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In a new report, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) said 2023 had the highest average global surface temperature on record: The 20th century average was 13.9°C (57.0°F), and the 2023 average was 1.18°C (2.12°F) above that average. Other highlights of NOAA’s annual Global Climate Report for 2023: 2023 was considered the warmest year since 1850 globally for the land and oceans with a few exceptions—land in the southern hemisphere ranked second, Arctic land and ocean ranked fourth, and Antarctic land and ocean ranked 40th. By region, 2023 was the warmest for North America (since 1850), South America (since 1910), Africa (since 1910), and second warmest (since 1910) for Europe and Asia. It was less warm in Oceania and Antarctica, being the 10th highest and 40th highest, respectively. Heavy rains brought flooding to Chile, Ghana, Pakistan, and India. As a result, 20,000 people were affected in Chile, nearly 26,000 people were evacuated in Ghana, and over 100,000 people were evacuated in Pakistan and India. Globally, there were 78 storms. These included 45 major storms, such as a cyclone in the Brazilian states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina, Cyclone Mocha in Myanmar, and Cyclone Ilsa in western Australia. California experienced 32 trillion gallons of rain and snow in January 2023 due to nine back-to-back atmospheric rivers. Global ocean heat content (OHC) for 0 to 700 meters (2,296 ft) was warmest for the entire basin of the Atlantic, Indian, and “World,” with the Pacific being second warmest since 1955. Global OHC has been on a rising trend since about 1970. The annual global OHC for 2023 for the upper 2,000 meters (1.2 miles) was a record high, beating the previous record in 2021. Sources: https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/global/202313

By Dhanada K Mishra* Scientists have long been intrigued by the durability of Roman-built buildings. For instance, the famed Pantheon, which has the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome, was built in 128 CE and still stands today. A Roman-era aqueduct, the Aqua Virgo, built of the same concrete, still supplies water. A little over a year ago, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Professor Admir Masic and his Italian and Swiss collaborators published a startling discovery about the concrete used in ancient Rome. The researchers uncovered the presence of so-called lime clasts—granules of calcium carbonate that gave concrete self-healing properties—according to their paper published in the journal Science Advances. The key was using hot mixing of quick lime (a reactive form of calcium that generates heat on mixing with water) instead of slaked lime (a cooler, slow-acting form). Because of the presence of the resulting lime clasts, cracks formed in concrete could heal themselves when they came in contact with moisture and pozzolanic materials, such as volcanic ash contained in the mix. Ticking Time Bombs Emerging knowledge like this could have incalculable value. Since English bricklayer Joseph Aspdin invented and patented Portland cement in 1824, reinforced concrete has been used worldwide in buildings, highway bridges, offshore platforms, dams, roads, etc. The typical service life of such structures is expected to be 50 years on average and up to 200 years if built with extra care and special provisions. Compared to concrete used in the Roman period, the massive infrastructures built in the last couple of centuries are ticking time bombs. However, compared to concrete used in the Roman period, the massive infrastructures built in the last couple of centuries are ticking time bombs. They require frequent repair and maintenance during their service lives. They will also eventually need to be demolished or rebuilt. There is an environmental impact, too: The buildings and infrastructure construction sector is estimated to contribute around 40% of greenhouse gas emissions in terms of embodied and operational carbon footprint, according to the UN Environment Programme and its Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction. The race is now on to use this new knowledge about “self-healing” concrete and modify modern-day concrete to mimic the longevity and much lower carbon footprint of the ancient construction material. The Need for Resilience Resilience is the ability of any structure to withstand extreme load events, such as an earthquake, typhoon, explosion, etc., and recover from it as quickly as possible. The frequency of extreme natural (see Figure 1) and man-made disaster events, such as hurricanes, storms, floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, heat waves, fires, terrorism, etc., has been increasing in recent decades. It has underscored the need for durable, safe, and securely built infrastructure. As a tragic example, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake hit the Turkey-Syria region on February 6, 2023. More than 160,000 buildings were destroyed or severely damaged, and more than 53,000 people died. Some 2.7 million were left homeless. War-torn Syria is estimated to have 40 million tons of cement rubble, in addition to the cement debris from the 2023 earthquake. According to a 2023 article in The Guardian, which cited a study in the Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, efforts are underway that demonstrate how to prepare—and strengthen—local rubble to rebuild the nation. New Lower Carbon Footprint Material In recent years, there has been a concerted effort to reduce the environmental impact of cement production as rapid urbanization occurs in Asia and Africa (see Figure 2). Traditional Portland cement contributes significantly to carbon dioxide emissions (around 5% to 8% of the global emissions). Its production requires an energy-intensive process to create clinker, composed of mostly limestone, that is then ground into cement powder. However, several lower-carbon alternatives to clinker are now available. Pozzolanic Cement Concrete Historically, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) have long been used in construction. The Romans used volcanic ash, while other parts of the world used various forms of reactive clay, etc., as a supplement to the primary binder, such as lime and, more recently, cement. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) have long been used in construction; the Romans used volcanic ash. SCMs, or pozzolans, are materials with weak binding properties in the presence of water and calcium hydroxide resulting from the primary reaction of cement or lime. Modern industrial byproducts—such as fly ash (a coal combustion residue from thermal power plants), slag (residue from the blast furnace), and silica fume (residue from the ferro-silicon industry)—can be used as partial replacements for Portland cement. Incorporating SCMs reduces the need for clinker production, resulting in lower carbon dioxide emissions. In countries like China and India, higher quantities of SCMs are incorporated directly in the cement-making process itself to make products like Portland Pozzolanic Cement (PPC), Portland Slag Cement (PSC), and composite cement (using both fly ash and slag). Besides reducing embodied carbon and reducing waste, SCMs improve the long-term performance and durability of concrete structures. Despite their advantages and potential, these emerging SCMs do have their drawbacks and limitations when compared to Portland cement. For instance, there may be problems with incomplete dispersion of some composites throughout the mix, as well as increased water consumption requirements which can affect workability, among other issues. As these SCMs are relatively new, there is also an obvious lack of testing of some for their long-term mechanical properties. Geopolymer Concrete One of the primary sources of greenhouse gas emissions in Portland cement manufacturing is the high-temperature process of producing clinker from limestone and clay. If one can imagine a room-temperature process to make Portland cement without using limestone, then geopolymer cement would be that wonder material. It is produced by activating aluminosilicate materials, such as fly ash or slag, with a strong alkaline solution. This alternative cementitious material offers comparable or even superior mechanical properties compared to Portland cement-based concrete. Geopolymer concrete has a significantly lower carbon footprint and exhibits excellent resistance to fire, chemicals, and fatigue. Unfortunately, Portland cement production approaches over 4 billion tons a year—making Portland cement concrete the second-most-used material by humans (after water). This leaves an insufficient amount of pozzolanic source material available to meet demands by geopolymer concrete alone. Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) In South Asia, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) last year released an exclusive Indian Standard (IS 18189: 2023) for a new type of low-carbon cement called LC3. This cement is produced from about 50% Portland cement clinker, 30% calcined clay, 15% limestone, and 5% gypsum. Among the various new cement formulations, LC3 has been the most successful emerging commercial product in several countries. Each ton of calcined clay produced saves 600 kilograms (1,322 pounds) of CO2. By the end of 2025, it is expected that LC3 will have saved 45 million tons, according to the Swiss-supported LC3-Project. Real-Life Examples High-volume pozzolanic concrete made from PPC, PSC, and composite cement is commonplace in every type of construction where ordinary Portland cement concrete is used. The same is increasingly the case with LC3 cement-based concrete. New cementitious materials have undergone extensive testing and have also been successfully utilized in pavements, retaining walls, water tanks, and precast bridge decks. The University of Queensland's Global Change Institute (GCI) has been constructed using geopolymer concrete. It is a four-story building for public use and is claimed to be the first of its kind. New cementitious materials have undergone extensive testing and have also been successfully utilized in pavements, retaining walls, water tanks, and precast bridge decks. Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Several cementitious materials show significant promise in terms of disaster resilience. Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), for example, is a material that has outstanding mechanical properties. It offers high strength, ductility (can be shaped without losing strength), and energy absorption capacities, making it suitable for blast-resistant structures. UHPC can withstand extreme loads and impacts. It is an ideal choice for structures exposed to potential terrorist attacks. UHPC consists of carefully chosen ingredients based on particle-packing principles to give a dense microstructure that is further reinforced with micro-steel fibers. It is also known as reactive powder concrete (RPC) or densified system of particles (DSP). Its dense microstructure provides impact resistance, high strength, and excellent durability properties, providing extended service life. Fiber-Reinforced Concrete and Engineered Cement Composites (ECC) As their names suggest, fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) and engineered cement composites (ECC) are composites that combine fibers with cementitious materials with a range of strength, ductility, and durability properties. They can be designed to help resist impact and energy absorption capacities. By incorporating fibers, these materials can effectively distribute and dissipate energy during extreme load events, reducing the potential for structural failure. ECC has resulted from the pioneering work of Professor Victor C Li and his co-workers at the University of Michigan, based on a design framework illustrated in Figure 3. Their approach considers multi-hazard extreme load conditions—such as a levee breaking apart in an earthquake or hurricane—and the future impact of climate change-induced increases in loading. The goal is to develop an optimal design that can justify the initial investment in high-performance materials such as UHPC or ECC, which can provide the desired level of resilience and sustainability. While many real-life applications of UHPC and ECC are available in almost every type of construction project, their adaptation needs to be more widespread. The increased availability of these materials for use depends on various factors, including research and development, standardization, production scalability, and market demand. While some of these materials are commercially available, others are still in the research and testing phase. Advancements in these materials are expected to continue, and their availability is likely to increase in the coming years as their benefits are recognized and demand grows. Towards a Safe and Sustainable Infrastructure Developing and adopting new cementitious materials with a lower carbon footprint and enhanced disaster resilience are crucial steps toward sustainable and safe infrastructure development for the future. These materials offer superior performance during natural disasters, such as earthquakes, typhoons, and explosions, while reducing the environmental impact of traditional Portland cement. Geopolymer concrete, limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) concrete, ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), and fiber-reinforced composites (FRC) are promising materials. As awareness grows and regulations focus on sustainability and resilience, adoption of these materials is expected to increase, contributing to a more resilient and environmentally friendly construction industry. *Dhanada K Mishra has a Ph.D. in civil engineering from the University of Michigan and is currently based in Hong Kong, working for an AI start-up, RaSpect (www.raspect.ai). He writes on environmental issues, sustainability, climate crisis, and built infrastructure.

