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Net Carbon Deficit in 2023; Six Years Until Global Warming Passes 1.5°C   The Global Carbon Budget Office , led by Prof. Pierre Friedlingstein from the University of Exeter, England, published its Global Carbon Budget 2024 report. Similar to how a company’s budget determines how much money a company can spend before it runs out of funds, a carbon budget represents how much carbon dioxide can be further emitted before no more can be added to limit global warming to 1.5°C. The carbon budget is given by the net sum of carbon emissions (such as from fossil fuels) and carbon sinks (carbon absorbed from the atmosphere), both of which can be naturally occurring or caused by humans. The Global Carbon Budget team estimates that there is a 50% chance that “global warming will consistently pass 1.5°C in six years,” with the decarbonization of the world’s energy system not possible within this timeframe. Some of the key points  from the global carbon budget are provided below. The global carbon budget for 2023.  © Global Carbon Project Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide were about 419.3 parts per million in 2023, 51% higher than pre-industrial levels. Carbon dioxide has accumulated at about 10 times faster during the Industrial Era than any time in the past 66 million years. In 2023, China had the largest share of global carbon dioxide emissions at 32.2%, followed by the US (13.3%), India (8.3%), and the European Union (6.8%). The total carbon dioxide emissions were about 40.9 billion tons per year in 2023, of which 37.2 billion tons were from fossil fuels and 3.7 billion tons were from land use changes (such as deforestation). Meanwhile, the total carbon dioxide sinks were about 19 billion tons per year, of which 10.6 billion tons were from ocean sinks and 8.4 billion tons were from land sinks. “From January 2025, the remaining carbon budget for a 50% likelihood to limit global warming to 1.5°C, 1.7°C and 2°C has respectively been reduced to 235 GtCO2 (6 years at 2024 emissions levels), 585 GtCO2 (14 years) and 1,110 GtCO2 (27 years).” Reaching net zero carbon dioxide emissions by 2050 would still result in additional cumulative emissions of 530 gigatons of carbon dioxide between 2025 and 2050. This would be close to the 50% chance of limiting global warming to 1.7°C. Sources: https://globalcarbonbudget.org/about/   https://globalcarbonbudget.org/download/1253/?tmstv=1731323766   https://www.icos-cp.eu/science-and-impact/global-carbon-budget/2024 https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0707386105   https://globalcarbonbudget.org/faqs/

Exposure of 10 to 15 Minutes Adequate for Vitamin D Production As winter wanes and sunny days return, it’s a great shift from being cooped up at home to basking in the sun. Before going outside, however, it’s better to be safe than sorry from the effects of UV light exposure that will follow. Here are some facts about UV light. The sun is a natural source of UV radiation , while artificial sources include tanning beds; mercury vapor lighting (as in stadiums and school gyms); some halogen, fluorescent, and incandescent lights; and some types of lasers. UV radiation  is categorized into ultraviolet A (UV-A) from 315 to 400 nanometers (nm), ultraviolet B (UV-B) from 280 to 315 nm, and ultraviolet C (UV-C) from 100 to 280 nm. UV-A is not absorbed  by the ozone layer and atmosphere, while UV-B is mostly absorbed, and UV-C is completely absorbed. Overexposure to UV-A is linked to cataracts, skin cancer, and retinal burns, while overexposure to UV-B and UV-C are linked to corneal injuries, photokeratitis  (sunburned eyes), erythema (sunburn), and skin cancer. In the case of photokeratitis, contact lenses on one’s eyes should be removed immediately. The amount of exposure to UV-B for adequate vitamin D depends on skin exposure, time of day, season, and latitude of one’s location. In a 2019 Nature study , for example, Swiss researchers determined that 10 to 15 minutes of sunlight exposure with 22% of uncovered skin in adults was sufficient for 1,000 IU of vitamin D production in summer and spring. However, this increased to 6.5 hours with 8% to 10% of uncovered skin in autumn and winter, which is unachievable without sunburn risks. According to the International Ultraviolet Association , plain window glass allows UV-A to pass through but almost completely blocks UV-B and UV-C light below 330 nm. This means that going outside to take in the sunlight is best way to take in UV-B for vitamin D production. The World Health Organization has a UV index  (a measurement of the level of UV radiation) based on the following categories: low (1 and 2), moderate (3, 4, and 5), high (6 and 7), very high (8, 9, 10), and extreme (11 or more). A UV index of 0 to 2 is considered safe for being outside without sun protection. Sunscreen is recommended for a UV index of 3 to 7, and avoiding the outdoor midday sun is recommended for very high (8 and above) categories.   Sources: https://www.cdc.gov/radiation-health/data-research/facts-stats/ultraviolet-radiation.html   https://www.safety.rochester.edu/ih/uvlight.html   https://www.aao.org/eye-health/diseases/photokeratitis-snow-blindness   https://www.nature.com/articles/s41370-019-0137-2 https://www.iuva.org/uv-faqs https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/radiation-the-ultraviolet-(uv)-index

