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RFK Jr.: ‘Get these toxic dyes out of the foods our families eat’ Candies and other foods sold in the US are colored with a variety of petroleum-based dyes.  Adithyavr (CC-BY-SA-4.0) Wikimedia It isn’t easy being a food dye named FD&C Green No. 3. That’s because on April 22, 2025, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) announced  an initiative to phase out petroleum-based synthetic food dyes from the US food supply by the end of 2026. This move aims to address growing health concerns  associated with these additives, particularly their potential impact on children's health.   According to ABC News , Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Commissioner Marty Makary told reporters at a news conference that “the FDA is taking action to remove petroleum-based food dyes from the US food supply and from medications. For the last 50 years, American children have increasingly been living in a toxic soup of synthetic chemicals,” he said.      Speaking at the same event, Health and Human Services (HHS) Secretary Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., said that “four years from now, we're going to have most of these products off the market, or you will know about them when you go to the grocery store.”   HHS Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr.  ©US DHH FDA Commissioner Marty Makarty.  ©US FDA Why Phase Them Out? Petroleum-based food dyes, such as Red No. 40, Yellow No. 5, and Blue No. 1, have been linked to various health issues , including hyperactivity, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and potential carcinogenic effects. For instance, Red No. 3 has been associated with cancer in animal studies, leading to its ban in 2023. The FDA's decision to phase out these dyes is part of a broader effort  to reduce children's exposure to potentially harmful substances in food.   How Are These Dyes Produced? In a recent article in Prevention , Scott Keatley, R.D., co-owner of  Keatley Medical Nutrition Therapy , explained that “petroleum-based food dyes are synthetic color additives derived from crude oil.”   “They’re manufactured in a lab through a multi-step chemical process and are used to enhance the appearance of processed foods, making products more vibrant or consistent in color,” he added.   Petroleum-based compounds, like benzene, are commonly used in the production of artificial food dyes, with the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifying benzene as “carcinogenic to humans.”      Which Dyes Are Affected? The FDA plans to revoke the authorization for two rarely used synthetic food colorings—Citrus Red No. 2 and Orange B—within the coming months. Additionally, the agency aims to eliminate six other synthetic dyes from the food supply by the end of 2026. According to the New York Post , these dyes include FD&C Green No. 3, Red No. 40, Yellow No. 5, Yellow No. 6, Blue No. 1, and Blue No. 2.   According to Prevention , petroleum-based food dyes can be found in a variety of food types, including candy, baking decorations, packaged frostings and icings, ice cream cones, frozen dairy desserts, meal replacement drinks and bars, cookies, toaster pastries, ice pops, certain baby foods, sports drinks, some supplements, and some medications. They can also be found in some packaged cereals  in the US.   Who Supports the Ban? Consumer advocacy groups and public health organizations have largely supported the FDA's decision. A survey  by CivicScience found that 79% of US adults “at least “somewhat support” the phase-out of artificial food dyes, with parents of older children showing particularly strong approval. According to verywellhealth , Brian Ronholm , director of food policy at Consumer Reports, said “the bright colors send a message especially to kids that the product is appealing, leading them to potentially consume high amounts of foods that are laden with sugar and can contribute to obesity and other health issues."   Will There Be Opposition? "There are animal studies that show that food dyes have been associated to outcomes such as cancer," said   ABC News  Medical Correspondent Dr. Darien Sutton. "But the FDA maintains that these studies have not shown sufficient evidence that that harm could be effected in humans."   "When you look at the overall evidence, it is difficult to see a clear cause and effect. But if there's no clear benefit when adding something like a food additive other than making food look better, then many argue let's just simply take it out," Sutton said.   The Road Ahead The FDA's initiative represents a significant step toward reformulating the US food supply to prioritize health and safety. While the transition to natural color additives may present challenges, the move aligns with similar actions taken by other nations, such as within the European Union, which has implemented warning labels on foods containing certain synthetic dyes, namely Red 40, Yellow 6, and Yellow 5. As the phase-out progresses, ongoing research and collaboration between regulatory agencies, the food industry, and public health organizations will help ensure the successful implementation of this policy.   “For too long, some food producers have been feeding Americans petroleum-based chemicals without their knowledge or consent,” Kennedy said  in the FDA press release. “These poisonous compounds offer no nutritional benefit and pose real, measurable dangers to our children’s health and development. That era is coming to an end. We’re restoring gold-standard science, applying common sense, and beginning to earn back the public’s trust. And we’re doing it by working with industry to get these toxic dyes out of the foods our families eat every day.”

Shows Progress Toward ‘Triple Billion’ Target and Health-Related Mortality Rates     The World Health Organization (WHO) has been publishing annual reports on world health statistics since 2005, with a focus on health-related sustainable development goals (SDGs) since 2016. WHO’s 2025 report  focuses on global healthy life expectancy (HALE), prevalence of infectious diseases, and health risk factors (such as malnutrition, tobacco use, and air pollution). Below are some key findings from the report. Data in tabulated form  is also available. Global HALE increased from 58.1 years in 2000 to 63.5 years in 2019, but then dropped to about 61.96 in 2021. This decrease in life expectancy was primarily due to the COVID-19 pandemic.  Globally, babies born in 2000 had about a 40.4% chance of dying before reaching 70 years old. By 2019, this mortality risk fell to 29.9% for babies born that year.  Overall, Africa had the highest mortality risk, with babies born in 2019 having a 46.3% chance of dying before age 70. The Western Pacific region had the lowest mortality risk, at 21.5%.  SDG Target 3.1  is to “reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births.” According to the report, this ratio has declined from about 328 per 100,000 live births (or 444,000 maternal deaths) in 2000 to 197 per 100,000 live births (or 260,000 maternal deaths) in 2023.  SDG Target 3.9   is to “reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution and contamination.” The WHO report said 1.4 million deaths were attributed to lack of access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene services in 2019, or 18.3 deaths per 100,000 people overall. Africa had the highest rate at 46.7 per 100,000.   There was an estimated 6.7 million deaths globally attributed to air pollution (particulate matter) in 2019, or about 104 deaths per 100,000 people.  In 2018, WHO started the Triple Billion target  of reaching 1 billion people in three categories: “healthier populations,” universal health coverage, and health emergencies protection.  The “healthier populations” goal was met in 2022 and reached about 1.4 billion in 2024. This is projected to increase to 1.5 billion in 2025.  Universal health coverage stood at 431 million in 2024 and is projected to reach 500 million—the halfway point—by 2025.  Health emergencies protection reached 637 million in 2024, with an expected increase to 697 million by 2025.  Sources:   WHO - World Health Statistics 2025 Report WHO - World Health Statistics 2025 Report Data Annex    WHO - SDG Target 3.1 WHO - SDG Target 3.9 WHO - Triple Billion Progress

California Overrepresented in Ozone and Particulate Matter Pollution Whether a resident or visitor to the US, air pollution—including particulate matter, carbon dioxide, and the like—is a concern given its potential health and environmental impacts. The American Lung Association released its annual "State of the Air" report  that highlights particulate matter and ozone pollution data in the US, by county and city from 2021 to 2023. Below are key findings from the report. About 46% of Americans—156 .1 million people—were living in places with unhealthy levels of ozone or particle pollution in 2021-2023. This is a 19% increase from 131.2 million in the previous year’s 2020-2022 report . In 2021 to 2023, 125.2 million people (about 37% of the population) were exposed to levels of ozone that “put their health at risk.” States from the Midwest down to Texas were most affected, and Canadian wildfires in 2023 and high temperatures with emissions were major contributing factors. California had the most counties in the top 10 for ozone and particulate matter pollution. San Bernardino had the highest ozone pollution at 153.7 weighted average days, while Kern had the highest particulate matter and annual particulate matter pollution at 44.3 weighted average days and 16.2 micrograms per cubic meter, respectively. The location with the highest ozone pollution was Los Angeles-Long Beach in California. Other areas with highly polluted air included Houston-Pasadena, Texas; Las Vegas-Henderson, Nevada; the New York-Newark metropolitan area; and Colorado Springs, Colorado. The top 25 locations with the highest daily particulate matter pollution included Bakersfield-Delano, California; Los Angeles-Long Beach, California; Seattle-Tacoma, Washington; San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland, California; and Salt Lake City-Provo-Orem in Utah. The top three cleanest locations for ozone pollution were Augusta-Richmond County on the border of Georgia and South Carolina; Bangor, Maine; and Bellingham, Washington. For daily particulate matter pollution, the top three cleanest areas were Asheville-Waynesville-Brevard in North Carolina; Bangor, Maine; and Burlington-Fort Madison on the border of Iowa and Illinois.   Sources: American Lung Association - State of the Air 2025 Report American Lung Association - State of the Air 2024 Report

