as a "stomach flu" when exposed to these contaminants, they are particularly dangerous to children, pregnant women, the elderly, and those with compromised immune systems. So, the best bet for healthy eating is to always wash fruits and vegetables. While it doesn’t always get rid of every contaminant, it’s the best line of defense against bacteria and pesticides. *Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert that has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com.

By Angelica Sirotin* Climate Change Impacts an Alpine Treasure It is no secret that climate change has a serious impact on the quality and ecology of aquatic environments. Switzerland is an example of a mountainous, alpine region that is at risk of experiencing a decline in water supply due to global warming as well as the human response to it. Researchers at Swiss research institute Eawag have revealed that human responses to climate change are just as impactful on our water systems—for example, through agriculture and hydropower installations. But what does this mean for the future of Switzerland’s water security? Alpine Water Supplies Could Become at Risk Switzerland is traditionally a water-rich country, averaging about 5,000 cubic meters (or 5 million liters) of renewable fresh water available per person per year. However, this abundance is unevenly distributed, and some alpine regions of Germany, Austria, and Liechtenstein are also already facing water scarcity. Most of Switzerland’s water resources come from the Alps, which are also the main source of water for neighboring countries. Moreover, the Alps are an important source of hydropower, which provides approximately 60% of Switzerland’s electricity. As the climate changes, the amount of water available in the Alps is expected to decline. This is due to a combination of factors, including increased evaporation, decreased precipitation, and melting glaciers. The resulting decline in water availability will have a number of impacts on Switzerland, including decreased water supply for households, industry, and agriculture; increased costs for water treatment and distribution; and negative impacts on the environment. In response to these anticipated impacts, the Swiss government has put in place a series of measures. One such measure was the revision of the Water Protection Ordinance (WPO) in 2020, which introduced more stringent limits for twelve pesticides that are especially harmful to aquatic organisms. In addition, three medicinal compounds were added to the list of regulated substances for the first time. Moreover, The Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) reports that water quantity is not yet the most pressing issue in Switzerland. Rather, it is water quality that is cause for current concern, as agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, and livestock waste can contaminate water supplies. To address this problem, the Swiss government has implemented policies to improve water quality. For example, The Green Economy Action Plan, which was approved by the Federal Office for the Environment of the Swiss Federal Council in early 2013, includes several measures relating to consumption and production, waste, and raw materials. Ultimately, the goal is to better utilize minimal resources, such as freshwater, while also maintaining production needed for economic and societal functionality. Aside from legislation, the promotion of vertical farming (cultivating plants in stacked layers in a controlled environment) is one way Switzerland is working to reduce the water footprint of crops. Vertical farming uses 95% less water than traditional farming methods and does not require pesticides or herbicides. This type of farming provides not only environmental but also economic benefits. Its reduced water consumption results in less strain on municipal resources and infrastructure, enabling farmers to save money on irrigation costs. As Switzerland strives to become carbon-neutral by 2050, it is accelerating the transition to renewable energy, which includes doubling-down on its hydropower resources. For example, Switzerland will inaugurate its new, state-of-the-art pumped storage hydropower plant Nant de Drance on September 10/11, with a storage capacity of 900 MW of electricity (roughly 400,000 EV batteries). While hydropower is generally considered to be a low-carbon technology, it can have significant environmental impacts, including alteration of river flows, which can impact the ecology of the river system. The effects of climate change on water resources are not unique to Switzerland. Many countries around the world are grappling with the same issue. For example, in Australia, the Murray-Darling Basin—which is the country’s food bowl and supports a $75 billion agriculture industry—is under immense pressure from the effects of drought and climate change. The Australian government has implemented a series of measures to try to mitigate the effects of climate change on the Basin, including water efficiency plans and assessment of environmental flows. In addition to Australia, many countries in Africa are also struggling with the effects of climate change on water resources, including flooding, droughts, changes in the distribution of rainfall, drying-up of rivers, and the receding of bodies of water. It is evident that Switzerland's actions serve as a model for other countries to follow to mitigate the effects of climate change. Ultimately, the effects of climate change on water resources require a coordinated effort from all countries to address. It is evident that Switzerland's actions serve as a model for other countries to follow to mitigate the effects of climate change. Moreover, Switzerland has several key lessons that can be applied to other countries when it comes to climate change and water resources. Switzerland’s Key Lessons First, it is important to have clear and stringent legislation in place to protect water resources. Second, the promotion of alternative farming methods, such as vertical farming, can help to reduce the water footprint of crops. And finally, the transition to renewable energy sources is crucial to achieve carbon-neutrality. As a country with a long history of environmental stewardship, Switzerland is setting the standard for other countries to follow. According to Eawag, “We have long been aware of the direct impact of climate change on natural freshwater systems [in Switzerland]. ... This does not just threaten the habitats of aquatic life and their biodiversity. Around 1.5 billion people [worldwide] who rely on the water resources from … mountainous regions will also suffer if the quality and quantity of the drinking water deteriorate." While the effects of climate change are global in scope, countries must act at the domestic level to mitigate the negative impacts of this phenomenon. It is incumbent upon Alpine nations to take action to protect their water resources through a combination of legislation, technology, and education. In doing so, these nations will not only be protecting their own resources but serving as an inspiration for other countries to follow suit. *Angelica Sirotin is a social impact venture entrepreneur, founder, and CEO of Sirotin Ventures. She is a member of the WEF AI Youth Council, B20 Indonesia 2022 Digitalization Taskforce, and has been selected as a SwissCognitive Global AI Ambassador 2022.