Will the Government’s ‘Flatulence Tax’ Succeed? *By Robert Selle Denmark is a flat country ideally suited for agriculture, a major meat and dairy producer and exporter.  ©Ben-Schonewille/iStock Denmark’s leaders and citizens are dedicated to being “green” and throttling down greenhouse gas emissions. Their country ranks highest in green policies as measured by the independent Climate Change Performance Index  (CCPI).   In 2022, the Copenhagen government proposed to reach net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2045 instead of 2050 and to reduce CO2 emissions nationally by 110%—reaching a negative level in 2050 compared with 1990 levels.   Already, Denmark produces  50% of its electricity using wind turbines and solar farms and generates other kinds of green energy to meet the government’s benchmark of phasing out all fossil fuel use by 2030. “Besides wind and solar, we have a large share of biomass in the electricity sector,” says  Peter Jørgensen, vice president of Energinet, the state-owned utility that runs Denmark’s electric and natural gas transmission systems. “So, in Denmark, we are already supplying about two-thirds of the electricity demand from renewable energy.”   But there is one area of concern: the massive amounts of methane emissions—burps and flatulence—from the nation’s extensive livestock farming sector.   As part of Denmark’s upcoming plans, it is implementing a methane reduction program in 2030. It is an unprecedented approach and is being closely watched. Transitioning to Green Agriculture Denmark is a flat country ideally suited for agriculture. Its farms contain the world’s highest number of pigs  per capita (around 13 million to 15 million pigs compared to 5.9 million Danes, which equals 2.2–2.5 pigs per person). Denmark is also a major dairy producer and exporter, famous for its cheeses and butter. Pig farm free range landscape, Denmark.  ©frankix/iStock As gauged by the CCPI survey,  the country’s green performance was boosted on June 24, 2024, when Denmark’s agricultural/industrial and governmental sectors and environmental groups negotiated the Green Tripartite Agreement , called “Agreement on a Green Denmark.”   It significantly reduces agricultural greenhouse gas discharges. On November 18, 2024, the Danish government committed €5.76 billion ($5.9 billion) to implement this basic framework, which:   introduces the world's first carbon tax on livestock incentivizes the reduction of nitrogen pollution undertakes large-scale land conversion to create new forests and natural areas to enhance biodiversity promotes plant-based foods   This green-transitioning plan will effectively make Denmark a leader in tackling agricultural climate impact by lowering farm emissions. This green-transitioning plan will effectively make Denmark a leader in tackling agricultural climate impact by lowering farm emissions. “In many larger countries,” Jørgensen says , “Denmark is almost considered a little laboratory. If we compare ourselves to China, with whom we share a lot of the Danish experience, you see Denmark as a small laboratory where we develop and test the new solutions.”   Methane Emissions Reduction Greenhouse gases: Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, HFCs (Hydrofluorocarbons), PFC (Perfluorocarbons), SF6 (Sulfur Hexafluoride).  ©petrroudny/iStock Starting in 2030, the Green Tripartite Agreement’s livestock tax will be based on the methane emissions produced by farmers’ cows, pigs, and sheep. Methane is 28 times  more potent than CO2 as a greenhouse gas, so reducing its presence in the atmosphere is vital. The 2016 Paris Agreement  aims to decelerate human-caused emissions of greenhouse gases to keep Earth’s surface temperature from rising more than the accord’s 1.5°C to 2°C target. Copenhagen’s impending “flatulence tax” on farm quadrupeds incentivizes farmers to adopt flatulence-reduction practices, such as using feed additives like Bovaer . Studies have found that this substance  when included in dairy cows’ feed, can lower methane emissions by as much as 30%. Targeting farm emissions is crucial because livestock production accounts for significant global greenhouse gas discharges ( estimates range from 11% to 17% of global GHG). Carbon Tax on Livestock Under this livestock tax scheme , pork and dairy producers will not pay anything on the first 60% of average emissions per animal. They pay no tax if they can cut their animals’ emissions by 40% of today’s average. However, for those farms unable to reduce their methane discharges, the government will collect roughly €40 ($41) per ton of emissions (carbon dioxide equivalent) above these average levels in 2030, which will rise to around €100 ($103) in 2035. The taxes will go into a fund to help all farmers transition to a less-polluting business model.   