Experts Analyze 'Sudden' Loss of 15 Gigawatts of Power  By David Dodge* Critics blamed Spain’s reliance on renewable energy sources for causing the nationwide blackout on April 28, 2025.   ©Fahroni/shutterstock On April 28, 2025, a catastrophic electricity blackout left 60 million people in Spain and Portugal without power when 15 gigawatts vanished from the grid in seconds. The cascading outage affected businesses, transportation, and many other sectors for 12 to 14 hours. The pundits weighed in quickly, blaming such things as renewable energy  usage , atmospheric vibrations , frequency oscillations across Europe , a lack of grid inertia , failure of control systems, and a plethora of other factors. The 150 MW  Andasol solar power station  in Spain is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal power plant. It uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy to generate electricity even when the sun isn't shining.  Photo: kallerna   (CC BY-SA 4.0) So, Were Renewables to Blame? “Great question,” says Michael Liebreich, an investor, advisor, and the founder of Bloomberg New Energy Finance, in an interview with The Earth & I. Twenty years ago, Spain had about 18% renewables in its energy mix. This has shot up to 56% as of today. And ironically, just a few weeks before the blackout, fans of renewable energy were celebrating that Spain had generated 100% of its electricity from renewables  during one day.  In 20 years, Spain’s renewable energy portion has grown from 18% to 56% of total capacity. This graph shows the 2020–2024 growth. On April 28,  2025, solar photovoltaics provided 60%, wind 12%, and solar thermal 5%, for a total of 78% of the electricity demand at the time. ©ree.es “And then, of course, two weeks later, you had the power cut. And the finger is pointed at renewables because wind and solar don’t provide what are called grid stability services,” says Liebreich. In order to meet electricity demand, “you have to do some very specific things to manage the voltage, to manage the frequency, and deal with all sorts of harmonics and artifacts across this incredibly complex system.” To get the grid back on, “black start” capability—which is essentially having power to run the stuff that generates the electricity—is needed. This can be provided by diesel generators or batteries, but wind and solar cannot provide this service, Liebreich says. And to be clear, he adds, “This system is incredibly complex, and we don’t know the official version of what happened.  We reached out to Spanish officials, and they were not ready to comment on the cause of this, which is under investigation and will take some time to sort out. What the European grid is trying to do is to keep the same frequency across the whole thing, all the way from the Baltic republics down to the edge of Portugal and, of course, down into the Balkans as well.” Managing the European grid (map, left) is challenging. Interarea oscillations (right) vary considerably from the Iberian Peninsula across Europe right down to the Balkans.  IEEE Explore  ( CC BY 4.0 ) Frequency Needs to Be in Tune The North American grid operates at 60 hertz, while the European grid operates at 50 hertz, and “all of [Spain’s] equipment is designed to work at that frequency,” says Liebreich. He likens the situation to a car’s speed control, where the driver sets the cruise control to the 60-mph limit and “if it fluctuates between 59 and 60, you won’t get a ticket.” But if the cruise control is out of whack and varies between 65 and 75, the driver might get a ticket. On the grid, inertia stops that from happening. “Generally, big spinning resources stop it from speeding up and slowing down and [keep] the voltage [from] wandering all over the place,” he says. Grid services such as short-circuit current and black-start capability help keep things from changing too fast. Services like reactive power help control the rate of change of frequency, also known as ROCOF. Strange Things Happened Pre-Blackout Prior to the blackout, there were weird artifacts, harmonics, and bouncing frequencies. For example, physicist Philippe Jacquod noticed these oscillations  against Latvia’s grid. Spain’s grid frequency (ES) started to oscillate against Latvia’s frequency (LV) at ~0.21Hz before the event. ‘Could the culprit be interarea oscillations?’ physicist Philippe Jacquod asked in a Linked I n p ost . Prior to the blackout, there were weird artifacts, harmonics, and bouncing frequencies. “An analogy would be your heart rhythms. You can have arrhythmias in your heart because electrical signals are bouncing around. And this is exactly the sort of stuff that happens on this system,” says Liebreich. When frequencies get out of whack, plants shut down. So, how could so many plants act the same way, resulting in the sudden loss of 15 gigawatts of electricity? “We don’t know because the report’s not been written, but it looks very likely that those plants, to protect themselves from damage, were all set to switch off at the same frequency,” says Liebreich. There are at least 10 areas to examine that could have contributed to the crisis, which is why it’s very hard to guess at the cause of the Spanish blackout. Grid Inertia Grid inertia refers to the grid’s resistance to changes in frequency due to sudden changes in power availability. Spinning resources such as generators provide inertia services, because it takes time for friction to slow them down, just as when a driver takes their foot off the gas, it takes a little time to decelerate. Hydro, gas, and nuclear turbines are helpful in providing such grid stability. A wind turbine can provide some inertia, too, but solar does not. When the sun goes behind a cloud, the power disappears. But that’s probably not what happened in Spain. “Hydro, gas, and nuclear turbines are helpful in providing such grid stability.” Remember, 15 gigawatts of power production shut down in seconds, with catastrophic consequences. While Spanish officials are waiting for a detailed analysis, Prime Minister Pedro Sanchez and power grid operator REE President Beatriz Corredor have both said record levels of renewable energy were not to blame for the blackout . What Can Stabilize Rapidly Decentralizing Grids? Nearly all experts agree that batteries can help with the challenge of modernizing grids to manage thousands of decentralized energy resources. But batteries won’t help what the Germans call the Dunkelflaute —doldrums or periods when the wind doesn’t blow and/or the sun doesn’t shine for extended periods. “Batteries will definitely help,” says Liebreich, but one robust solution may be one that neither renewable advocates nor fossil fuel advocates are touting. Flexible Gas One answer may be to keep some gas, something Anders Lindberg, the head of Wärtsilä, a Finnish company, calls “flexible gas,” in its recently published “ Crossroads to Net Zero” report . Liebreich just had Lindberg on his Cleaning Up  podcast. Flexible gas plants are designed differently to provide fast start-up times and low minimum operating levels, and have high ramping ability, which means they can quickly increase or decrease output. Standard gas plants run high, take hours to start up, and are designed to provide so-called baseload power. This locks the grid into higher emissions, while the job of flexible gas plants is to provide necessary services for the grid and allow it to use as much cheap renewable energy as possible. As it turns out, Lindberg’s company makes engines that are ideal for flexible gas plants. Experts urge policymakers to invest in the grid, grid stability services (such as black start services), and digitization and artificial intelligence to track and react to changes. Consider Chile, a country running on 75% renewable energy but with 25% coal as well. The idea is to ditch the coal and run the grid with 4% flexible gas. This would produce 1/12th of the emissions of the coal and would be much more affordable—and grid-protective—than trying to achieve 100% renewable energy. So, what needs to be done to build an affordable, reliable, low-carbon grid? Experts urge policymakers to invest in the grid, grid stability services (such as black start services), and digitization and artificial intelligence to track and react to changes. Blaming Renewables Renewable energy delivers cheap power, and it brings new challenges. But there has been a long history of conventional-industry advocates blaming renewables every time the grid hiccups. They were blamed in Texas  when, as it turned out, the cold snap resulted in piles of frozen coal and the failure of a gas pumping station that wasn’t winterized. “Certain power plants within each category of technologies (natural gas-fired power plants, coal power plants, nuclear reactors, wind generation, and solar generation facilities) failed to operate at their expected electricity generation output levels,” says a recent report  by the Energy Institute of the University of Texas. Renewables were blamed for failures in Australia, too, which had multiple factors at work. But instead of stepping back from renewables, South Australia has doubled down , successfully moving from 41% renewables (when they had problems) to 75% in 2023, and they are pursuing 100% renewable energy even after a catastrophic outage. In a  Reuters report  (June 17) the Spanish government was quoted that the “grid operator Redeia miscalculated the correct mix of energy in the system. The government also blamed some conventional power plants, or thermal power plants using coal, gas and nuclear, for failing to help maintain an appropriate voltage level and as a result, the grid was unable to cope with a surge in voltage that triggered a cascade of power plant disconnections, ultimately leading to the outage.” Electrification is underway and has trillions in investment behind it. The incumbents are certainly threatened by this revolution, but it is happening quickly. Global investment in clean energy is set to hit a record $3.3 trillion in 2025 , says the International Energy Agency. It’s critical to invest in modernizing grids to work efficiently in this new energy reality. *David Dodge   is an environmental journalist, photojournalist, and host and producer of GreenEnergyFutures.caGreenEnergyFutures.ca , a series of micro-documentaries on clean energy, transportation, and buildings. He’s worked for newspapers, published magazines, and produced more than 350 award-winning EcoFile radio programs on sustainability for CKUA Radio.