By Robin Whitlock* Is the Process Achievable at Scale? Plastics, a ubiquitous, man-made element in the modern world, have been enormously beneficial to human society. Plastics are currently used for just about everything: food packaging, bicycle helmets, airbags in vehicles, cell phones, computers, roofing, insulation, and in sterile packaging in health care. But plastics have also been identified as a driver of climate change because plastics production leads to greenhouse gas emissions. The question emerges: Can plastics be produced in ways that do not worsen climate change? Some people are likely to see plastics as a single substance without being aware of the different types of plastics. To achieve a common understanding of plastics, it is important to understand the distinctions. Plastics (or polymers) is an umbrella term that includes hundreds of different types. Most people use just a handful of them, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), often used in food packaging and polyester fabric; high- and low-density polyethylene; polyvinyl chloride (PVC); polypropylene; and polystyrene (also known as Styrofoam). It is important to note that PVC and polystyrene have already been found to have serious adverse side effects in that they can leach toxins into the environment throughout their entire lifecycle. Another undesirable feature of plastic is that plastics are produced from fossil fuels. Plastic production is thus a major driver of man-made (anthropogenic) climate change. One possible solution to reducing dependence on fossil fuels is to produce plastics directly from carbon dioxide (CO2), thereby helping to reduce the presence of CO2 in the atmosphere and counter climate change. Conventional Plastic Production Plastics are largely made from fossil fuels, such as oil and natural gas, or from plants (for bioplastics). These raw materials are refined into ethane or propane, which are then subjected to high levels of heat in a process called "cracking." Cracking converts them into monomers such as ethylene and propylene. These monomers are then combined with a catalyst to create a polymer "fluff" that looks like a powder. This powdered polymer is fed into an extruder where it is melted and run through a pipe where it forms a long tube as it cools. The tube is then cut into bits to form pellets, and the pellets are sent off to factories where they are made into products. Bioplastics Are Not a Solution to Climate Change Bioplastics may seem to be a viable alternative to the use of fossil fuels for producing plastic. There has been a lot of discussion about this in recent years, focusing on the use of bioplastics, such as polylactide (PLA) to produce things such as disposable cutlery made from potatoes or plastic bottles made from corn. Bioplastics production, being an energy intensive process requiring the use of fertilizers, is not a viable alternative to conventional plastic production due to environmental impacts. However, bioplastics are not actually a viable solution. For a start, they do not biodegrade easily and usually need to be fed into industrial composters in order to be processed or recycled. The production of bioplastics is also fairly energy intensive, and some bioplastics actually have a higher carbon footprint than ordinary plastics for this reason. Researchers at the University of Sheffield found that, with fertilizer costs, transport, and harvesting, bioplastics were the worst option, with their adverse impacts even exceeding those made from fossil fuels. Furthermore, the water and fertilizers used in producing bioplastics can contribute to the eutrophication and pollution of rivers and estuaries. Utilizing CO2 for Plastic Production In order to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into plastics, two things are required—a large store of captured CO2 and a number of cleverly designed catalysts. A catalyst is a substance or chemical that causes a chemical reaction without itself being affected in any way. Many metals can be used as catalysts, but copper is particularly useful when trying to convert CO2 into plastic. According to Prof. Peter Styring, Director of the UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization (CDUUK), most of the carbon currently available for potential plastic production comes from hydrogen production, but researchers are investigating the capture of industrial emissions as well. CDUUK has discovered how to make polyacrylamide (nylon) from CO2. A number of research projects are currently underway at different locations around the world to develop the processes needed to convert CO2 into