The government will calculate the tax based on several factors. These include :   Animal headcount or the number of animals on a farm, specifically focusing on pigs and cows Animal categories, such as breeds and types of livestock, which are assigned specific emission factors Management practices, including feeding regimes, manure management, and the time animals spend outdoors   Raising cattle leads to other environmental damages. For example, grazing lands require deforestation, which removes a chief source of carbon sequestration (trees and forest soil) and promotes soil erosion, which can degrade wetlands, another carbon sink. A herd of Jersey cows in a field near Vejen, Denmark.  ©arnphoto/iStock Plant-Based Foods Alongside the carbon tax, the Danish government is actively promoting  the consumption of plant-based proteins as a way to reduce overall meat consumption.   The government has declared they strive for “plant-based foods to play a meaningful role in benefiting the development of the food industry and the health of people and the planet.” The theory is that as more people get their daily protein from plants, they demand less beef and pork, and fewer methane-producing farm animals will be needed.   Nitrogen fertilizers, used by a majority of farmers, when excessively used, leach into inland and coastal waters, causing algal blooms that deplete oxygen levels, thus creating “dead zones” for aquatic life.   The Green Tripartite Agreement also includes funding for restoring natural habitats and reducing nitrogen pollution from agricultural practices. According to the UN Environment Programme, nitrogen fertilizers , used by a majority of farmers, when excessively used, leach into inland and coastal waters, causing algal blooms that deplete oxygen levels, thus creating “dead zones” for aquatic life. These fertilizers release nitrous oxide, a potent global warming gas, and disrupt natural ecosystems by favoring certain plant species over others due to excess nitrogen availability. Denmark is paying  its farmers the equivalent of $100 per ton to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.   Farmland to Forest Denmark is keen to restore some of its farmland to carbon-storing woodlands. The Green Tripartite Agreement aims to set aside  more than 15% of the nation’s agricultural land to create 250,000 hectares (600,000 acres) of new forest  and re-flood 140,000 hectares (336,000 acres) of currently farmed peatlands to make them wetlands  once again.   Plants within such ecological zones remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, incorporating it into their wood and leaves as they grow. When these plants die, the carbon remains stored in the soil due to slow decomposition rates in these environments, effectively acting as a carbon sink. The government will offer landowners incentive schemes to sell their land to accomplish this restoration to nature, which is expected to improve biodiversity and coastal ecosystems. Nature restoration at Skjern Enge, Denmark. It took 20 years to recreate the meadow area and the original path of the stream Skjern å, but the results were worthwhile. The need for fertile agricultural land meant that a large area was drained in the 50s and 60s, but the area has now been restored to its former self.  ©stateofgreen.com Biochar Initiative The Green Tripartite Agreement includes a pilot biochar initiative. Biochar  is organic matter—like food waste, corn stalks, and sewage—that has been turned into something akin to fine-grained, porous bits of charcoal by pyrolysis (high heating under low-oxygen conditions). Biochar locks carbon in place so it will not return to the atmosphere for centuries or millennia. Danish government agencies will promote the spreading of biochar on agricultural land because it improves soil fertility by increasing the soil's ability to retain nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus.   Biochar’s porous charcoal-like particles have a large surface area that acts as a physical trap for these elements, preventing them from leaching from the soil. They enhance water retention, provide habitat for beneficial microbes, and can slightly adjust soil pH depending on the type of organic waste originally used, creating a more optimal environment for plant growth. (See the article " Biochar—Is It Time to Give 'Black Carbon' the Green Light? " The Earth & I, April/May 2023.)   