GDP Projected to Slow in Developed Countries, Grow in Developing Countries The UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs released its flagship annual economic report, World Economic Situation and Prospects 2024, on January 3. The report offers a somber economic outlook for the near term, citing high interest rates, instability and conflict, sluggish international trade, and increasing climate disasters. Global GDP growth is projected to slip from 2.7% in 2023 to 2.4% in 2024. The US is projected to see the largest percentage decrease, from 2.5% in 2023 to 1.4% in 2024. Western Asia has the largest projected increase, from 1.7% in 2023 to 2.9% in 2024. Global headline (total) inflation is expected to decline to 3.9% in 2024, a welcome change from the 8.1% inflation seen in 2022. However, food prices remain high: In 2023, acute food insecurity rose to an estimated 238 million people, an increase by 21.6 million people from 2022. Real gross fixed capital formation is expected to remain lackluster. It rose by around 1.9% in 2023, but this was far below the average 4.0% growth rate seen 2011–2019. Global trade decreased to 0.6%, significantly below 5.7% in 2022, but it is expected to recover to 2.4% in 2024. Services in tourism and transport continued to rebound, while exports from developing countries suffered setbacks. World energy investment is estimated to have increased by 7% to $2.8 trillion in 2023, while the share of clean energy in total energy investment increased from 60% in 2020 to 62% in 2022. Meanwhile, investment in fossil fuels surpassed pre-pandemic levels in 2022 and 2023. Source: https://desapublications.un.org/

By Robert R. Selle* Planet Earth is marvelously constructed of biological, geological, climatological, hydrological, and oceanic elements. Today, however, anthropological, or human, intervention is threatening to irreversibly sicken the delicately balanced terrestrial system. To mitigate this threat, many Earth watchers believe that a global monitoring network is needed to assess the condition of the “Earth-body,” much as a human being in a hospital is hooked up to an array of digital monitoring devices. Today, there is no such Earth-wide digital monitoring system to help “patient planet” get better. But efforts are now underway by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Coalition for Digital Environmental Sustainability (CODES), the latter having been co-founded in 2021 by UNEP and a variety of international environmental organizations. Enter artificial intelligence (AI), which can be defined as computer systems or algorithms that can imitate the human ability to analyze data and make inferences and decisions. AI is fed by digitized data. All interactions in the world—whether related to business, government, science, sports, entertainment, or personal (social media)—are becoming ever more digitalized. This means that—once all environment-related data can be collected and funneled through AI-based analytics—a system can be created to monitor all of Earth’s vital signs—at once and in real time. Once all environment-related data can be collected and funneled through AI-based analytics—a system can be created to monitor all of Earth’s vital signs—at once and in real time. Despite the concerns about the increasing energy consumption of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and AI infrastructures as well as the potential for in-built biases of data flows, “[t]here’s a lot of opportunities out there,” says David Jensen, coordinator of the Digital Transformation subprogram at UNEP, “but harnessing [them] will require unprecedented collaboration between public sector, private sector, civil society, and [subject matter experts]—everybody is going to have to collaborate to come together.” Jensen is also UNEP’s point man at CODES and one of the two chief authors of the CODES Action Plan for a Sustainable Planet in the Digital Age. World Environment Situation Room CODES and its associated UNEP program, the World Environment Situation Room (WESR), envision the vast array of platforms, apps, and algorithms in the world’s sprawling digital economy adopting a built-in orientation toward environmental-health sustainability. WESR, launched in 2022, is much like the White House Situation Room, where senior White House officials gather in emergencies to analyze complex unfolding threats and decide how to address them. By contrast, WESR uses AI’s capabilities to crunch multifaceted climate datasets. The agency’s goal, through collecting and analyzing data from the leading Earth observation platforms, is to create a picture of Earth’s health in real time—from atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) to glacier mass, deforestation, and sea-level rise. WESR’s goal is, through collecting and analyzing data from the leading Earth observation platforms, to create a picture of Earth’s health in real time. “WESR is being developed to become a user-friendly, demand-driven platform that leverages data into government offices, classrooms, mayor’s offices, and boardrooms,” Jensen says in an article on the UNEP website. “It provides credible, trustworthy, and independent data to inform decisions and drive transparency. Over time, the goal is for WESR to become like a mission control center for Planet Earth, where all our vital environmental indicators can be seamlessly monitored to drive actions.” Jensen, pointing to what he calls the “five hard problems” of climate action, is confident that solutions can be found through sustainability-driven digital transformation. Monitoring at the Global Level The first of these problems is monitoring and modeling environmental systems and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at the global level. For example, to hold themselves accountable to the goals of the Paris Agreement, countries decided to create a global stocktaking process, which “is a two-year process that happens every five years.” However, to properly guide global environmental action, this really should be done annually or, better yet quarterly—a monumental task that can be handled by AI. Some examples of progress in this direction are Climate Trace and IQAir. Climate Trace is a digital analytics tool that is plugged into a global network of satellites and sensors. It tracks daily CO2 emissions. IQAir is a Swiss company that, together with UNEP, has built an international web of 80,000 air-quality sensors. The firm’s public dashboards, accessible online, can warn citizens about air pollution threats. Achieving Full Supply Chain Transparency The second hard problem, also a task for AI, is achieving full supply chain transparency, from procuring materials to manufacturing, advertising, and disposal or reuse. Moreover, there should be disclosure of every step’s impact on the environment, whether a benefit or a detriment. One company that is moving strongly in this direction is the German multinational software firm SAP SE. They have created what is known as enterprise resource planning software that now is part of 87% of all world commerce. SAP is poised to develop this sort of worldwide supply chain transparency, disclosing the details to the public, perhaps through a QR code for each product or service. “[AI] can help calculate the [environmental] footprint of products across their full life cycles and supply chains,” Jensen says, “and enable businesses and consumers to make the most informed and effective decisions. … This kind of data is essential for sustainable digital nudging on e-commerce platforms, such as Amazon.com, Shopify, or Alibaba.” “The use of information and communications technology, which is what feeds AI, can lead to 20% less production of CO2 from the transportation, manufacturing, agriculture, housing, and energy sectors.” The third hard problem is all about automating and optimizing sustainability decisions. According to Global e-Sustainability Initiative’s SMARTer2030 report from 2015 , the use of information and communications technology, which is what feeds AI, can lead to 20% less production of CO2 from the transportation, manufacturing, agriculture, housing, and energy sectors. The development of “smart cities” is a notable example, where homes, vehicles, factories, farms, and the grid are digitally connected to use energy in the most efficient way. Developing Environmental Governance The fourth conundrum is how to develop environmental governance processes driven by citizen participation. An example in this direction is the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), which has mobilized more than 1 million people to observe fauna and flora around the globe and provide notes to GBIF on various species’ occurrence. AI analyzes and keeps track of all the input. This type of environmental crowdsourcing could be harnessed to get otherwise hard-to-obtain large amounts of information on many other ecological variables. Eco-conscious Consumption The fifth problem is enabling consumers to select green products and lifestyles. Amazon, for example, now stamps various products with seals of approval in 34 different climate-friendly categories, giving eco-conscious shoppers a guide to desirable purchases. And Alipay, the huge Chinese payment platform, with 1.3 billion connected consumers, is using incentives and gamification to encourage participation in reducing CO2-producing behaviors. After all is said and done, Jensen exudes optimism that these five mammoth hurdles can be overcome through the use of digital innovations to accelerate worldwide sustainable development. *Robert R. Selle is a freelance writer with a background in biochemistry and ecology who lives in Bowie, Maryland.