plastics. Given that around half the plastic in the world is currently made from ethylene, several of these projects are investigating how to make ethylene from CO2, which can then be turned into plastic. At Rutgers University in New Jersey (US), scientists are using special electrocatalysts containing nickel and phosphorus in a process involving the combination of CO2 with water and electricity. This then produces complex carbon-containing molecules that can subsequently be used to produce plastics and other products, described by the research team as a form of "artificial photosynthesis." Other research projects investigating the combination of CO2 with water and electricity, with copper as a catalyst, are underway at Swansea University’s Energy Safety Research Institute in Wales, and at the Ted Sargent Group at the University of Toronto. The German company Covestro has designed a catalyst that could potentially allow CO2 to react with epoxides (a form of cyclic ether—an organic compound formed of ring-shaped molecules containing oxygen) to produce a family of chemicals called "polyether polycarbonate polyols." These substances can be used to make polyurethane, and Covestro plants in Germany are now producing mattresses using 20% captured carbon dioxide. Research in plastic production from CO2, including the use of electrocatalysis, heterogeneous catalysis, and microbial fermentation, is underway. In the UK, Econic is producing polyurethane from carbon dioxide and expects to be able to produce foam products, coatings, sealants, and elastomers ready for commercialization within two years. The Centre for Sustainable Chemical Technologies at the University of Bath is hoping to produce polycarbonate by combining carbon dioxide with sugars, such as xylose. In Germany, the research institute Fraunhofer has produced formic acid and methanol from carbon dioxide, subsequently converting them into the building blocks for the production of polymers and similar materials using fermentation through microorganisms, in particular methylotrophic bacteria and yeasts. Two processes were employed. Heterogeneous chemical catalysis was used to convert CO2 to methanol, while electrochemistry was also used to produce formic acid from CO2. The methanol and formic acid can be used to build blocks for polymers and can also be used to "feed" other microorganisms to produce other products. In this project, the researchers introduced genes into the microbes to provide a blueprint for enzymes, a process known as metabolic engineering. The enzymes can subsequently be used as a catalyst. Government Involvement In the US, the Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management has also been involved in research in the production of plastic from CO2. In 2013, the agency announced it had funded the world’s first successful large-scale production of a polypropylene carbonate (PPC) polymer using waste CO2. The project was actually carried out by Novomer Inc., in collaboration with Albemarle Corporation, using its manufacturing plant in Orangeburg, South Carolina. It tested the scale-up of Novomer’s catalyst technology and found that only minor modifications needed to be made to the company’s existing facilities to produce seven tons of polymer containing more than 40% CO2. The Office of Fossil Energy is involved in other approaches to convert captured CO2 into products through its Carbon Capture and Storage program, managed by the National Energy Technology Laboratory. Novomer appears to be continuing this project, and other companies are getting involved in this area of research as well, according to the website Packaging Europe. Projected Impact of Plastic Production from CO2 The processes used by the research team at Fraunhofer can be implemented over a medium to long term, say ten years or so, although industry is under pressure to find other processes that can be implemented sooner. However, IDTechEx sees limited potential for this approach to reducing carbon emissions, even though it expects this sector to expand. The key requirement is the expansion of carbon capture infrastructure to feed such carbon utilization strategies with CO2. These processes might not be as effective as the industry and some research organizations claim, however. Some environmental organizations warn that carbon capture and storage (CCS) remains unproven as a viable solution, and the projects in operation are ineffective and expensive. Should this turn out to be true, researchers will have to continue to seek new ways to cut emissions. *Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests including green transportation.