Mixed Reactions A Danish group called Bæredygtigt Landbrug  or Association for Sustainable Agriculture said they were not involved in the green agreement’s negotiations, do not stand behind it, and see the plan as a “ sad day ” for agriculture in Denmark.   “We recognize that there is a climate problem, and Danish agriculture will help solve it. But we do not believe that this agreement will solve the problems because it will put a damper on green investments in agriculture,” Bæredygtigt Landbrug Chairman Peter Kiær told  media outlets in June 2024 when the agreement was released.   Environmentalists are generally pleased with the agreement, but some see a few weaknesses :   The rate of the livestock tax may be too low—only a higher tax will lead to truly structural and cultural changes in Denmark’s entrenched industrial livestock production system. Although intensive negotiations were held over nitrogen fertilizer use, the agreed reduction is feared to be not nearly enough to clean up the country’s eutrophic coastal and inland waters plagued with excessive growth of algae and aquatic plants. The restoration of currently used agricultural land to forest and wetland relies on an incentive system that may not be robust enough to encourage farmers to participate. The reliance on technological solutions like feed additives and biochar that reduce methane could incentivize increased industrial livestock farming.   Despite these issues, a broad coalition of Green Tripartite Agreement backers believe it can be a bold and seminal step toward a truly sustainable agriculture, a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, and an improvement in national biodiversity. *Robert Selle  is a freelance writer and editor based in Bowie, Maryland.

Waste Storage and Radiation from Uranium are Main Concerns *By Robin Whitlock Ranger Uranium Mine in Kakadu National Park, Australia, in 2009.  © Flickr /Greens MPs ( CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 ) Nuclear power is already part of 32 nations’ renewable energy portfolio. This is because nuclear power is free of carbon emissions, generates phenomenal levels of energy, and is reliable [see “ A ‘Current’ Case for Nuclear Energy ,” The Earth & I , December 2023 / January 2024], given that it is not weather-dependent like other kinds of renewable energy. Promising developments in nuclear energy include making smaller “modular reactors” that can provide affordable energy to hard-to-reach areas and nuclear energy applications that can be used in space, the US Department of Energy  says. Also, most uranium used in nuclear energy can be recycled in productive ways. However, the challenges  to nuclear energy remain, even if mostly in public perception. These include building costs, safety, and disposal of nuclear waste, plus fears of radiation leaks, contamination of water, and nuclear weapons proliferation . Are the risks of nuclear energy worth the rewards of clean energy? The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident is a good example of why this question is difficult to answer. Fukushima: A Real-Life Example The nuclear plant on Japan’s Pacific Coast “was constructed in 1967 to supply electricity to nearby Tokyo as the population and economy boomed. It was first praised for creating jobs and bringing money into the prefecture,” The Diplomat says in a 2023 article . This all changed on March 11, 2011, when a massive earthquake caused a tsunami to slam into the Fukushima Daiichi plant. The seawater “disabled the power supply and cooling of three Fukushima Daiichi reactors,” causing the cores to “largely melt” in the first three days, says the World Nuclear Association . Members of the IAEA’s Remediation Expert Mission examining Reactor Unit 3 at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant.  Photo : Giovanni Verlini ( CC BY-SA 2.0 ) The reactors were stabilized in two weeks, but the accident caused the release of radiation over three days. This caused a mass evacuation, years of careful cleanup efforts, and left behind a few “no go” zones. But 12 years after the accident, although China has voiced concerns about contaminated water from the area, the “decontamination of the towns outside the no-go zones has been largely completed,” The Diplomat article says. Status of Nuclear Energy The Fukushima Daiichi plant has been decommissioned, but Japan currently has 14 other nuclear power reactors in operation. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) , there are currently 417 nuclear power plants in operation across 32 countries around the world. France and China both have 57. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), there are currently 417 nuclear power plants in operation across 32 countries around the world. In the US, there are 94 nuclear power reactors  in operation with a total net capacity of 96,952 MWe (megawatt-equivalent) as of 2023. Nuclear power accounted for 18.6%  of US electricity generation (4.178 trillion kWh) in the same year, only second as a single source to natural gas with 43.1% of the total. The IAEA says 62 nuclear power plants are under construction, which shows the durability of interest in this renewable energy technology. However, the dangers of improper nuclear waste disposal and the mining and handling of radioactive uranium keep debate alive about whether the risks are worth the rewards. Uranium Mining Concerns Nuclear energy depends on uranium, a mildly radioactive metal that is mined, refined, and enriched to make fuel. Enriched uranium-235 has high energy density, which makes it a strong contender for energy production: 1 uranium pellet  (the size of a pencil eraser) has as much energy as 17,000 cubic feet of natural gas, 120 gallons of oil, or 1 ton of coal. Uranium has three isotopes (based on the number of neutrons in their nuclei). These are uranium-238 (U-238, with 146 neutrons), uranium-235 (U-235, with 143 neutrons), and uranium-234 (U-234, with 142 neutrons). To produce energy, fuel is placed in nuclear reactors, in which atoms are split, producing heat. The heat is used to bring water to high temperatures and produce steam; the steam is used to move turbines that power an electric generator. While U-235 is easily split (“fissile”), thereby producing a lot of energy, U-238 can be fissioned  only with high-energy neutrons. These distinctions are important because in mined uranium, less than 1% or about 0.7%, is the highly desired U-235. About 99.3% is U-238 , while a trace, less than 0.01%, is U-234. Mining uranium comes with environmental and health concerns. The Navajo Nation in the US operated uranium mines from 1944 to 1986  but now has over 500 abandoned uranium mines. Despite the cessation of operations, uranium was found in the dust of 85% of 600 homes and in the urine of 700 Navajo mothers and 200 babies decades later, according to a 2017 article . According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA ), it has “removed contamination from 60 residential yards and completed removals of 47 structures,” but more cleanup efforts are needed. An aerial view of Northeast Church Rock Mine, an abandoned uranium mine in the Navajo Nation.  Photo: US EPA . Public Domain The EPA states that contact with uranium can cause  kidney damage and increase the risk for high blood pressure, autoimmune diseases, and reproductive issues. The EPA states that contact with uranium can cause kidney damage and increase the risk for high blood pressure, autoimmune diseases, and reproductive issues. Meanwhile, radiation from uranium and other natural elements can cause lung cancer, bone cancer, and kidney function issues. In a 2000 study  of lung cancer incidence in Navajo men from 1969 to 1993, 63 of the 94 cancer incidents occurred in former uranium miners, and “smoking did not account for the strong relationship between lung cancer and uranium mining,” according to the study’s authors. Smoking is done for ceremonial and cultural purposes  by the Navajo outside of personal use, however. While there is a large concentration of uranium sites in the Navajo Nation, other locations include eastern Washington, southwestern Montana, Wyoming, Nevada, and southern California. See Stanford University’s map  of US uranium sites in 2020 for details. Concerns about uranium mining continue. Utah’s White Mesa Uranium Mill  is the “only fully licensed and operating conventional uranium mill” in the US. But in October 2024, there was a protest by members of the Ute Mountain Ute tribe. “[The mill] is only five miles north of our reservation,” says Yolanda Badback , organizer of the White Mesa Concerned Community. “I want a clean … environment for our community.” In response, Energy Fuel Resources, the operator of the mill, stated that  “there is no evidence that points to the Mill causing any adverse health or environmental impacts. It is disheartening to see opposition to the Mill and our recycling programs that is based on myths, outdated beliefs and outright falsehoods, which activist organizations use to create unfounded fear in the community.” A view of the White Mesa Uranium Mill in 2014.  ©Flickr/Nuclear Regulatory Commission (CC BY 2.0) Uranium Fission Products and Health Risks IAEA indicates that spent nuclear fuel  is about 96% uranium (with less than 1% of uranium-235), 1% plutonium, and 3% of high-level radioactive products. The uranium and plutonium can be reprocessed and used as fuel, while the high-level radioactive products are converted into a type of glass (through vitrification) and disposed of at a high-level waste disposal facility. Out of various fission products, several—iodine-131, strontium-89, and samarium-153—are used in nuclear medicine . Other high-level radioactive products include cesium-137 and strontium-90, which are managed by the US Department of Energy. However, there are various environmental and health-related