Populations Living in Drylands on the Rise World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought —held each year on June 17—was designated in 1994  by the UN. The day “raises awareness and promotes solutions to desertification, land degradation and drought.” Desertification, or land degradation in dry areas often leading to deserts, has potential impacts  on biodiversity, human poverty, reduction of soil fertility and agricultural production, and increase in water scarcity. It can even contribute to climate change, as desertification reduces the soil’s capacity to store carbon. Below are key findings on desertification issues from the 2024 report  released at 16th Session of the Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (or UNCCD COP16) in December 2024. The Earth’s land area percentage of drylands increased from 37.5% in 1961–1990 to 40.6% in 1991–2020, or by 4.3 million square kilometers (1.6 million square miles). This is comparable to a land mass  the size of Egypt, Libya, and Chad combined. Based on six aridity index classes of global lands, 55.1% was “humid”; 14.3% was “semi-arid”; 10.5% was “arid”; 9.1% was “hyper arid” (such as the Sahara); 6.7% was “dry subhumid”; and 4.3% was “cold” (such as Greenland). Aridity is considered the world’s largest single driver behind the degradation of agricultural systems, affecting 40% of Earth’s arable lands, or about 5.7 million square kilometers. The lowest percentage of drylands is in Europe, with 12.1% in 1991–2020. But Europe had the highest increase—4.8%—in drylands from in 1961–1990. Europe also had the least percentage of human population living in drylands in 2020 at 10.7%, but this was an 87% increase from 5.7% in 1990. Africa has the highest percentage of drylands at 70.5% in 1991–2020. Almost half of its population—49.6%—lived in drylands in 2020, the highest among all regions. The number of people living in drylands was about 2.3 billion in 2020, almost double from 1.2 billion in 1990. In terms of global population, this was an increase from 22.5% in 1990 to 30.9% in 2020. Based on worst-case climate models, as many as 5 billion people could be living in drylands by 2100. Antarctica is also a desert , but as an ice-covered polar area, it is excluded from the UN’s drylands analysis.     Sources: United Nations World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought United Nations Desertification and Drought Day 2025 IPCC Special Report on Climate Change and Land - Chapter 3: Desertification UNCCD COP16 Report: "The Global Threat of Drying Lands: Regional and global aridity trends and future projections" Worldometer - Largest Countries in the World (by area) NASA - Frequently Asked Questions About Antarctica

Can robotics and AI compensate for population declines that may threaten net zero?  istock A recent report by global consulting firm, McKinsey & Company , highlights a concerning demographic trend: Falling fertility rates worldwide are steering major economies toward a potential population decline.   This shift poses significant challenges to achieving net-zero carbon emission goals, as it could stress economies and reduce necessary investments in sustainable infrastructure and research.  ​ "Falling fertility rates are propelling major economies toward population collapse in this century," McKinsey warns, adding that three-fifths of advanced economies, plus China, already have more deaths per year than births. The firm says its research finds sustained economic growth necessary to fund the net-zero transition. Implications of Shrinking Populations  According to McKinsey, two-thirds of the global population resides in countries with fertility rates below the population replacement rate of 2.1 children per woman of childbearing age. Projections suggest that by 2100, populations in several major economies could decrease by 20% to 50%.   This decline upends economic models that rely on a stable working-age population to support the national economy and its nonworking population, including retirees. Japan and South Korea have been grappling with this demographic decline for years. According to a recent article  in The Washington Times (TWT), Japan reported 720,998 births in 2024, “the lowest number of births since Japan started taking the statistics in 1899.”     TWT  had somewhat better news for South Korea, reporting that the nation’s birth rate rose in 2024 for the first time in nine years, partially due to an uptick in marriages that had been postponed during the COVID-19 pandemic.   Diverse Perspectives  Not everyone is worried  about population declines. While the McKinsey report underscores significant risks, saying "the current calculus of economies cannot support existing income and retirement norms," Axios  reports that relief could come from technological advancements and policy interventions.   The publication says that increased adoption of automation, artificial intelligence (AI), and robotics might offset labor shortages, while policies promoting increased fertility rates, delayed retirement, and increased immigration could help to compensate for demographic challenges.   Sources: https://www.yahoo.com/news/top-economies-face-population-collapse-220006371.html?fr=sycsrp_catchall https://www.mckinsey.com/mgi/our-research/dependency-and-depopulation-confronting-the-consequences-of-a-new-demographic-reality https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/population-decline-will-change-the-world-for-the-better/ https://www.axios.com/2025/01/16/fertility-rates-economy-pensions https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2025/feb/27/birth-rate-japan-hit-record-low-2024-fell-ninth-straight-year/

A Quick Guide to Heart-Healthy Rest *By Julie Peterson Optimum sleep quality and quantity have associated health benefits.  Photo: Monstera Production Science has shown that sleep disorders—deficiencies in the quantity, timing, and quality of sleep—are risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). This is important as CVD remains the leading cause of death globally, as well as in the United States.   Sleep disorders can stem from a wide variety of factors, including air pollution, lifestyle, traumatic brain injury, or daylight savings time. In light of the connections between heart health and getting adequate, daily amounts of restorative sleep, researchers are searching for ways to help people get their best possible sleep.   Cardiovascular Disease The World Health Organization (WHO) defines CVDs as “a group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels and include coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, rheumatic heart disease and other conditions.”    The magnitude of death caused by CVD is shocking: According to the World Health Organization, an estimated 17.9 million people globally die each year from CVD. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says that, in the US, a person dies every 33 seconds from this disease. Death rates vary by sex, race, and ethnicity, but CVD is still the leading cause of death for people of most racial and ethnic groups.   Risk of CVD can be increased by one’s lifestyle choices, health conditions, environment, family history, or age—hence they are called “risk factors” for CVD. According to the CDC, major risk factors for CVD include high blood pressure, high cholesterol, obesity, and smoking.   The public has long been warned about artery-clogging junk food, smoking, obesity, and a sedentary lifestyle as risk factors for heart problems. Likewise, patients who have high blood pressure, chronic inflammation, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and certain genetic factors are routinely educated about their higher risk for developing debilitating or deadly heart or vascular problems.   Now, researchers are focusing on lack of sleep as another serious risk factor. It has become widely accepted throughout the scientific and medical community that without enough quality sleep, one’s risk of CVD increases.    Not Sleeping Well or Enough According to the CDC, people need less sleep as they age. The CDC also reminds people that sleep helps the body repair itself. But people aren’t getting what is recommended. ©Centers for Disease Control and Prevention via Wikimedia In every US state, “30% to 44% of adults … are not getting enough sleep,” Michael Twery, PhD, said in 2020 when he led the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute’s National Center on Sleep Disorders Research.   It’s not just in the US, it’s all over the world, he added. “Whether we’re talking about South Africa…Kenya, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Indonesia, India, there is a large percentage of people in every country worldwide, which are experiencing insufficiency of regular sleep.”   Dangers of Inadequate Sleep Understanding the specific effects of sleep deprivation on heart function and overall cardiovascular health is a continuing focus of researchers like Twery, who said, “The need for sleep is a non-negotiable requirement for life…Sleep gives your heart and vascular system a much-needed rest.” When the body can’t work as it should, problems arise.   American Heart Association researchers found that a lack of sleep is associated with increased calcium buildup in the heart’s arteries.   