By Robin Whitlock* While advances have been made in plastics recycling technologies, it still faces many challenges. Plastic waste is now ubiquitous in our natural environment, and currently about 400 million tons of plastic waste is produced every year. An astounding 91% of plastics produced from 1950 to 2015 were not recycled, according to a 2017 study. Instead, 12% of these plastics were incinerated, while the bulk—79%—were sent to landfills or left in the environment, where it can take decades to millennia to degrade. Also, only clean plastics (such as those without food residues) can be recycled, and the recycling process itself is energy intensive and costly. This means that, for a manufacturer, it is often more economical to buy new, cheaper plastic than it is to use recycled plastic. Meanwhile, the global plastic market is expected to grow significantly at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4% to 5% to 2030. This means the value of the global plastics market, which was $712 billion in 2023, could grow to more than $1.050 trillion by 2033, according to statistica.com. Given the insatiable demand for plastic, there is keen interest in new recycling technologies. The Earth & I talked to Novoloop CEO Miranda Wang to discuss the Menlo Park, California-based company’s innovative approach to plastic waste “upcycling” and its potential impacts on the recycling industry once it is established at scale. Thermoplastics versus Thermosetting Plastics To understand upcycling, a brief review of the plastics landscape is in order. There are seven different types of plastics [see The Earth & I August 2023 article, "Keeping Plastics Out of Landfills and Public Spaces"], each with varying physical and chemical properties. Plastics are advantageous from an industrial perspective, given their low production costs, light weight, high chemical stability, durability, high impact resistance, and good electrical insulation. Their versatility makes them ubiquitous in the production of a wide variety of manufactured goods and packaging. Most plastics produced—around 75%—are thermoplastics, known for their malleability at high temperatures and stability once cooled. Thermoplastics include polyethylene and polystyrene (PS) in the form of single-use plastics, as well as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polycarbonate (PC). In theory, thermoplastics can be melted and remolded continuously to produce recycled plastic material. Most plastics produced—around 75%—are thermoplastics, known for their malleability at high temperatures and stability once cooled; these include polyethylene and polystyrene (PS) in the form of single-use plastics, as well as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polycarbonate (PC). In reality, however, thermoplastic pollution is proving to be a major environmental problem, particularly the prevalence of microplastics in the water cycle (as in the microplastic cycle). The incineration of thermoplastics can generate energy, although at the cost of greenhouse gas emissions and toxic substances in open field situations. The remaining 25% of plastics are thermosetting plastics (thermosets), which generally cannot be recycled given how they typically burn when heated. Examples of thermosets include polyester, epoxy, and phenolic, and, given their durability and heat resistance, thermosets are found in cars and electrical appliances. There is also research underway to produce recyclable thermosets, such as through additives or photopolymerization. Thermosets are not thrown away as often into the environment as thermoplastics given their enhanced durability. Types of Plastic Recycling Currently, the recycling industry mostly considers mechanical recycling to be the foremost approach to recycling plastic waste. Mechanical recycling is used to recycle thermoplastics, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). This involves collection, washing, first and second sorting, shredding, and extrusion (reforming into plastic pellets). These pellets are then used to manufacture new products. Challenges in mechanical recycling include polymer scission, lack of sorting methods at scale, and inconsistent product quality, although it can be the most effective in terms of time, economic cost, and environmental impact. Chemical recycling … utilizes a number of technologies in which the chemical structure of the plastic is altered, including pyrolysis, gasification, hydro-cracking, and depolymerization, such as for PET, nylon (PA), polyurethane (PU), and polypropylene (PP). Chemical recycling is becoming more popular given its scalability of operations. This approach utilizes a number of technologies in which the chemical structure of the plastic is altered, including pyrolysis, gasification, hydro-cracking, and depolymerization, such as for PET, nylon (PA), polyurethane (PU), and polypropylene (PP). Dissolution of plastics in solvents (solvolysis) is also included in depolymerization, such as through hydrolysis, glycolysis (ethylene glycol), acidolysis (acids), and alcoholysis (methanol). Challenges in chemical recycling include potential toxic and hazardous byproducts being released into the environment. Finally, organic recycling (or biological recycling) utilizes microbiological treatment, either in an aerobic environment (a composting process) or an anaerobic environment (utilizing biogasification). Challenges in biological recycling include high start-up costs, limited applications of enzymes, and potential risks of using enzymes. Plastic Upcycling and Novoloop Given the limitations of recycling alone, research is underway on upcycling (the conversion of “by-products or waste products into valuable and new materials”) to convert post-consumer plastic waste into valuable products—such as footwear, automotive materials, and sporting goods. In a review of chemical upcycling methods, there have been numerous examples of using metal catalysts for depolymerization under high pressure conditions. Meanwhile, Wang has indicated that the company has been working on upcycling polyethylene over the past eight years and is now nearing completion of the planning phase for its first industrial facility. A proprietary four-step process called accelerated thermal-oxidated decomposition (ATOD) is used to produce materials for shoes and bonding products from polyethylene. E&I: What is Novoloop’s innovation in upcycling plastic waste? Miranda Wang: “Novoloop is the original developer of a novel chemical technology to transform hard-to-recycle plastic waste into performance materials. We oxidize polyethylene into chemical building blocks; then we harvest, purify, and build back up into a platform of materials that are indistinguishable from normal plastics made from fossil fuels. The formation of monomers is achieved through the addition of oxygen, which means that the mass of monomers produced can exceed the mass of plastic waste entering the process. Novoloop has demonstrated that we can reproducibly exceed 100% yields using the ATOD process.”“After monomers are created from digesting polyethylene, we implement a robust purification process that allows us to harvest virgin quality monomers for further processing. Because we build our intermediates and polymers out of virgin quality monomers, the quality of our products are high performance and consistent.” E&I: How effective is ATOD? Miranda Wang: “ATOD takes polyethylene and digests it over three to four hours and reliably makes chemical monomers for performance materials. We have successfully run this chemistry process more than a thousand times in the lab at various scales, and it has been successfully replicated by three separate contract manufacturers. We're now building a continuous integrated pilot plant for it and the support systems enabling cost competitive operations.” “What sets us apart … is our ability to upgrade commodity plastic waste into virgin quality performance materials worth 40 times more. We offer chemically upcycled products at quality and price parity to fossil-based virgin materials while delivering a significant carbon reduction.” E&I: What is unique about ATOD? Miranda Wang: “What sets us apart from existing recycling solutions is our ability to upgrade commodity plastic waste into virgin quality performance materials worth 40 times more. We offer chemically upcycled products at quality and price parity to fossil-based virgin materials while delivering a significant carbon reduction. Novoloop holds 51 patents worldwide and is uniquely advantaged over other chemical recycling.” “Novoloop offers a range of products from dicarboxylic acid monomers, polyol intermediates, and thermoplastic polyurethane resin. These are all made through Lifecycling post-consumer polyethylene using our ATOD technology. Our monomers and intermediates can be used to make products with total addressable markets of $140B, including various polyurethanes, coatings, and nylons.” E&I: How will your process be implemented on an industrial scale? Miranda Wang: “We are building chemical operations (plants) around the world to transform plastic waste from that region into monomers. Then, by partnering with a network of existing capacity in the industry, we build back up those monomers into various chemical and performance material products, which we sell around the world. We are in early stages of planning our first commercial factory. Tentative timelines point to a first project operational in 2027.” E&I: What are environmental considerations you have made for your process and factory? What are the implications once the factory is up and running? Miranda Wang: “Based on our ISO-compliant lifecycle assessment, each 20,000-metric-ton (plastic intake capacity) deployment increases our impact, diverting an additional 20,000 tons of plastic waste, preventing 120,000 tons of carbon emissions, and saving 66,000 L [about 17,435 gal] of water per year. Novoloop recovers and recycles the predominant waste products back into the system.” A Pressing Challenge Given the rate of the growth of the plastics industry and the relative ineffectiveness of current recycling approaches, it would be easy to become despondent about the idea of a waste-free world. However, Novoloop’s entry into the recycling industry with a new and innovative approach shows that humanity’s capacity to adapt and develop new ways of solving global trash problems isn’t exhausted. *Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests, including green transportation.