CONTENTS NEWS SECTION Cheetahs Return to India After 70 Years The Earth & I Editorial Team Caribbean Shores Smothered by Summer Seaweed The Earth & I Editorial Team Baptismal Rite Breaks New Ground The Earth & I Editorial Team DATA SECTION How Hot Was June? Depends on Who You Ask The Earth & I Editorial Team Nuclear War Impacts Updated The Earth & I Editorial Team UNEP Celebrates 50 Years of Milestones The Earth & I Editorial Team Composting Percentages Are Small in the US The Earth & I Editorial Team European Air Quality Update The Earth & I Editorial Team Urban Noise Can Be Deadly The Earth & I Editorial Team ECOSYSTEMS Seagrass: The Global Seafood Supermarket Jean Thilmany Reviving Forests—A Call for Careful Planning Dr. Mahesh K. Gaur, Dr. Victor R. Squires FOOD Nature’s Tonic in a Cup Dr. Tanmoy Rana From Waxy Preservatives to E. Coli—Why It’s Vital to Wash Those Veggies and Fruits at Home Alina Bradford HUMAN HEALTH The ‘Junk Food’ Dilemma: How to Steer Kids from Highly Processed to Highly Nutritious Foods Julie Peterson Microplastics Now Found in Human Blood Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe CLIMATE CHANGE Can Conservation and Assisted Migration Save Biodiversity? Mal Cole Tracking Earth’s Climate from Space Rick Laezman NATURAL DISASTERS Are Climate-related Disasters Really on the Rise? What Does the Data Say? Mark Smith ENERGY Promises and Pitfalls: The Future of Nuclear Energy Nnamdi Anyadike The Search for Renewable Energy Storage Mark Newton WATER QUALITY When the Water Dries Up Kate Pugnoli Switzerland’s Mountain Waters at Risk Angelica Sirotin WASTE MANAGEMENT How to Sequester Carbon by Turning It into Plastic Robin Whitlock ECONOMICS & POLICY Plenty of Fish in the Sea, Not Enough Fish on the Plate Jonathan L. Wharton, Ph.D. EDUCATION Zoos and Aquariums: Educating the Next Generation of Environmentalists Yasmin Prabhudas