For example, American Heart Association researchers found that a lack of sleep is associated with increased calcium buildup in the heart’s arteries, which causes plaques that can put one at risk for a heart attack. In the study, sleeping one hour less each night increased the risk of arterial calcium build-up by 33%. Sleeping less than six hours per night put people at the greatest risk.   Not getting enough sleep also reduces the body’s production of certain appetite-suppressing hormones, which may lead to weight gain. Several studies have linked not getting enough sleep to an imbalance in hormones that regulate metabolism.   “Exactly how sleep influences the coronary arteries is still being studied, but we do know that not getting enough sleep is associated with risk factors for heart disease,” says cardiac surgeon A. Marc Gillinov, MD, at Cleveland Clinic.   Why is Sleep Elusive?   There are numerous and varied reasons for sleep deprivation. Most research studies to date have examined one or two factors for their contributions to inadequate sleep, yet it is likely that a person’s lack of sufficient sleep results from a combination of multiple influences. These contributing factors can be classified into categories, some of which may overlap.   1. Circumstances of Life There are personal situations and day-to-day realities a person faces, some controllable and some not, that can cause sleep loss.   Examples include shift work (especially shifts that are partly or fully during nighttime hours), alcohol misuse, intake of stimulants such as caffeine late in the day, bad sleep-related habits (staying up late or using electronics in bed), high stress, and environmental factors. Air pollution, a warm bedroom, high levels of carbon dioxide, and too much ambient noise may adversely affect the ability to get a good night’s sleep, suggests a study from researchers with the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Louisville. The study is one of the first to measure multiple environmental variables in the bedroom.   Emerging evidence has also demonstrated that environmental factors in the whole household and at the neighborhood-level can alter healthy sleep. The “social features of environments, family, social cohesion, safety, noise, and neighborhood disorder” can cause restless or sleepless nights for all ages, said a 2018 study in Current Epidemiological Reports.   Pollution is another environmental issue that can include “exposure to heavy metals, noise pollution, light pollution, second-hand smoke, and air pollutants,” said a 2020 article in Environmental Research. These all have negative consequences on sleep outcomes.   Pollution is another environmental issue that can include “exposure to heavy metal, noise pollution, light pollution, second-hand smoke, and air pollutants,” said a 2020 article in Environmental Research. These all have negative consequences on sleep outcomes, including the inability to fall asleep and stay asleep, reach the deepest levels of sleep, sleep all night without being roused, and daytime drowsiness. 2. Medical Conditions Insomnia is a common medical sleep disorder.  Pexels Mental health has a major impact on sleep and vice versa. This can set up a cycle that reinforces itself as it gets worse. An example would be depression that makes it harder to sleep, leading to sleep deprivation, which then makes one feel even more depressed. Other mental health issues that can affect sleep include anxiety, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and somniphobia (fear of sleep). Everyone has experienced a short-term illness (colds, flu) or pain (strained muscles, broken bones) that has made sleep difficult.   But there are more than 80 sleep disorder  conditions, according to the National Library of Medicine. Some stem from long-term medical problems, such as degenerative brain disorders (Alzheimer’s disease or Parkinson’s disease), concussions and traumatic brain injuries, stroke, cancer, and chronic pain. Also, medications, such as corticosteroids and stimulants, can cause insomnia, wakefulness, or change the quality of sleep. Common sleep disorders include insomnia (being unable to fall asleep and stay asleep), restless leg syndrome (a tingling or prickly sensation in the legs with a powerful urge to move them), narcolepsy, circadian rhythm issues, and parasomnia (walking, talking, eating during sleep).   A major malady is obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), a breathing disorder in which the person stops breathing dozens and even hundreds of times during sleep.   “Humans are supposed to breathe through their nose … in many people, for various reasons, there is an obstruction ... one of the most common obstructions … is where the tongue … falls into the back of the throat and blocks the airway,” said Twery. “Where we struggle to breathe, we’re not getting enough oxygen; we’re not blowing off our CO2 … [and that causes] our brain to send an alarm bell that says, ‘Hey, we’ve got a big problem!’ to wake us up. It is also causing changes in the pressure in the chest.” Twery said these changes can cause health abnormalities that eventually can lead to clinical conditions such as high blood pressure, arrhythmias, stroke, and arterial disease.            OSA is linked to issues like obesity, head and facial features, and “airway tone,” which refers to the caliber of the airway muscles. Because many people are unaware that they have OSA, it often goes untreated, which can reduce lifespan.   One source of information about OSA is the landmark Wisconsin Sleep Cohort Study, which has followed 1,500 participants for more than three decades. The study “discovered that people with sleep apnea had a 20% higher chance of dying from cardiovascular issues, particularly stroke and heart disease,” said Myohab.com, a website dedicated to helping people resolve tongue, mouth, and breathing issues.   People can become aware of sleep apnea when a spouse or family member complains of loud snoring or the snorer realizes they are always tired or have headaches during the day. A sleep study is the only way to achieve a definitive diagnosis of OSA, and this can be ordered by a sleep specialist, pulmonologist, or ENT (ear, nose, and throat) doctor.   A trip to the dentist can also identify airway obstructions according to studies. “When you consider that obstructive sleep apnea affects approximately 20% of US adults, of whom about 90% are undiagnosed, it is imperative to evaluate all our patients for the presence of any physiologic and behavioral predisposing factors,” says Claire Stagg, DDS, in an interview. Stagg is founder and owner of Health Connections Dentistry and author of Smile, It’s all Connected! She also points out that sleep apnea can sometimes be prevented with early detection of structural abnormalities in developing children. Normal (left) and obstructed (right) airflow.  ©Blueastro/iStock Tips to Improve Sleep Quality and Quantity   To prepare for a good night’s sleep, counselors first suggest making sure the bedroom is quiet, dark, and cool. People should try to follow a regular sleep schedule and avoid drinking caffeinated beverages late in the day. Sleep counselors also advise people to avoid blue and green light before bed, which means shutting off televisions and cell phones and other electronic devices.   For teens, an Australian research group found that those who established a nighttime routine and limited the use of digital devices before bed got 40 minutes more sleep a night.   For teens, an Australian research group found that those who established a nighttime routine and limited the use of digital devices before bed got 40 minutes more sleep a night.   The National Library of Medicine’s Medline Plus website offers advice on “sleep hygiene” that includes:   • Avoid nicotine. • Exercise regularly, but don't exercise too late in the day. • Avoid alcoholic drinks before bed. • Avoid large meals and beverages late at night. • Don't take a nap after 3 p.m. • Relax before bed, for example by taking a bath, reading or listening to relaxing music. • Get enough sunlight exposure during the day. • Don't lie in bed awake; if you can't sleep for 20 minutes, get up and do something relaxing. • See a doctor if you have continued trouble sleeping.     Sleep Research is Ongoing It’s impossible for any one study to account for every factor that causes sleep loss. For example, PTSD can cause sleep loss, and sleep loss can cause increased cortisol, which can lead to inflammation that can increase risk of CVD. However, PTSD alone can cause increased cortisol. So, it’s not clear that an increase in cortisol is due to lack of sleep or a concomitant condition.   In addition, there is still much to learn about sleep. For example, there are questions about how sex and age differences can impact sleep loss. Other study topics include the role of inflammation or hormonal changes on sleep.   In a 2021 clinical review published in Europe, an overview on the bidirectional relationship between cardiovascular disease and sleep was done. “While impaired sleep and bad sleep quality are often present in patients with cardiovascular diseases due to the underlying disease…, short duration of sleep and sleep fragmentation as such could increase the risk of developing coronary artery disease, arrhythmia, and heart failure,” said the article in the European Journal of Preventive Cardiology.   