By Dr. Eric Larson* The following article is the second part of Dr. Eric Larson’s presentation, entitled “Negative Emission Technologies in US Decarbonization Pathways,” at the Twenty-Eighth International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences (ICUS XXVIII) in 2022. (See here the first part of his presentation.) In this [second] part of my talk, I will look at the potential role that negative emissions technologies might play in the United States if the US is to achieve its government-announced goal of net-zero emissions by 2050. For this, I want to draw on a study that I co-led, which we published in 2021, called Net-Zero America: Potential Pathways, Infrastructure, and Impacts. It can be accessed at https://netzeroamerica.princeton.edu. We tried to paint a picture in as much detail as possible of what the US energy economy would look like if net-zero emissions were achieved by 2050. What Might the US Energy/Industrial System Look Like as the Country Reduces Emissions to Net-Zero by 2050? We started with the knowledge that today’s US net emissions are about 6 gigatons (Gt) CO2/year. We drew a straight line for the net emissions to reach zero by 2050 (Figure 1). The analysis takes into account that there is a land sink today, with trees growing and soils absorbing carbon, and that we would enhance that land sink through various measures. There were experts on our team who helped us to understand that. There are also non-CO2 emissions that have to be considered, like methane and nitrous oxide that come from agricultural production. These tend to be more difficult to completely eliminate. Therefore, when you have non-CO2 emissions and a land sink, the difference between those is what the energy system will need to provide. In our study, we modeled the energy and industrial system and ended up with basically slightly negative emissions for those sectors by 2050 to meet the net-zero economywide target. We did a variety of other modeling that I will not go into detail on, but Figure 2 shows the results of our study. This shows the primary energy supply in 2050 under different pathways to net-zero emissions. 5 Net-Zero Pathways Deliver the Same Energy Services, But With Different Energy Demand and Supply Mixes The left bar shows the 2020 mix of energy sources of over 80% fossil fuels. By 2050, our reference scenario (second-from-the-left bar), without any new policy measures, looks quite similar. Then there are five scenarios that all meet the target of net-zero emissions by 2050. They all deliver the same energy services—that is, the vehicle miles traveled, the square meters of building space heated and cooled, and so on are the same. However, they do this with different mixes of energy-demand and energy-supply technologies. As an example, what we call the E+ scenario is a high-electrification scenario where buildings and vehicles are electrified very aggressively. The E− scenario involves less aggressive electrification. As one can see, electrification gives you some efficiency benefits. In fact, an electric vehicle, for example, has maybe three times the efficiency of a comparable internal combustion engine vehicle, so we have less of an energy requirement overall in the E+ scenario versus the E− scenario. An electric vehicle, for example, has maybe three times the efficiency of a comparable internal combustion engine vehicle. I want to point out the green bars in Figure 2 represent biomass. In all our scenarios, biomass is a very important contributor by 2050. Most of the biomass is used with CO2 capture and storage as well. In four of the five scenarios (scenarios E+, E-, and E+ RE-, E+ RE+, excluding scenario E- B+), we limited the amount of biomass that could be used in the energy system to that which could be delivered without changing land use from today. Taking land for bioenergy that might otherwise be used for agriculture has its potential problems. Therefore, we wanted to minimize that issue. One can see that in these four scenarios, bioenergy is at about the same level. In the scenario E- B+ (the middle pathway of the five net-zero bars), we allowed more biomass, including some land use change, and you can see that much more biomass is adopted there. In all five of our pathways, biomass is a very valuable energy resource when coupled with CO2 capture and storage. In the last two scenarios E+ RE- and E+ RE+ (right two bars), we changed the level of wind and solar generation. In the fourth bar (E+ RE-), we limited the amount of wind and solar capacity that could be added annually to about 40% more than the maximum single-year addition achieved in the recent past. In the last pathway E+ RE+ (the bar on the right), we did not place any constraint on wind or solar additions, and we required the energy system to be completely fossil-fuel free by 2050. 2050 Energy Mix in the Five Net-Zero US Pathways In the first four pathways (scenarios E+, E-, E- B+, and E+ RE-) (see Figure 2 excerpt), we still have fossil fuel use in 2050. Part of the reason we can continue using fossil fuels there is because we have CO2 capture and storage involved and, in fact, in these first four scenarios, we have between 1 billion and 2 billion tons per year of CO2 capture and storage. In the fifth scenario, E+ RE+, we did not allow carbon storage, but there is still capture of CO2, with the carbon being recycled back into fuels that are needed in the energy system. Part of the reason we can continue using fossil fuels … is because we have CO2 capture and storage involved. All five of our pathways rely on six decarbonization pillars (Figure 3) deployed at unprecedented rates. “Unprecedented” means we have not seen such rates of change historically in the US; it does not necessarily mean they are impossible rates of change. Our study delved into each of these important pillars. Here, I will show a snapshot of some results for the BECCS (bioenergy with carbon capture and storage) and DAC (direct air capture) technologies—in other words, the engineered negative-emissions technologies included in our model. Unprecedented Rates of Physical Change Across Six Essential Pillars of Decarbonization We did detail mapping and prospective siting of bioenergy facilities. Figure 4 displays our map for 2050. We did this mapping in five-year time steps. I am just showing the 2050 map. The green point sources represent bioenergy conversion with CCS (carbon capture and storage). The sites are widespread, particularly around the Midwest, but also in the Southeast as well as along the western part of the US. For the Five Net-Zero Pathways, Annual Capture at BECCS Facilities Ranges from 0.4–1.5 Gt CO2 in 2050 We designed a pipeline network for CO2 collection and transportation to underground storage locations. The gray-shaded regions in Figure 4 represent the most prospective regions for CO2 storage in the country. The volume of CO2 capture and storage that is going on in the E+ scenario, which is not our most aggressive one, is comparable to total current US oil production. This gives you an indication that CO2 capture, transport, and storage is a very significant new industry in our net-zero pathways. CO2 capture, transport, and storage is a very significant new industry in net-zero pathways. Annual Direct Air Capture (DAC) in 2050 Reaches 0.7 Gt CO2 in the Most DAC-Intensive Pathway (E-) In the upper panel of Figure 5, we see all the sources of CO2 capture in 2050 in each of our five net-zero scenarios. The lower panel in Figure 5 shows where captured CO2 (from all sources) goes. The gray in the lower panel represents CO2 stored. Most of the CO2 that is captured in the first four scenarios is stored underground. You can see that bioenergy (BE) with carbon capture and storage (CCS—BE+CCS = BECCS) plays a big role in all five of these scenarios. Direct air capture (DAC) really comes in only in the E− scenario. That is the case where we did not electrify vehicles and buildings as aggressively as we did in the E+ pathway. That leads to additional fossil fuel use in 2050, so, that then the emissions from those need to be offset. Since we have consumed the full biomass potential, here we need to adopt DAC, which in our modeling is a more expensive CO2 removal option than BECCS, and that is why it comes in later and mainly in that one scenario. Thus, both the BECCS and DAC technologies play very important roles in the US in potentially getting to net-zero emissions—and potentially in other countries as well. Just to recap, why are we interested in negative emissions? Cumulative emissions of CO2 determine future global warming. To stay below 1.5–2 °C of warming, the carbon budget that we have left to spend is shrinking quite rapidly. Negative emissions can essentially help us stay within our budget and meet those emissions thresholds. What are the various net-zero emissions or negative emissions technologies? I reviewed a number of them, including restoring and managing terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, mineralizing carbon, BECCS, and DAC with CO2 storage. All of these have a role to play in meeting the carbon challenge. But BECCS and DAC prospectively have the largest roles. I showed some results from our US study, including quite detailed modeling results, that really highlight the critical roles for those two future industries in reaching net-zero targets. *Eric Larson has a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and is the Senior Research Engineer at the Andlinger Center for Energy and the Environment, Princeton University, USA. Supporting websites: IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2018. “Summary for Policymakers.” In Global Warming of 1.5 °C: An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5 °C  https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.001. “Negative Emissions Technologies and Carbon Capture and Storage to Achieve the Paris Agreement Commitments.” https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2016.0447. “Co-production of Synfuels and Electricity from Coal + Biomass with Zero Net Carbon Emissions: An Illinois Case Study.” Energy and Environmental Science 3 (1): 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1039/B911529C. “A Review of Direct Air Capture (DAC): Scaling Up Commercial Technologies and Innovating for the Future.” Progress in Energy 3 (3): 032001. https://doi.org/10.1088/2516-1083/abf1ce. “Federal Research, Development, and Demonstration Priorities for Carbon Dioxide Removal in the United States.” Environmental Research Letters 13 (1): 015005. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaa08f.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) releases a monthly global snow and ice report that focuses on the Northern Hemisphere and sea ice. The report’s data is taken from Rutgers University Global Snow Laboratory (from 1966 to 2023) and the National Snow and Ice Data Center (from 1979 to 2023). The report for November 2023 indicates a 1.46% increasing decadal trend in Northern Hemisphere snow cover but a 2.23% decreasing decadal trend in global sea ice. The 58-year average of snow cover for the Northern Hemisphere, North America with Greenland, and Eurasia are 34.36 million square kilometers (13.26 million square miles), 13.58 million square kilometers (5.24 million square miles), and 20.77 million square kilometers (7.99 million square kilometers), respectively. The Northern Hemisphere snow cover extent for November 2023 was 35.59 million square kilometers (13.74 million square miles), which was 540,000 square kilometers (210,000 square miles) above the November average of 1991–2020 of 35.05 million square kilometers (13.53 million square miles). The North America and Greenland snow cover extent for November was 13.59 million square kilometers (5.25 million square miles), which was 280,000 square kilometers (110,000 square miles) above the November average of 1991–2020 of 13.87 million square kilometers (5.36 million square miles). Snow cover extent over Eurasia in November was 21.99 million square kilometers (8.49 million square miles), which was 810,000 square kilometers (310,000 square miles) above the November average of 1991–2020 of 21.18 million square kilometers (8.18 million square miles) Sea ice has been on a negative decadal trend across the board. Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere, and Global sea ice area are decreasing by 4.83%, 0.57%, and 2.23% per decade, respectively. Global and Southern Hemisphere sea ice were both the second lowest in Novembers of 1979–2023, at 23.93 million square kilometers (9.24 million square miles) and 14.27 million square kilometers (5.51 million square miles), respectively. Sources: NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, Monthly Global Snow and Ice Report for November 2023, published online December 2023, from https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/global-snow/202311 Rutgers University Global Snow Laboratory and their tabulated data National Snow and Ice Data Center

Seasonal Soups that (Momma Said) Can Cure Anything By Julie Peterson* While holidays typically mean extravagant meals and festive ambiance, on other days a simple, healthy, comforting bowl of soup may be just what is needed. The soup might be a special one that was served up and spoon-fed by a parent or grandparent and brings back childhood memories. Or maybe it’s a delicious soup that was brought by a friend to mollify the symptoms of the flu or a cold, or to cheer a friend when they were feeling down. There is no doubt that soup can be a soothing treat, and most people have a favorite go-to soup (and maybe even a favorite bowl and spoon). This season, ladle up some of these international classics and see if they don’t bring some much-needed soothing and a sense of well-being. Immune-Boosting Qualities of Soup Almost every culture swears by a variety of soups to nurse the sick back to health. Most people would likely agree that soup can help relieve cold symptoms by inhaling the steam to relieve congestion. Soup broth also provides fluid, which thins mucus and helps prevent dehydration. There is plenty of research on the health advantages of a multitude of available soup ingredients. It is well known that certain vegetables boost immunity, like leafy greens and brightly colored vegetables that offer loads of vitamin C, beta carotene, and antioxidants. Spices such as garlic, ginger, and turmeric have been considered for ages to have immune-boosting properties that fight infection. The high levels of omega-3 fatty acids in some fish (e.g., mackerel, salmon, tuna) may reduce infection and sickness by enhancing the activity of certain types of white bloods cells of the immune system. Olive oil fights inflammation. The list goes on, but it’s time to put the pot on the stove and get cooking! Chicken Noodle Chicken soup has been a popular home remedy for the common cold since at least the 12th century. Poultry is high in vitamin B-6, which can reduce inflammation and is needed in the creation of new red blood cells, and it’s loaded with zinc, which increases production of white blood cells. The following recipe has a German twist with Würze seasoning and spaetzle dumplings. It is recorded in the tradition of many family recipes—without exact quantities and measurements—because it was handed down from generation to generation and taught in the kitchen. This recipe can be completed easily without exact measurements. Chicken soup has been a popular home remedy for the common cold since at least the 12th century. Mom’s Homemade Chicken Noodle Soup Recipe by Tami Hetzel, reprinted with permission Ingredients for Soup: 1 large package frozen chicken breasts Chicken soup base (bouillon cubes or paste) Chopped celery Chopped onion Sliced carrots Chopped fresh parsley 1 can corn, drained 3 bay leaves “Crazy Salt” (saltless seasoning) A few splashes of Würze Seasoning Salt to taste (1 ½ – 2 tsp) Pepper to taste (1/4 – ½ tsp) Garlic powder to taste (1/2 – 1 tsp) Ribbon noodles Dumplings (recipe below) Directions: Place chicken breasts in a large pot; cover with water and add 2 tsp salt. Bring water to a boil, then lower heat and cover. Cook for 30 minutes to 1 hour. When chicken is done, remove from liquid and place in colander to drain—but keep the water. This is the base for the soup. Run a spatula along the edges of pot to loosen any chicken debris. With a small sieve, collect and discard any floating particles in chicken water. Put water back on burner and heat at medium. Add more water for more soup. Add 2 to 3 tablespoons of chicken soup base. Add chopped celery, onions, carrots, parsley, bay leaves, and drained corn. Season broth with salt, pepper, garlic powder, crazy salt, and Würze to taste. Let simmer. When chicken has cooled, peel off skin, pull chicken off bone, and shred with fingers. Add shredded chicken to broth; taste and add spices or more chicken base as needed. Let simmer. About 20 minutes before serving, turn heat to medium high; once soup is hot, toss in a couple handfuls of ribbon noodles, cover, and lower heat to medium low. Let noodles cook while preparing dumplings. Ingredients for Dumplings: 2–3 cups flour ½ tsp salt 1 tsp ground nutmeg 4 eggs Directions: Start with 2 cups flour and mix all ingredients together well. Dough should be elastic and stick to spoon. Stir hard and fast until bubbles pop. Add small amounts of flour as needed to get dough to elastic consistency. Drop by spoonfuls into boiling soup and cover. Turn heat to medium. Soup is done when dumplings puff up and float to top. Miso This traditional Japanese soup is made with a dashi stock (typically using dried seaweed, dried fish, and dried mushrooms) and miso (fermented soybean paste). Some drink it as a healthful broth for the abundant vitamins and minerals, and others use it to improve digestion as it is high in probiotics. For flavor and health, miso soup is a staple in Japanese cuisine and is served almost daily for breakfast, lunch, or dinner. It may be enjoyed as a plain broth or with other ingredients. Made-from-scratch miso recipes can be found at Just One Cookbook, or one can simply experiment with the broth and add other ingredients such as mushrooms, seafood, root vegetables, tofu, seaweed, leafy greens, or noodles to make a nourishing meal. Ching Bo Leung Ching Bo Leung is an all-purpose tonic soup made with seven dried Chinese herbs. If no Chinese supermarket is available to purchase the individual herbs, herb blends are available in premeasured seasoning packets. The soup is often made with pork or chicken but can also be made without the meat and with the addition of sugar to make it a sweetened broth. The Chinese Soup Lady offers a recipe and recommends that children be given only small servings of Chinese herbs. Borscht Popular in Ukraine and Eastern Europe, borscht is made with powerhouse foods such as beets, carrots, cabbage, tomatoes, garlic, and onions. But anyone who is beet wary need not fear borscht because the beets all but disappear into the complex flavors of this multidimensional soup. And once borscht is appreciated for flavor, the nutritional benefits can’t be ignored. According to the American Heart Association, ancient Romans believed that beets had medicinal properties, and modern science has proven them correct. According to the American Heart Association, ancient Romans believed that beets had medicinal properties, and modern science has proven them correct. Research has shown that beets can improve cardiovascular health, lower blood pressure, increase blood flow, increase oxygen uptake, and may protect against dementia. Bring on the borscht! Dal Common in