adverse impacts if exposed to elements like these. Plutonium, for example, is dangerous if inhaled , as it can contribute to lung cancer  and kidney damage, says the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). In contrast, ingesting  plutonium through food or water “does not pose a serious threat to humans,” as it “passes out of the body in the feces,” the CDC says. Strontium-90 … is a human carcinogen and causes bone, bone marrow, and soft tissue cancers, the CDC says. A strontium chloride injection by GE Healthcare in England. © Flickr /IAEA ( CC BY-SA 2.0 ) Strontium-90, meanwhile, is a human carcinogen and causes bone , bone marrow, and soft tissue cancers, the CDC says. Leukemia  has also been seen in people exposed to “relatively large amounts” of radioactive strontium. People can be exposed to radioactive strontium by breathing air, eating food, or drinking water contaminated with it. Ironically, some products have medical use: Strontium-89 is used as strontium chloride sr 89 , a radioactive agent injected for pain relief from bone cancer; it temporarily decreases white blood cell and platelet counts. This also applies to samarium-153, which is used in the form of the injection samarium sm 153 lexidronam . Other elements, such as cesium-137 , can cause burns, acute radiation sickness, and death when exposed to large amounts, as well as increasing risk for cancer if inhaled or ingested. On the plus side, cesium-137 is used in medical radiation therapy devices for treating cancer and some industrial devices for detecting liquid flow or thickness of materials. Nuclear Waste Radiation Nuclear waste itself can also take thousands of years to degrade. For this reason, if mishandled, it is highly injurious to the environment , adversely affecting agricultural land, fishing waters, freshwater sources, and human health. Gamma radiation  is the most dangerous form of radioactivity, as it has the ability to penetrate human tissue and damage DNA. It is able to travel throughout the human body, causing numerous cancers and interfering with cellular structure. Gamma radiation is the most dangerous form of radioactivity, as it has the ability to penetrate human tissue and damage DNA. [It] is blocked, however, by a few inches of dense materials like lead or several feet of concrete. Gamma radiation is blocked, however, by a few inches of dense materials like lead or several feet of concrete . Beta radiation can similarly penetrate the skin, damaging DNA, and tissue. It, too, can be efficiently blocked by a thin sheet of metal, a block of wood, or a layer of aluminum . Disposal of Nuclear Waste The usual way to dispose of nuclear waste is to store it in or near inactive nuclear power plants . Sellafield in the UK is an example of nuclear waste processing, decommissioning, and storage. Storage in this manner is highly expensive, with the cleaning up of Sellafield projected to cost UK taxpayers €136 billion  ($142.5 billion). Sellafield is owned by the taxpayer-funded Nuclear Decommissioning Authority. European countries are also preparing to store nuclear waste underground. Sweden is preparing an €8.4 billion  ($8.8 billion) underground storage site in Forsmark, which is expected to be fully functional by the 2030s. Meanwhile, Finland has been building the Onkalo repository on Olkiluoto Island at a depth of 400 to 430 meters  (about 1,312 to 1,411 feet), with a trial run currently in progress. Radioactive waste can be reprocessed to provide more fuel  for other nuclear power plants, as done in Russia, China, and Japan. Recovered plutonium can be used for nuclear weapons production and any unused uranium adds around 25% to 30% more energy from the original mined stock of uranium fuel. The US is not currently active in this arena: According to the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission  (NRC), there are no commercial reprocessing facilities of spent nuclear reactor fuel in the US. There is “limited interest expressed or expected from potential applicants for reprocessing facilities, including advanced reactor designers, in the near-term use of reprocessed spent fuel, the agency said in a 2021 memo  about discontinuing rulemaking about reprocessing spent fuel. The NRC noted that stakeholders’ concerns about “proliferation” were a reason to cease the rulemaking process; this may be part of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons , with its three pillars of “non-proliferation, disarmament, and peaceful uses of nuclear energy.” While nuclear waste disposal still remains a challenge, developments such as generation IV nuclear reactors and aqueous and pyro-chemical approaches by the Advanced Fuel Cycle Programme in the UK, can be a step forward toward improving nuclear power as a continued source of energy in the future. *Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests, including green transportation.