The clinical review points out that “a major difficulty in this field is that population-based studies are hampered by individual and inter-individual confounding factors (environment, social conditions, cultural habits). In addition, duration and quality of sleep are often self-reported and not assessed objectively, which can lead to controversial results.” Hitting the snooze button. ©iStock What About Snoozing? A common debate in many homes is whether the morning snooze button is helpful. Researchers from Stockholm University, who conducted a pair of studies, found that for some people, snoozing is beneficial.   One study found that if people “snoozed” for an extra 30 minutes, their performance on cognitive tests was normal or improved, compared with those who had “abrupt awakenings.” “Our findings show that those who snooze on average sleep slightly shorter and feel more drowsy in the morning compared to those who never snooze,” study co-author Tina Sundelin said. “But there were no negative effects of snoozing on cortisol release, morning tiredness, mood, or sleep quality throughout the night.” Studies also show that “catching up” on sleep has benefits.   Research presented in 2024 at the European Society of Cardiology Congress looked at irregular sleep schedules, as are common in teens, shift workers, and caretakers who may not get enough sleep during the week and then want to nap or sleep in on weekends.   “Sufficient compensatory sleep is linked to a lower risk of heart disease,” said study co-author Yanjun Song of the National Centre for Cardiovascular Disease in Beijing. “The association becomes even more pronounced among individuals who regularly experience inadequate sleep on weekdays.”  *Julie Peterson writes science-based articles about holistic health, environmental issues, and sustainable living from her small farm in Wisconsin.

Warmest Year and Highest Ocean Heat Content Since Records Began   In March, the World Meteorological Organization  released the 2025 edition of the State of the Global Climate Report  for the 2023/2024 year. The report highlights key indicators—such as atmospheric carbon dioxide, ocean heat content, and global mean sea level—pertaining to global climate. Below are some key findings from the report. By the end of 2023, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration reached about 420 parts per million or 3,276 gigatons of carbon dioxide. Meanwhile, methane concentration reached about 1,934 parts per billion and nitrous oxide concentration reached about 337 parts per billion. These are estimated to be the highest levels in the last 800,000 years. 2024 was the warmest year since records began in 1850, at about 1.55°C (2.79°F) above the 1850–1900 average. This is warmer than the 1.45°C (2.61°F) above the 1850–1900 average in 2023. Global mean temperature based on various models.  © World Meteorological Organization  ( CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ) Ocean heat content was the highest in 2024 since 1960, with an increase by about 16 ZJ (zettajoules, or 10^21 joules) from 2023. The rate of ocean warming in 2005–2024 was 11.2–12.1 ZJ per year, more than double that of 3.1–3.9 ZJ per year in 1960–2005. Ocean heat content in ZJ (zettajoules, or 10^21 joules).  © World Meteorological Organization  ( CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ) The rate of global mean sea level rise has been increasing since 1993. Sea level has been rising by about 4.7 mm (0.18 in) per year in 2015–2024, more than double that of 2.1 mm (0.08 in) per year in 1993–2002. Sea level change in millimeters.  © World Meteorological Organization  ( CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ) Global ocean surface pH has been decreasing at a rate of about 0.017 pH units per decade over 1985–2023, meaning the oceans are becoming more acidic. Ocean surface pH was about 8.045 in 2023, about 16% more acidic than the pH of about 8.11 in 1985. 2024 had the seventh lowest minimum daily extent of Arctic sea ice from 1979, at a value of 4.28 million square kilometers in September. This was about 1.17 million square kilometers below the average minimum daily extent from 1991 to 2020. Sources: https://wmo.int/publication-series/state-of-global-climate-2024 https://library.wmo.int/viewer/69455/download?file=WMO-1368-2024_en.pdf&type=pdf&navigator=1

Are Wolf and Bear Conservation Efforts Sustainable? A Eurasian wolf cub.   ©istock Europe’s natural landscapes are undergoing a significant transformation, with large carnivores like wolves and brown bears making a striking comeback. This resurgence is a result of decades of conservation efforts aimed at reversing the damage caused by habitat destruction, hunting, and human expansion. One of the most notable examples of this comeback is the wolf. Once on the brink of extinction in many parts of Europe, the population of this keystone species is now steadily increasing. According to a recent study  published in PLOS Sustainability and Transformation , European wolves have expanded their range in this century, with Germany seeing an increase from one pack in 2000 to 184 packs in 2022. Most European nations are experiencing recolonization, with the exception of microstates like Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican. Keystone animal population recovery is largely attributed to the establishment of legal protections as well as the restoration of natural habitats. The latter is due in part to abandonment  of rural areas and shifts in agricultural practices. Monument to the shooting of one of the last wolves in Lower Saxony, Germany, in 1872.   Wikimedia Resurgence Brings Challenges  In a report for the European Commission , Professor Luigi Boitani , an internationally renowned expert in carnivore ecology at the Sapienza University of Rome who was involved in the PLOS  study, and John D. C. Linnell, senior research scientist of the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, wrote that “conservation and natural recovery is leading to novel ecosystems,” with species showing up in places they have not occupied before. The resurgence of wolf populations has revived old concerns: Wolves kill  approximately 56,000 domestic animals in the EU per year, with annual damage compensation costs estimated at $18.5 million (17 million EUR). Questions about how to balance human interests and those of big carnivores have pressured policymakers to act.   An article in Reuters   reports that the European Commission (EC) proposed on March 7, 2025, to make it “easier to hunt wolves in Europe,” citing their growing numbers and the threat they pose to livestock as reasons for the policy adjustment. An EC spokesperson explained that European wolf populations had reached 20,300 in 2023, a 58% increase over the last decade, according to the PLOS study. Reuters said the proposal would alter European Union law by lowering the wolf’s protection status from “strictly protected” to “protected.”  (The European Union bans  the killing of “strictly protected” animals through its Habitats Directive). An EC spokesperson explained  that European wolf populations had reached 20,300 in 2023, a 58% increase over the last decade, according to the PLOS study. Benefits of Wolves The PLOS study identified positive socioeconomic impacts from the European wolf resurgence, such as reductions in damage to forestry from undulates (hooved mammals, such as deer), reduced vehicle-undulate collisions, and increased eco-tourism. Many of the ecological services that reintroduced wolves provide are the direct result of reduced prey populations, such as elk and beaver. Beavers, through their damming of waterways, impact the hydro-ecology of wetlands and rivers , and when their damming activities are reduced, the course of rivers can change. The dynamics of the relationship between wolves and beaver, as well as wolves and other carnivores, continue to be debated, with scientists studying  such things as the impacts of newly available prey carcasses  on a range of other carnivores, such as bears, the European lynx, wolverine, and golden jackal.  The wolf rewilding project at Yellowstone National Park in the US has been a model for similar projects. The Road Ahead As the wolf and bear populations continue to expand and re-establish themselves in Europe, continued collaboration between scientists, policymakers, and local communities will be needed to ensure long-term conservation success. “Conservation cannot succeed without the support of the people living alongside wildlife,” says  the UK’s Prince William, who launched the Earthshot Prize, a nonprofit established to reward outstanding service to the environment.  For more information on efforts to rewild Europe’s large carnivores, the full PLOS study can be read here . Sources: https://journals.plos.org/sustainabilitytransformation/article?id=10.1371/journal.pstr.0000158 https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/eu-proposes-ending-wolves-strictly-protected-status-europe-2025-03-07/