India, dal (also spelled, dhal, daal, or dahl) is a vegan and gluten-free dish that is packed with protein, fiber, and beneficial spices such as ginger and turmeric. It is typically made with lentils, but any dried, split pulses (e.g., lentils, peas, and beans) that do not need soaking before cooking can be used. The soup can also be adjusted to fit different flavor preferences from mild to very spicy, and is delicious served with naan bread, basmati rice, or sauteed spinach. Recipes like Red Lentil Dahl and Indian Red Lentil Dal are popular worldwide. Explore the idea of ramping up the spices or trying other split pulses such as chickpeas, kidney beans, or black-eyed peas in dal recipes. Peanut With ingredients like sweet potatoes or yams, chickpeas, and fresh spinach, African Peanut Soup delivers a good dose of vitamins, minerals, and fiber. The recipe can be varied to include corn, eggplant, okra, chicken, or tofu, and it can be served over brown rice, millet, or quinoa. Vegetable A centuries-old European folktale called Stone Soup is about a traveler who tells villagers he can make soup with a stone. He starts the soup with a stone and a pot of water, which inspires others to throw in a few vegetables and meat. Soon, a feast was created. The moral of the story is that there is value in sharing. It’s a great story to tell over a dinner with friends where everyone brings an ingredient they have on hand to add into the soup pot. It’s also a great way to get kids interested in cooking. Let the kids shop for the veggies they would like to contribute to the meal and act out the story from Stone Soup while making the meal. One small potato could be the “stone” in the soup. The moral of the story [Stone Soup] is that there is value in sharing. Here is a recipe from the author’s kitchen for a vegetable soup that is flexible enough to incorporate what is on hand, in season, or brought by guests. It can be as spicy as one likes, low in sodium, gluten-free, vegan, and contains a lot of fiber and protein. Vegetable Soup Recipe by Julie Peterson Soup Base: 1 64 oz bottle Campbell’s Spicy Hot V8 vegetable juice (low sodium if possible) 1 29 oz can crushed tomatoes 5 cloves garlic, pressed 1 Tbsp liquid aminos 1 Tbsp basil or Italian blend 1 Tbsp turmeric powder Add additional seasoning (black pepper, salt, hot pepper sauce, paprika, etc.) to taste. Ingredients: 1 head green cabbage, coarsely chopped 10 red potatoes, diced with peel 10 large carrots, chopped (orange, yellow, or purple) 5 stalks of celery including leaves, chopped 3 yellow onions, diced 1 16 oz can of black beans, drained 1 16 oz can of white beans (butter, great northern, or navy), drained Possible additions: Chopped or diced spinach, turnip, rutabaga, sweet potato, zucchini, green beans, peas, corn, green chiles, etc. Directions: In a large kettle, begin to heat soup base on medium heat. Begin chopping washed vegetables. As each ingredient is ready, toss into kettle. When all ingredients are in kettle, stir and add water, more V8, or vegetable broth to cover vegetables. Reduce heat to low and simmer uncovered until carrots are as soft as desired. Serve. Soup can be thick or thin, spooned or sipped, creamy or chunky, spicy or sweet, and can include a wide range of ingredients. Soup might be an appetizer or an entire meal at any time of the day. There are holidays for soup and there are soups for holidays, with myriad international possibilities for any day of the year. One thing is for sure: soup is conventional and exceptional at the same time. *Julie Peterson is a freelance journalist based in the Midwest region of the US who has written hundreds of articles on natural approaches to health, environmental issues, and sustainable living.

How This Hardy ‘Wonder Plant’ May Help with a Host of ‘Thorny’ Problems By Dr. Mahesh Kumar Gaur* Through the ages, certain herbs and plants have maintained a reputation as a treatment or remedy for all kinds of health problems—from ancient ailments to infectious diseases that are new to humans, such as COVID-19. Hiding their potency beneath the ground in roots (ginger, turmeric) or behind thorns (rose hips) only seems to enhance their powers and mystique. Sea buckthorn is one such plant: a hardy, thorny, fruiting shrub that has been used for hundreds of years in numerous cultures as a health-imparting herb. Sea buckthorn’s reputation has not diminished with time; in fact, it is growing, keeping pace with today’s challenges. Long considered to be a unique, "magical" herb suitable for treating ailments known and unknown, it is called “Sanjeevani Booti” or “life-giving herb” in Indian culture. The main parts of the plant, including the roots, thorns, twigs, flowers, and fruit were used traditionally by the people of India’s cold, arid region as medicine and nutritional supplement, as well as for fuel and fencing. Today, sea buckthorn is widely sold as a health supplement. It has been the subject of extensive research and documentation for many years, with a strong focus on its health benefits, medicinal properties, and its phytochemical composition and pharmacological characteristics. Recently, preclinical testing of sea buckthorn has been conducted for efficacy against the COVID-19 virus and as a treatment for high-altitude sickness for Indian soldiers. Recently, preclinical testing of sea buckthorn has been conducted for efficacy against the COVID-19 virus and as a treatment for high-altitude sickness in Indian soldiers serving at India’s northern border. Historical Use and Propagation of Sea Buckthorn Sea buckthorn (Hippophae spp. L.) is a member of the Elaeagnaceae family. It is highly regarded by people in India’s alpine region and is often referred to as the “Wonder Plant,” “Ladakh Gold,” “Leh Berry,” “Golden Bush” or “Gold Mine.” In Eurasia, about 150 varieties of sea buckthorn have been verified based on differences in the plant’s use-value, habitat, and appearance of its berries. A wind-pollinated, thorny, dioecious shrub (the shrubs are either male or female), sea buckthorn has slender leaves ranging from two to six centimeters in length with short petioles (leafstalks) and smooth margins. Silvery scales cover both sides of the leaves. The berries come in vibrant shades of red, orange, or yellow, and remain on the shrub through the winter. The plants are commonly found along rivers, channels, and in the vicinity of agricultural fields. They can also thrive in inhospitable environments, such as sandy, rocky, barren wastelands, and even salt-affected soils. Sea buckthorn enjoys widespread distribution in the Leh and Kargil districts of Ladakh (India). It displays exceptional resilience to abiotic stresses like challenging soil conditions, moisture levels, and nutrient availability, as well as extreme winter temperatures of -40℃ (-40 °F). This hardy plant is highly adaptable to drought conditions, as well. The Nutritional Value and Usage of Sea Buckthorn Sea buckthorn’s berries and seeds are used in ayurveda—a classic ancient Indian system of medicine developed in the period 5000–500 BC—and Ladakh's ancient traditional "Amchi" medical system to treat a variety of ailments. The therapeutic efficacy of sea buckthorn was first described in the 8th century in the Tibetan medical classic rGyud-bZhi (Four Textbooks of Tibetan Pharmacopeia), which is the classical medical textbook of Sowa-Rigpa (Amchi/Tibetan medicine). Today, it is considered by Tibetan locals to be a powerful, all-inclusive “wonder oil,”  given its benefits for internal and external use. In the 1980s, the Russian Space Department gave sea buckthorn to astronauts as a nutritional supplement and to combat radiation in space. There’s even been a “cosmic” use for sea buckthorn: In the 1980s, the Russian Space Department gave sea buckthorn to astronauts as a nutritional supplement and to treat excessive radiation exposure in space. More than 200 sea buckthorn-based formulations have historically been used, either alone or in combination with other medicinal plants. The most common formulations of sea buckthorn are used to treat lung and phlegm diseases, blood disorders, menstruation problems, throat infections, liver problems, spleen and stomach disorders, cancer, and diabetes. The multitude of vitamins in these pea-sized, light-orange to dark-orange fruit berries are well known. They are one of the best sources of vitamin C (360-2500mg per 100g), not to mention a good source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, including omega-3 and omega-6. In addition, the high-quality, late-maturing berries, juice, and seeds contain a variety of minerals. The berries primarily provide two sources of important products: juice from the fleshy tissue, and a single seed from each berry. The juice is a healthy beverage, high in suspended solids and rich in vitamin C and carotenes. Sea buckthorn fruit berries and seed oil contain over 190 different types of bioactive compounds, respectively, including minerals, vitamins, polysaccharides, unsaturated fatty acids, terpenoids, polyphenolic compounds, nonsteroidal compounds, flavonoids, organic acids, and volatile components. The seed oil contains vitamin K (109.8 to 230 mg/100g), which promotes blood clotting. The oil is extremely unsaturated and is used in cosmetics, phytopharmaceuticals, or UV skin protectant preparations due to its light absorption and emollient qualities. Sea buckthorn contains a variety of secondary metabolites and bioactive compounds that have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, antiplatelet, anticancer, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hyperlipidemic, antimicrobial, antiviral, and neuroprotective activities. Because it contains such a variety of bioactive compounds, sea buckthorn products should only be taken under the guidance of an expert healthcare provider. Combining