Infant with lollipop. Shutterstock Research has already shown that adults who ate sugary foods in their childhood are at greater risk for tooth decay  and its associated health impacts.   Now a study —based on an extraordinary cohort of people who were born during wartime sugar rationing—is showing that eating excess sugar in early childhood is associated with higher risks for diabetes and hypertension.   The study, published in Science  by University of Southern California (USC) researchers, used data from UK Biobank —a large biomedical database with health statistics from half a million UK participants.   During World War II, the UK rationed sugar for its population from 1942 to 1953. The USC researchers used this data to study the impact of “early-life sugar restrictions on health outcomes of adults conceived in the UK just before and after the end of wartime sugar rationing.   The team found that a reduced sugar exposure during pregnancy and an infant's first two years of life could substantially reduce the risk of mid-life development of diabetes and hypertension.   Indeed, children who experienced sugar restrictions a full 1,000 days out from conception had a 35% lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes and up to a 20% lower risk of developing hypertension in adulthood.   The team added that sugar-rationing in-utero accounted for about one third of the risk reduction.   "Studying the long-term effects of added sugar on health is challenging,"   the study’s corresponding author, Tadeja Gracner, said in a report  on the study in Science Daily.   "It is hard to find situations where people are randomly exposed to different nutritional environments early in life and follow them for 50 to 60 years. The end of rationing provided us with a novel natural experiment to overcome these problems," said Gracner, senior economist at the USC Dornsife Center for Economic and Social Research.   Science Daily noted that UK diets during the rationing period “generally appear[ed]” to have fallen within today's US Department of Agriculture and World Health Organization guidelines of no added sugars for children under age 2 and not more than 12 teaspoons (50g) of added sugar daily for adults.   In the Science Daily report, study co-author Claire Boone, assistant professor at McGill University, noted the significance of the study’s findings: “Parents need information about what works, and this study provides some of the first causal evidence that reducing added sugar early in life is a powerful step towards improving children's health over their lifetimes.”   Sources: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/10/241031185320.htm https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn5421

‘Citizen Science’ and ‘BioBlitz’ Team Up to Foster Hands-on Environmental Education   *By Rick Laezman Shane Herrington, Aboriginal ranger, National Parks and Wildlife Service, showing school children how to identify scats and tracks during the S2S BioBlitz 2013 , Woomargama National Park, New South Wales, Australia.  Photo: Esther Beaton/CC BY-NC-SA 2.0  The growing concern about the world’s natural surroundings and the need to gather and share environmental information have fostered the growth of two innovations: so-called “citizen scientists” and “BioBlitzes.” Citizen scientists aid their professional counterparts by contributing valuable information to support the scientific research of phenomena in the natural world. In a “BioBlitz,” professional and amateur scientists collaborate on data-collection in a fun and engaging way to understand and preserve the natural environment as it faces increasing threats from human activity. The Rise of BioBlitzes In 1970, during the first Earth Day , 20 million people across the US participated in rallies, marches, and educational events, raising awareness about the environment and the importance of its conservation and protection. The event marked the beginning of the modern environmental movement. Twenty-six years later, in 1996, the first BioBlitz was sponsored by the National Park Service and the National Biological Service. It was organized by Sam Droege and Dan Roddy from the US Geological Survey at the Kenilworth Aquatic Gardens in Washington, DC. Susan Rudy, also of the National Park Service, coined the term  bioblitz  (also written  BioBlitz ) to describe the 24-hour event, according to a 2023 article in BioScience . About 90 scientists, joined by the public and media, documented over 900 species in the gardens during that event. It demonstrated that urban, densely populated areas contained biologically rich ecosystems and merited study and protection just as much as state and national forests, parks, and preserves. [A]mateur enthusiasts now flock to many scientific fields, bringing a unique level of energy and engagement. Since then, BioBlitzes have gained in popularity, not just in the US but around the globe, and amateur enthusiasts now flock to many scientific fields, bringing a unique level of energy and engagement. Engaging and Educating BioBlitzes have contributed to the growth of and benefitted citizen science, which the National Geographic Society defines as “the practice of public participation and collaboration in scientific research to increase scientific knowledge.” As citizen scientists, untrained individuals observe and record the behavior and survival of species in their natural environment. Although they are not professionals, their information is no less helpful because it adds valuable data for aggregate analysis. Part of the citizen science Cascades Butterfly Project Team poses on Sauk Mountain, Washington.  