‘FishNet Alliance’ Tackles Environmental Challenges By Yasmin Prabhudas * A boat and outboard engine for fishers in the Kpeme community in Togo.  ©FishNet Alliance_HOMEF World hunger and malnutrition could be defeated with an abundant supply of protein-rich fish, which means there should be an explosion in fish farming around the globe.   But in Africa, there are many hurdles to filling nets—and bellies—with fish from the sea or farms. Instead of giving up, aquaculture alliances are arising to support and grow “sustain-able” fishing projects.   “What we do is to try to add our voices,” said Stephen Oduware, coordinator of FishNet Alliance, one of the organizations standing against environmental and industrial obstacles to producing more fish.   More Fish Dinners Needed Fish and other aquatic animals contain a high level of nutrients, such as protein, minerals, vitamins, and omega-3 fatty acids, which can help meet people’s dietary needs.   Some 3.2 billion people around the world received 20% of their per capita protein from aquatic animal food in 2021, according to a report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations .   Global seafood consumption increased from 9 kg (20 lbs) per capita in 1961 to 20.2 kg (44.5 lbs) in 2022, according to the UN FAO’s FAOSTAT data . Aquaculture production already reached 130.9 million tons in 2022, and an additional 36 million tons would be needed to maintain 20.7 kg (45.6 lbs) per capita for an estimated 9.7 billion people by 2050, according to FAO’s report .   Some 3.2 billion people around the world received 20% of their per capita protein from aquatic animal food in 2021, according to a report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.   Between 713 million and 757 million people—one out of 11 people in the world and one out of every five in Africa—suffered from hunger in 2023 according to the UN World Food Programme’s 2024 report . Meanwhile, 281.6 million people from 59 food-crisis countries/territories experienced high acute food insecurity (starvation), as indicated in a separate 2024 report  by the Food Security Information Network.   Environmental Concerns of Fish Farming In a 2024 article  by Chinese researchers, comparisons of environmental impact factors (such as carbon dioxide emissions, eutrophication, and land use) for various protein sources from multiple studies are provided. One study, for example, stated that beef production results in 47–65kg (about 103–143 lbs.) of CO2 emissions equivalent, while aquaculture and capture fisheries generate 5.6 kg (12 lbs.) and 3.6 kg (8 lbs.) of CO2 emissions equivalent, respectively.   But fish farming can also be resource-intensive—more than 70% of greenhouse gas emissions come from feed production for farmed aquaculture species, according to a 2021 study . Capture fisheries also contribute to climate change although the extent varies depending on species, the study says.   ActionAid , a UK-based charity that works for impoverished women and girls, outlines how fishing can also cause environmental degradation: the use of trawlers can lead to overfishing; certain fishing methods can increase the numbers of by-catches, like turtles and seabirds; and pesticides and antibiotics can contaminate the water.   Oil spills affect some regions of the world too. They can destroy the livelihoods of coastal and inland fishers and also harm the ocean ecosystem.   Meeting the Challenges FishNet Alliance , with offices in Nigeria and South Africa, is addressing these issues. The Health of Mother Earth Foundation  (HOMEF) and the South Durban Community Environmental Alliance  created the organization in 2017. It now has more than 12,000 members, including individuals and fishers’ associations from across Africa, including Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, and Uganda. The predominantly artisanal fishers catch fish ranging from barracuda and mullet to sailfish and shrimps. Stephen Oduware.  ©FishNet Alliance_HOMEF “There was a need to create a rally point for fishers along the coast of Africa,” explains Oduware. “We carry out decentralized actions so that members in a certain country say XYZ activities are taking place on our coast, destroying our environment.”   FishNet Alliance’s Guiding Principles The alliance has established a set of principles , including a commitment to activities that work with the natural cycles of the marine system, building the capacity of fishers to improve the sustainability of the marine environment, and advocating against the use of   chemicals and explosives in fishing. “Sustainability” has become a cliché, notes Oduware. “Even the agents of destruction use the word ‘sustainability.’ But in our own context, we try to promote ‘sustain-ability.’ That is ‘sustain’ hyphen ‘ability,’” he explains. “It’s about going back to the Earth, going back to nature. It’s about going back to the ocean to see that the ocean has limits, and therefore we must fish within the ecosystem’s limits. That means we must not use chemicals to fish because it will not only destroy the surface water, but it will also affect the coming community of fish.” “It’s about going back to the Earth, going back to nature. It’s about going back to the ocean to see that the ocean has limits, and therefore we must fish within the ecosystem’s limits.”   He adds: “We must check the reproduction of fish from when the eggs are laid to when they become fries [young fish] to juveniles to adults. We must ensure that the right cycle is maintained.”   FishNet Alliance’s Campaigns “Fish Not Oil”: Tracking Oil Spills in Nigeria Fish Not Oil, a key alliance campaign, challenges the expansion of the oil industry through collaborating with Oil Watch . Nigeria’s National Oil Spill and Detection Agency (NOSDA) revealed that 822 oil spills were detected in 2020 and 2021, causing 28,000 barrels to pollute the environment ( see video by HOMEF ). This increased to 933 publicly available oil spills with just under 29,500 barrels spilled in 2024 alone based on most recent NOSDA data . Oil pollution of a stream in the Eteo community in Eleme, Nigeria.  ©FishNet Alliance_HOMEF “We use the opportunity to train ourselves […] to be able to hold these guys [oil companies] accountable, even if we have to go the legal way,” Oduware comments. “So, we’ve been able to really shine the torchlight on the activities of multinational companies.”   Nigeria has a long history of environmental devastation  caused by oil, notably in the Ogoni region in the Niger Delta, populated by 500,000 Ogoni people. In the 1990s, they fought against Shell Oil and demanded environmental protection for the people whose land and rivers had been polluted.   Protecting Fish through Reserved Areas Today, the alliance has pledged to learn from people in the Ogoni region. There, the Kono community in Khana has established the Kono Wiinua Mangrove Reserved Area , a conservation initiative designed to protect fish species and preserve resources for the future. “Fishing is done periodically according to the details of their custom,” Oduware says. “So, it’s a kind of model that we use to preach to other communities on the need to have this kind of protected area.” A community-managed marine protected area in Wiinua, Kono community in Ogoni.  ©FishNet Alliance_HOMEF Warding off Sand-Filling Projects  FishNet Alliance is also helping the Makoko communities in Lagos to ward off the sand-filling  of waterways to make way for new developments. Fishers in Lagos, Nigeria.  © Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung (CC BY-SA 2.0) Over the past two years, more than 100 people have faced eviction from their homes in the Makoko Lagoon. Many make their living by fishing in this precious wetland area. Working with others, the organization is pressuring the authorities and constituting a legal team. “The battle is not yet won, but we have made a lot of progress, and we are keeping our eyes open, our fingers crossed to ensure that the planned eviction of that people will not see the light of day,” Oduware says.   Fisher Exchanges Other initiatives include fisher exchanges. For example, when fishers from Senegal revealed that oil and gas had been found close to where they were fishing, they contacted FishNet Alliance. A small group of six fishers was invited to visit the Niger Delta to see how local people were dealing with the impact of oil and gas production on their aquatic environment. Giving Support to Meet Community Needs   In addition, the alliance responds to fishers’ needs. In Togo, for example, a society was set up to support fishers’ livelihoods. Fishing gear, including an outboard engine, was donated to communities in Doevi Kope and Kpeme. An outboard engine given to the Kpeme community in Togo.  ©FishNet Alliance_HOMEF Education  Part of the alliance’s work is to help fishers build their knowledge. It has a toolkit for oceans and human rights defenders , a policy paper  on establishing fresh water and marine protected areas in Nigeria and a guide to aquatic ecosystem monitoring, reporting, organizing and advocacy .   Although members are not required to have certification, they are asked to stand by certain principles. They must fish within the ocean’s limits to preserve the ecosystem and respect natural cycles of life, the water cycle, and the carbon cycle.   Certification Options for Fish Products Although members are not required to have certification, they are asked to stand by certain principles. They must fish within the ocean’s limits to preserve the ecosystem and respect natural cycles of life, the water cycle, and the carbon cycle.     “We are hoping that we get our fishers to the point where they'll be able to stand up for themselves while also doing the right thing and getting others to do the right things as well,” Oduware says. Certified fish products can reassure environmentally conscious consumers that the fish they are buying is sustainable. For example, Best Aquaculture Practices , offers end-to-end certification. Standards include those for hatcheries, which must conduct a risk assessment of potential human food safety risks .   The Aquaculture Stewardship Council  provides producers in 121 countries with certification. Those it certifies must ensure labor practices are responsible, diseases managed well, and the ecosystem protected. *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for non-profit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