sea buckthorn with blood-thinning drugs or supplements, for instance, could raise the risk of bleeding. Possible Efficacy Against COVID-19 Preclinical studies conducted by the Defense Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences (DIPAS) and the Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences (INMAS) in Delhi have revealed that sea buckthorn can effectively safeguard military personnel in the Himalayan border region against health issues associated with high altitudes, such as hypoxia, frostbite, and UV radiation. Experts believe that widespread cultivation of sea buckthorn could also offer solutions to combat the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, based on in vitro results, Chinese researchers have proposed iso-rhamnetin, a flavonoid compound in sea buckthorn, to be a potential therapeutic candidate compound against COVID-19. However, these studies are yet to be proven with adequate scientific data and accepted by the World Health Organization (WHO) and other scientific bodies. Promotion by the Government of India The Indian government’s Defense Institute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR) succeeded in developing technology capable of producing a drink made from the highly acidic berries of sea buckthorn. The process has been enthusiastically adopted by manufacturers, and ready-to-serve beverages are now available in the Indian market under the brand names of “Leh Berry,” “Ladakh Berry,” and “Power Berry.” The tea prepared from its leaves is high in flavonoids, vitamins, and therapeutic properties. As this is an effective plant for boosting the immune system, an array of products such as antioxidant herbal supplements, sea buckthorn oil, soft gel capsules, sea buckthorn beverage, jam, jelly, UV protection oil, bakery items, animal feed, etc. are at various stages of development and commercialization. In 2012, the Indian government initiated a project called the National Mission on Sea Buckthorn, with an allocation of Rs 1,000 crores (about $120,000 USD), as part of its Climate Change Program. Apart from DIHAR, Dr. Virendra Singh, who has done a seminal work on sea buckthorn at CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur, and the Indian Institute of Technology, is actively working on the therapeutic aspects of sea buckthorn to develop various medicinal products in collaboration with other research organizations and private sector companies. Challenges to Developing Sea Buckthorn Products Despite the sea buckthorn plant’s many purposes and benefits, it remains a relatively underutilized and overlooked medicinal plant that deserves greater attention and techno-scientific investment to conserve and popularize it in the following ways: Organized and systematized cultivation of sea buckthorn is critical for the conservation of the species, as it is presently restricted solely to the Trans-Himalayan area. Because the plant is a dioecious wind-pollinated shrub, and the female bears fruit after two or three years, the gender of sea buckthorn seedlings cannot be identified until they blossom, which takes three or four years. As a result, a DNA-based marker for early-sex determination is required to advance its propagation. The plant’s sharp thorns make harvesting the fruit difficult. Ease of harvesting is restricted to the accessible periphery of huge clusters of sea buckthorn plants with nearly inaccessible berries at their inner cores. Peripheral harvesting yields only about 25% to 35% of the fruit. In addition, sea buckthorn’s main growing areas are generally cut off from the rest of India for six months per year. Thornless and improved variants need to be bred, screened, and selected. Standardized, systematized propagation methods must be created to speed up mass plant multiplication and improve plant conservation. There is a strong need to develop an appropriate mechanical harvester to save both time and labor. Future Strategies Recently, the sea buckthorn plant’s value as an agricultural product has entirely changed its status. The Indian government’s Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change and various R&D organizations have initiated research and development projects due to the plant’s environmental, biotechnological, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, and socioeconomic potential. Traditional usage, along with enhanced economic value and recent scientific studies, have provided enormous benefits to modern civilization from what has been a lesser-known Himalayan plant, From the early 1990s, India’s Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO) has helped lead sea buckthorn research in India, initiating various R&D programs while other organizations in India have also worked on projects related to different aspects sea buckthorn. The government of India is researching how to utilize the complete potential of this wild shrub and is encouraging Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) and other development agencies/groups to explore the value-addition potential of sea buckthorn for new products. At present, there is a need to provide farmers with better prices and market security and develop and employ fruit harvesting machinery. Natural forests could be converted into productive crop stands by adopting modern forest management techniques to enhance the rate of fruit production and collection and ensure ample supply to sea buckthorn-based industries. Farmers also need high-quality planting material for peripheral plantations, and there is a need to improve agro-techniques for growing sea buckthorn, such as standardization of spacing and pit sizes for better growth performance. Finally, sea buckthorn growers need better agricultural extension and training services, as well as value-addition to their products to increase and meet market demand today and in the future. *Dr. Mahesh K. Gaur is Principal Scientist at the ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India, and is currently working at its Regional Research Station, Leh (The Union Territory of Ladakh, India). He specializes in aridlands geography and the application of satellite remote sensing, GIS, and digital image processing for natural resources mapping, management and assessment, and also researches drought, desertification, land degradation, indigenous knowledge systems, and the socio-economic milieu of the Deserts of India. He is author/editor of 10 books on Drylands, Desertification, Watershed, Food Security, Remote Sensing, etc. A member of the Association of American Geographers and the Society for Conservation Biology, and several editorial boards of journals, he has been awarded the Citizen Karamveer Award 2011 by iCONGO; and recognitions by the UGC of India and Scientific Assembly of the International Committee on Space Research (COSPAR).

A recent Pew Research Center survey of Americans found that concerns about climate change, though dependent on factors such as age and political affiliation, have declined somewhat in recent years. The percentage of respondents that stated they personally care “a great deal” about climate change dropped by 7%, from 44% in 2018 to 37% in 2023. Those who said they cared "not at all" increased by 5%, from 22% to 27%, and those who cared “some” rose slightly, 33% to 35% over the same time period, according to Pew poll data. Concerns about future climate-related issues remain high in 2023, however. The Pew survey of 8,842 adults, taken between September 25 and October 1, revealed that “63% expect things to get worse in their lifetime.” A substantial percentage (43%) of US adults think climate change is already “causing a great deal or quite a bit of harm to people in the U.S.” while another 28% say it is causing “some harm.” According to National Public Radio and UPI, Pew researcher Alec Tyson said, "The majority of Americans see some fairly severe environmental harms as likely to happen over the next 30 years. For example, 73% say they think a growing number of plant and animal species will go extinct.” Tyson added that “61% say they think heat waves will cause large numbers of people to die in the U.S. every year and 58% think rising sea levels will force large numbers of people in the U.S. to move away from the coast." Younger adults are more likely than their elders to expect adverse impacts locally from climate change. According to Pew, “56% of young adults ages 18 to 29 say their local community will be a worse place to live because of climate change in the next 30 years,” whereas about 30% of young adults “do not think climate change will have much of an effect on conditions in their area." Sources: https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2023/10/25/views-on-future-climate-impacts-environmental-harms/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/08/09/what-the-data-says-about-americans-views-of-climate-change/ https://www.yahoo.com/news/americans-expect-climate-change-effects-215508882.html?fr=sycsrp_catchall