The Indian government’s trade ministry has identified environmental technology as the “best prospect industry sector” for the country going forward. Serious environmental problems—India is the largest emitter of sulfur oxides in the world—and recently adopted policies are fueling growth in this sector. (India launched its third edition of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) India Index and Dashboard in June 2021) India’s overall environmental technologies market, including goods and services, is estimated to be worth over $23 billion. India’s environmental tech market is the sixth largest world market, with subsector world rankings at ninth for air pollution control and second for wastewater/water management. (About 40% of industrial water and 63% of municipal wastewater is discharged, untreated, into nearby rivers, lakes and streams.) Total imports of environmental technology equipment were $931 million in 2020, with $106 million of that coming from the US. India’s demand for water is projected to double available supply by 2030. (The coastal states of Tamil Nadu and Gujarat are front runners in establishing desalinization technology for drinking water.) The Indian government’s water ministry established a national initiative to provide piped drinking water to 146 million households across 700,000 villages by 2024, earmarking $51 billion to increase household water connection coverage from 18.3% in 2019 to 100% by 2024. Source: International Trade Administration, India - Environmental Technology

Wildlife crime is a serious international problem. Australia, rich in varied wildlife, is a target for wildlife traffickers. The Australian government recently deported a Malaysian reptile trafficker after the individual served time in an Australian prison. The Malaysian reptile trafficker was charged with attempting to export “21 parcels containing Shingleback lizards, Blue-tongue lizards, Geckos, Lace Monitors, Pythons and Water Dragons,” according to a news release from Australia’s Department of Agriculture, Water, and the Environment (DAWE). The parcels were intended for Hong Kong. The perpetrator was found guilty of nine counts of attempting to export regulated native specimens out of Australia, sentenced to three years and six months imprisonment, and paroled after two years and four months. DAWE has worked with Interpol and various Australian law enforcement agencies to track down wildlife traffickers through several investigations, resulting in eleven perpetrators having been sentenced to nearly twenty-seven years in jail for their crimes. Exporting Australian wildlife is an offense with a maximum penalty of imprisonment for ten years and/or a $222,000 fine for individuals—for each count—or a $1,110,000 fine for a corporation. Source: https://www.awe.gov.au/about/news/media-releases/convicted-wildlife-trafficker-deported-after-serving-term-imprisonment

Commercial fishing in the US hauled in 8.4 billion pounds of fish in 2021, valued at $4.7 billion. Recreational fishing landed an estimated 1 billion fish with 65% released. NOAA manages 460 different fish population stocks with over 90% not subject to overfishing in 2021. Fish population stocks on the overfishing list remained steady at 26, while overfished population stocks slightly increased from 49 to 51. Total landings were down by 10%, likely due to COVID-19 impacts. Source: https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/noaa-releases-two-key-reports-status-stocks-and-fisheries-united-states

In May 2022, the Brazilian government’s environmental agency, IBAMA, announced that it had greatly reduced the impacts on coral of a proposed oilfield revitalization project through a licensing review. Oil producer Petrobas had sought approval for the project, which would have impacted coral formations in the Marlim offshore oil and gas field. IBAMA’s requirements led to the proposal of using “two new Floating Production, Storage and Offloading Unit (FPSO) platforms and production lines” over current subsea infrastructure. Coral impacts in Campo de Marlim, located in the northeast portion of the Campos Basin, on the northern coast of the State of Rio de Janeiro, were reduced by 95% through the changes. The project initially was expected to directly impact 132 coral formations, but IBAMA required that changes be made in order to proceed with their analysis of environmental feasibility. As a result of the changes, the number of impacted formations was reduced to seven. Production output at the Marlim oilfield had dropped from 580,000 barrels of oil/day in 2002 to current output below 71,000 barrels/day, which prompted Petrobras to propose the revitalization of the fields. Source: https://www.gov.br/ibama/pt-br/assuntos/noticias/2022/ibama-reduz-em-95-os-impactos-sobre-corais-em-empreendimento-de-producao-de-petroleo-e-gas-offshore

According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), wind and solar should be the larger renewable sources of US electricity generation this summer. Utility-scale solar generation between June and August 2022 is forecast to grow by 10 million megawatt hours (MWh) compared with the same period last summer. Wind generation is forecast to increase by 8 million MWh. Generation from coal and natural gas is forecast to decline by 26 million MWh this summer, but natural gas generation could increase in some places where coal supplies are limited. The U.S. electric power sector is expected to have 65 gigawatts (GW) of utility-scale solar-generating capacity, an increase of 31% in solar capacity since June 2021. Estimates of 138 GW of wind capacity online in June 2022 would mark a 12% increase from last June. Source: https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=52438

Seaweed is eaten by humans and animals and used in cosmetics, shampoos, toothpastes and health-related products, as well as biomass for fuels. It is both wild-harvested and farmed across the globe. The annual global seaweed haul is valued at about $6 billion. Global seaweed production is up from 34.7 thousand tons in 1950 to more than 34.7 million tons today. Seaweed farming is the fastest-growing sector of US aquaculture with Alaska producing 440 tons in 2021, up from only eighteen tons in 2017. Seaweed is known for providing iodine to the diet, which benefits thyroid health. But it also has vitamins and minerals like B12 and zinc; disease-fighting carotenoids; antioxidants; and flavonoids that help protect against cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cognitive diseases like Alzheimer’s or dementia. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture(USDA) Agricultural Research Service