Besides Feeding Marine Life, Tiny Algae Also Trap Carbon Gases By Alina Bradford* A phytoplankton bloom (bright blue and green swirls) off the coast of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark in 2004.  Flickr /NASA Goddard Space Flight Center ( CC BY 2.0 ) Aside from a miraculous case of how an Italian teenager survived for 42 minutes underwater  without oxygen in 2015 or Stéphane Mifsud’s static apnea (holding one’s breath without moving) underwater world record of 11 minutes and 35 seconds  in 2009, air—rather, oxygen—is something human beings can’t literally live without.  When thinking of oxygen production, lush forests and leafy green plants often come to mind. But surprisingly, most of the oxygen people breathe doesn't come from trees—it comes from the ocean. It’s estimated that phytoplankton produce over 50% of the Earth’s oxygen , making them the unsung heroes of the atmosphere. It’s estimated that phytoplankton produce over 50% of the Earth’s oxygen, making them the unsung heroes of the atmosphere. Phytoplankton. Flickr /NOAA Photo Library ( CC BY 2.0 ) Phytoplankton (or microalgae) are tiny, plant-like organisms floating near the ocean’s surface (in the euphotic zone , usually the top 200 to 300 meters or about 656 to 984 feet). These microscopic powerhouses perform photosynthesis, using sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce energy and oxygen. Though invisible to the naked eye ( ranging from  less than 1 micrometer to over 100 micrometers), phytoplankton exist in vast numbers and support the foundation of marine ecosystems. Without phytoplankton, not only would marine life collapse , but humans and all land animals would struggle to survive due to the drastic drop in atmospheric oxygen. Their ecological importance is matched only by their potential in fighting climate change, thanks to their ability to store carbon in the deep ocean. Phytoplankton’s Role in Marine Ecosystems Phytoplankton are the base of the aquatic food web . In addition to feeding zooplankton—tiny animals in the ocean—phytoplankton are eaten by larger creatures like fish, whales, and seabirds. In this way, plankton support life from the smallest shrimp to the largest blue whales. “But the important takeaway is that we are all members of this food web,” Reagan Errera , PhD, a research ecologist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, said in a 2019 Tedx Talk . “Starting with the phytoplankton, moving up through fish and shellfish, and ending potentially with humans, ‘the small’ have a big impact on our drinking water, seafood industry, and ecosystem and human health.” “Starting with the phytoplankton, moving up through fish and shellfish, and ending potentially with humans, ‘the small’ have a big impact on our drinking water, seafood industry, and ecosystem and human health.” Without phytoplankton, marine biodiversity would crash. Fish populations would dwindle, affecting both natural ecosystems and global fisheries that feed millions. Coral reefs, which depend on healthy zooplankton populations , would also struggle, affecting coastal communities and ocean tourism. Tracking Phytoplankton Populations To understand how many phytoplankton are in the ocean, scientists monitor levels of chlorophyll , the green pigment in plants that captures sunlight for photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is like a glowing marker that satellites in space can detect, with high levels indicated in dark green. A time lapse of global chlorophyll concentrations from July 2002 to January 2025.  NASA Earth Observatory  (Public Domain) According to NASA , satellite images can track the global distribution of phytoplankton. These colorful maps help scientists understand how ocean health changes with the seasons, pollution, and climate patterns like El Niño. The data also help predict events like algal blooms—when phytoplankton grow out of control. Phytoplankton and ‘Dead Zones’ While most phytoplankton are beneficial, under certain conditions, they can become dangerous. When oceans or lakes get too many nutrients, especially from agricultural runoff or sewage, phytoplankton can grow too fast. These events are called harmful algal blooms  (HABs). Some species produce toxins that can kill fish, poison shellfish, and even harm people who swim in contaminated water. A harmful algal bloom (in green) in Lake Erie in 2017.   Flickr /NOAA Great Lakes (Public Domain) “ Dead zones ” are areas in the ocean with little to no oxygen; they can form when large phytoplankton blooms die and sink. As bacteria break the blooms down, they use up the surrounding oxygen. Marine animals flee or die, and ecosystems can take years to recover. Powerful Carbon Sequestration On the positive side, phytoplankton offer a natural solution to climate change.   During their daily photosynthesis, they absorb over 100 million tons of carbon dioxide  (CO2)—the gas most responsible for climate change. Some of the carbon gets stored in the phytoplankton’s bodies. When they die, some sink to the bottom of the ocean, taking the carbon with them. This process, known as the biological carbon pump , helps reduce the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Coccolithophores have round plates of calcium carbonate.  © Flickr /ZEISS Microscopy ( CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 ) “Once [coccolithophores (a type of phytoplankton)] bloom, once they die, not only do they take the sugar carbon they produce, they also take the calcium carbonate—the inorganic chalky material—to the bottom of the ocean,” said Ivona Cetinić , PhD, senior research scientist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center’s Ocean Ecology Laboratory in a 2023 video . “So, they’re really good for exporting carbon—removing it from this contact with the atmosphere.” “So, [coccolithophores are] really good for exporting carbon—removing it from this contact with the atmosphere.” However, the 7th Copernicus Ocean State Report  in 2023 by the Copernicus Marine Service, a program of the European Union, indicated that climate change itself is a concern for phytoplankton: “Climate-induced changes causing temperature rise, ocean acidification and ocean deoxygenation stress the ocean’s contemporary biogeochemical cycles and ecosystems, thereby impacting the phytoplankton communities,” it said. Despite this concern, the report indicated that “most phytoplankton functional types remained stable over the period 2002–2021, except for prokaryotes [plankton without a nucleus ], which slightly declined over this period,” based on a study  in the report.  Some scientists are exploring artificial ocean fertilization , where nutrients are added to stimulate phytoplankton growth to store more carbon. However, this approach remains controversial due to unknown side effects. Cultivating Phytoplankton at Home Cultivating phytoplankton can be a great way to feed one’s aquarium tank and support healthy ecosystems. Many reef tank owners also use home-grown phytoplankton to feed corals, clams, and filter feeders. Here’s a basic guide to growing phytoplankton  at home: Start with a culture . Purchase a starter culture of live phytoplankton from a trusted supplier. Get the right equipment . Clear containers (like 2-liter bottles), an air pump, airline tubing, and a light source. Maintaining clean equipment and consistent conditions is key to preventing contamination. Add nutrients . Use a special phytoplankton fertilizer mix, often sold as "Guillards F/2" or similar. Provide light and air . Keep the culture under a bright light for at least 16 hours a day and constantly aerate the water to keep the culture mixed and oxygenated. Harvest regularly . After 7–10 days, the culture should be dark green and ready to harvest. Filter it through a fine mesh, store it in the fridge, and feed it to your tank in small doses. Appreciation for Phytoplankton Despite their tiny size, phytoplankton are among the most important organisms on Earth. They provide the majority of the oxygen people breathe, feed marine life, and even help fight climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide. Whether a scientist, a student, or an aquarium hobbyist, understanding and appreciating these microscopic wonders can deepen respect for the planet's delicate balance. Next time when taking a breath, remember—there are the phytoplankton to thank. *Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert who has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com .