CONTENTS NEWS SECTION US Climate Attitudes Shift Slightly The Earth & I Editorial Team Japanese Scientists Make Shocking Discovery The Earth & I Editorial Team COP 28’s UAE Consensus Draws Mixed Reviews The Earth & I Editorial Team DATA SECTION NOAA Global Snow and Sea Ice Report Indicates Decadal Trends: Slightly More Snow Cover, Slightly Less Sea Ice The Earth & I Editorial Team Two Decades of UN Data: Increases in Food Production, Hunger, and Obesity The Earth & I Editorial Team UN 15-Country Report Finds Only 61% of Internally Displaced Persons Have Adequate Shelter The Earth & I Editorial Team The Hottest 12-month Period Above Baseline The Earth & I Editorial Team Gap Between the Present and 2030 Climate Goals Calls for Accelerated Change The Earth & I Editorial Team 2023 Report Finds Stagnation in Corporate Directors’ Engagement with ESG The Earth & I Editorial Team ECOSYSTEMS The Race to Grow New Biocrusts Mark Smith Innovations in Chemical Catalysis Will Revolutionize the Future Prof. MacMillan FOOD Zuppa! Sopa! Soupe! Julie Peterson Himalayan Sea Buckthorn Joins the Fight Against COVID-19 Dr. Mahesh Kumar Gaur HUMAN HEALTH Whole Foods, Herbs and Healing David Christopher Microplastics in Babies—Scary Science Meets Eerie Silence Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe CLIMATE CHANGE School ‘Bike Buses’ Travel New Roads Gordon Cairns Negative Emission Technologies Tackle U.S. Decarbonization Dr. Eric Larson NATURAL DISASTERS Europe’s Abandoned Mountain Farms Kate Pugnoli ENERGY A ‘Current’ Case for Nuclear Energy Christopher Olson Reducing Friction in Machines Means Less Drag on the Environment Rick Laezman WATER QUALITY The Blissful Benefits of Hot Springs Rainer Fuchs Danish NGO Launches Zero-Input ‘Ocean Regeneration’ Farms Yasmin Prabhudas WASTE MANAGEMENT Combustible Wood and Coal Leave Mountains of Troublesome Waste Robin Whitlock ECONOMICS & POLICY Feeding the World While Healing the Planet—the Genius of Permaculture Marion W. Miller EDUCATION Promoting Grassroots Eco-Awareness Robert R. Selle

By Rainer Fuchs* There may be no better way to unwind from travel or work, or ease a few aches and pains, than to visit one of the world's many beloved hot springs. They dot the planet, offering one of nature's supreme treats, and since science has affirmed their healing applications and entrepreneurs have surrounded some with healthful amenities, why not plan a visit to one this winter? Balneotherapy, or bath therapy, refers to the use of warm or cold bathing to treat an illness or condition; often the bath may be taken in mineral waters or mineral-laden mud or peloids (mature clay). Additionally, such baths can be accompanied by the drinking of mineral water and the inhalation of rejuvenating gases. Benefits from “hot potting,” a term for soaking in natural hot springs, can include improved vascular function from heat therapy (hot water immersion), increased diameter of the artery for reducing vascular dysfunction (based on a review of various studies), and potential use as thermal therapy for those with risk of developing metabolic disease. Hot potting has been used for thousands of years for a variety of ailments. And although some studies do indicate a number of health benefits derived from soaking in hot springs, hot potting has yet to be proven to detoxify the body, prevent certain diseases, or cure health issues. Also, a note of caution: water temperatures of hot springs can range from warm to quite hot; thus one should be mindful of one’s tolerances for prolonged heat exposure. And as with any therapeutic practice, it is not a substitute for consulting a physician about health problems. And although some studies do indicate a number of health benefits derived from soaking in hot springs, hot potting has yet to be proven to detoxify the body, prevent certain diseases, or cure health issues. Some Popular Global Hot Springs There is a myriad of hot springs around the world to enjoy for relaxation and potential health benefits. Blue Lagoon (Iceland) The Blue Lagoon is a geothermal hot spring in Iceland that was created in 1976 using the Svartsengi Power Station’s wastewater that had accumulated over time. This wastewater is brine with a salt concentration that is about two-thirds that of seawater, as it is originally extracted from a geothermal reservoir resulting from a mixture of sea water and groundwater. The water is also home to a diverse microbial ecosystem. The lagoon contains microalgae that can reduce uneven facial skin pigmentation, and there is research suggesting that extracts from the silica mud and algae there have the “capacity to improve skin barrier function and to prevent premature skin aging.” For the curious, the Blue Lagoon also offers its own line of facial skincare products derived from the lagoon’s microalgae and silica. The lagoon contains microalgae that can reduce uneven facial skin pigmentation, and there is research suggesting that extracts from the silica mud and algae there have the “capacity to improve skin barrier function and to prevent premature skin aging.” Hierapolis-Pamukkale (Turkey) Equally remarkable are the remnants of Hierapolis, an ancient, Hellenistic spa town, spanning 1,077 ha (2,661 acres) in Pamukkale, Turkey. This geographical and architectural wonder, a UNESCO world heritage site since 1988, is known for its travertine (terrestrial limestone) terraces with pools and related hot springs that appeared naturally through the evolvement of regional tectonics. The Pamukkale Geothermal Field is home to thermal and cold waters of varying categories. Its thermal waters are divided into calcium-bicarbonate and calcium-sulfate types, while its cold waters are classified as calcium-bicarbonate and magnesium-bicarbonate types. The water itself has outlet temperatures of about 35 °C (95 °F), and it contains various cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, Si4+, K+, and B3+) and anions (HCO3-, SO­42-, Cl-, F­­-, and NO3-) as well as detectable amounts of radon. Potential Health Benefits of Hot Springs Bathing in mineral waters may provide health benefits, particularly to the skin, cardiovascular system, metabolism, and mental health. Persian mineral waters have been shown to help reduce psoriasis while a Nepalese hot spring has led people to report a temporary reduction in musculoskeletal pain due to its relatively high sulfate and chlorine content. Bathing in mineral waters may provide health benefits, particularly to the skin, cardiovascular system, metabolism, and mental health. There is also research suggesting that bathing in water with hydrogen sulfide (despite it being a poisonous gas) can reduce inflammation from mycoplasma (a type of bacteria) and bathing in water with salt-bromide-iodine can have a mild anti-inflammatory effect on the airways. Health Promotion through Hot Springs (Japan) Japan is known for its bathing culture, with a daily bath at home or at public bathhouses (sentō) still being common, along with its numerous hot springs (onsen) and inns (ryokan) with baths across the country. Even monkeys take part in the comfort of hot springs! Japanese researchers have found hot spring bathing habits to be associated with lowering blood pressure, enhancing sleep quality, and elevating mood and feelings of well-being. However, elderly bathers or those with heart issues should be extra careful of changes in their blood pressure and get out of the water if they start to feel dizzy or lightheaded. Japanese researchers have found hot spring bathing habits to be associated with lowering blood pressure, enhancing sleep quality, and elevating mood and feelings of well-being. Examples of hot springs include the Kurokawa Onsen in Kyushu in a forest setting, private and outdoor onsen in Hakone (southwest of Tokyo), and the Toyotomi Onsen in Hokkaido. Notably, the Toyotomi Onsen has been approved by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare as a collaborative-type health promotion facility, which permits Japanese citizens to deduct some of the costs as medical expenses on their income taxes. As of November 2023, there are a total of twenty-two hot spring-related health promotion facilities in Japan [website in Japanese], including the Nagayu Onsen Gozenyu in Oita Prefecture and Gero Onsen Suimeikan in Gifu Prefecture. Although Japanese springs are generally known for their mineral content, the Misasa Onsen is known for its high concentration of radon. There is a study investigating associations between radon hot spring bathing and health conditions for a sample (>5,000) of Misasa residents, concluding that those who bathed in a radon hot spring more than once a week were associated with higher self-rated health and alleviation of hypertension and gastroenteritis. Low doses of radon in balneotherapy for rats using water from Tskaltubo spring was also found to result in decrease of anxiety in rats. However, radon hormesis or radon therapy should be handled with caution, and one should consult their physician of the risks of this type of treatment. Hot Springs in National Parks (US) In the US, hot springs can be found in Yellowstone National Park (in Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana) and Hot Springs National Park (in Arkansas). Yellowstone National Park has hot springs that are scalding hot and should not be touched, but the Yellowstone Hot Springs resort offers natural mineral bathing. Ten hot springs from Yellowstone were found to be categorized into four groups: travertine-precipitating, mixed-alkaline-chloride, alkaline-chloride, and acid-chloride-sulfate. Likewise, Hot Springs National Park in central Arkansas does not offer outdoor bathing, but visitors are allowed to touch some outdoor thermal water, drink from thermal spring fountains, and visit two bathhouses to soak in the thermal water. The temperature of water arriving at the surface is roughly 143 °F, which needs to be cooled before the capacity of over 600,000 gallons per day can be distributed for public use. Bathing at Home For those who can't travel to hot springs or to a spa, bathing at home can offer respite after a long day of work or exercise. Recipes for mineral baths at home typically involve some combination of salts, essential oils (for use in aromatherapy), herbs, and other ingredients. However, caution is advised when concocting recipes at home, as some commercial salts were found to be contaminated with microplastics in 2018. In addition, essential oils should be diluted and care should be taken to avoid direct contact with one’s skin. *Rainer Fuchs is a freelance journalist working mainly on topics pertaining to health and issues on environmental sustainability.