By Gordon Cairns* Bicycles parked on King’s Square, Copenhagen, Denmark.  Photo: Ioannis Koutroubakis It is early evening in Copenhagen. At the intersection where traffic crossing the Queen Louise Bridge meets Frederiksborggade Street, special traffic lights for the bike lane have just turned green, and a constant stream of bikes safely navigates the junction. Some bike riders are dressed for going out in party dresses and cowboy boots, while others are returning from the office in business suits, their dress shoes pushing down on the pedals. Delivery bikes transport parcels, furniture, and musical instruments while parents cycle their kids home from school. There is not a private car in sight. But it is not just the enormous number of bikes running through Denmark’s capital city that surprises the visitor—it’s the fresh, clean air and just how healthy everyone looks. 187,000 cyclists aged 20 to 93 found that cycling for 100 minutes per week was associated with a 17% lower mortality rate. And it's not just that these cyclists appear healthy; they are statistically more likely to be healthier than those who don’t ride a bike. In a comprehensive review of the literature, a study  (“Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Reduction in All-Cause Mortality from Walking And Cycling”) involving 187,000 cyclists aged 20 to 93 found that cycling for 100 minutes per week was associated with a 17% lower rate of mortality after accounting for all other factors. 187,000 cyclists aged 20 to 93 found that cycling for 100 minutes per week was associated with a 17% lower rate of mortality after accounting for all other factors. Cycling’s Multiple Health Benefits This 2013 study found that cycling significantly reduced the risk of coronary heart disease. Unlike other forms of cardiovascular exercise, such as walking or running, riding a bike places less stress on the joints and has been used in physical therapy to help patients regain joint mobility. Cycling is a great way to meet the recommended 150 minutes of physical activity per week to maintain weight  because it is easy to incorporate into daily life. Increasing riding intensity by incorporating inclines, hills, higher speeds, and longer durations can lead to weight loss. Another large-scale study  among middle-aged and older Danish cyclists found that if they adopted the cycling habit—even later in life—they reduced their risk of developing type 2 diabetes by 20%. An additional benefit was that the regular bike riders had smaller waistlines than those who used other means of transportation. Biking helps increase quadriceps muscle strength and other leg muscles, which in turn supports balance and enhances performance in various physical activities. Older adults  can maintain their muscle mass with regular cycling. And it’s not just physical benefits; research has shown that cycling can also help improve mental health. A study published last year by the University of Edinburgh  found that people who cycled to work regularly were found to be 15% less likely to be prescribed medication for anxiety or depression compared with non-cyclists. Commuting by bike resulted in greater reductions in mental health prescriptions among women than men. Commuting by bike results in greater reductions in mental health prescriptions among women than among men.  @Kr-Tr/iStock Bike Safety on Roads In the 1970s, when the Dutch capital Amsterdam began creating bike lanes for its citizens, it wasn’t primarily due to the health benefits. City Hall was stirred into action after a campaign by parents worried about the lives of their cycling children being knocked down by cars. Over the intervening half-century, the city has seen a rise in cycling. Traffic in the city moves faster, and there has been a 40,000-ton reduction in CO2 pollution in the atmosphere. London now has one of the largest pay-to-enter zones in the world, with many former car drivers now opting to cycle in central London. In London, in an attempt to reduce car pollution in the city and encourage people to use alternative forms of transport, authorities introduced congestion charges in 2003. As a result, London now has one of the largest pay-to-enter zones in the world, with many former car drivers now opting to cycle in central London. In the last 26 years, since 1999, the number of motorists has decreased by over 60% , and the number of cyclists has increased by more than 380%.  Across the Channel in Paris, France, €400 million has been invested in building cycling lanes over the past decade. Now, 11% of journeys are made by bike, almost three times the amount taken by car. Even in the USA, a country known for its love of cars, Portland, Oregon, has added 400 miles of bike lanes  while Minnesota has now at least 321 miles of paved bike trails  and is well known for its bike-friendly atmosphere. A Shift in Transportation Behavior As a cycling commuter with over two decades of experience in another great European city, Glasgow, UK, the author has witnessed a significant shift in transportation behavior, perhaps the biggest change since Henry Ford’s motorcars began to replace horses and carriages on city streets. Over the last two decades, bike riders have experienced a shift from being occasionally pushed to the side of the road by speeding car drivers to riding along specially cordoned-off sections of the road. Cyclists riding together in the same direction makes them more visible and means that car drivers are more aware of them, giving them more space.  ©William 87/iStock Instead of being a lonely bike rider on an early morning commute, many bikers now ride together in the same direction, which makes them more visible and means that car drivers are more aware of them, giving them more space. More and more bikes are being parked side by side in the workplace bike shelter. One of the individuals who has helped create change in Glasgow is Iain Morrison, the technical director of landscape and planning for Ironside Farrar, a company hired to implement the changes planned by the city. One of the barriers to cycling is safety, and the challenge lies in how cycle lane planners are addressing this issue. Morrison explained that when designing a route, it has to be considered safe enough for an unaccompanied 12-year-old child to ride. The goal is to achieve 0% fatalities—a feat accomplished by Oslo in Norway first in 2019, another city transforming itself into a cycling hub.   When designing a [bicycle] route, it has to be considered safe enough for an unaccompanied 12-year-old child to ride. By achieving lower traffic speeds with clear routes and segregation for bikes and cars, it becomes a safer environment for riding. “The main interface with road traffic is at a junction,” Morrison adds. “The clear strategy is to reduce traffic speed at junctions, prioritizing pedestrians and cyclists.” Of course, bikes will have to cross paths with cars at some point. Morrison explains: “The routes are like a bike chain—they are only as safe as their weakest link. If they aren’t safe in places, such as a big roundabout, people simply won’t use them.” “The other thing that simply makes cycling safer is the more people who are cycling, the safer it becomes as it increases driver awareness. This has been proven throughout the world.”   Creating a Cycling Culture Morrison also emphasizes that it is not enough to put in bike lanes and hope that bike riders will come; cycling culture has to be encouraged. “We are not just designing the route; we also have to target how our route is going to be used—who is going to use it and how can we make it easier for them to use it. That involves working with schools and youth groups to create behavioral change,” he says. Individuals, too, can promote behavioral change—they can ride their bikes wherever it is safe to do so. The more people who bike in large urban conglomerates, the more space bikes will need. City planners will need to adjust road layouts to share available space and provide dedicated pathways for bike riders. When driving cars, people can be more aware of bikes on the road, giving more space when passing them and considering whether a car is really necessary for the journey ahead. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.