Photo: NPS/Karlie Roland Citizen science has a side benefit: Contributing to the collection of scientific information, and sharing those findings with fellow participants, expands the number of people who are engaged with and enthusiastic about scientific discovery. Moreover, citizen science encourages active participation. This is especially true for children—working with dirt, rocks, plants, and other natural elements generates enthusiasm, encourages support for science and conservation, and motivates more young people to take up science careers. Citizen science aligns well with the goals of science education, and more specifically with ESD—Education for Sustainable Development. Citizen science aligns well with the goals of science education, and more specifically with ESD—Education for Sustainable Development—because it engages people in the act of scientific discovery. This not only increases their knowledge but also changes their values, attitudes, and most importantly, their behavior. Young BioBlitzers in the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 2015.  Photo: NPS Resources The United Nation's Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)  promotes ESD to “empower people with the knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and behaviors to live in a way that is good for the environment, economy, and society.” Citizen Science in the Digital Age Citizen science is aided by the growing use of digital applications (and smartphones) that have found their way into almost every aspect of modern life. Scientific observation is no exception. One tool stands out— iNaturalist , an app and social media platform, which is distinct from Facebook or Instagram because it focuses on natural observations. What started out as a master's degree project for some students in the UC Berkeley School of Information has evolved into a globally used social media platform. iNaturalist identifies, records, and organizes nature findings. It also gives users a place to meet (online) and share information with other nature enthusiasts like hikers, hunters, birders, mushroom foragers, park rangers, ecologists, people who fish, and others. Cari Seltzer, PhD, is the head of engagement for iNaturalist. She explains that the platform separates itself from other popular social media platforms because users engage with it through a “unit of sharing that is based on observation.” This gives them a jumping-off point for discussion. iNaturalist is valuable for more than just its unique fusion of social media and citizen scientists. It also is contributing valuable data to the scientific study of the natural world. The [digital] platform [iNaturalist] has amassed “the world's most diverse biodiversity set.” According to Seltzer, the platform has amassed “the world's most diverse biodiversity set." It shares its data with more than 5,000 publications. By incorporating geolocation technology, the information is used to chart animal behavior and to model ranges for a number of species. It has helped rediscover lost species and even helped identify new species. BioBlitzes in Action A social media tool in the digital age is almost a given, if not a necessity. However, at some point, citizen scientists need to be out in the field. There is no better way to engage citizen scientists and to advance the goals of ESD than with a BioBlitz. For instance, in 2013, several local mushroom enthusiasts and other members of the local scientific community organized the first ever BioBlitz on the Upper Delaware River where it travels along the border between the states of Pennsylvania and New York. The Upper Delaware BioBlitz took place over the course of two days in June 2013. Professional scientists and volunteers listened to talks conducted by local experts and collected specimens together over a 24-hour period, from noon Friday until noon Saturday. They camped overnight on the location. Over 200 people participated, and more than 1,000 species were collected and identified. Steve Schwartz is an environmental consultant who helped organize the event. He and his team have helped organize five more events since the first blitz. Organizers hold an event at about the same time on a different site in the area every other year. The events are a “little bit of a frenzy," says Schwartz, but they are successful. Schwartz adds that one of their primary goals is to “excite kids about science” and “it happens.” The Upper Delaware blitzes’ ... observations included over 40 first-occurrence mosses, several algae diatoms, and even eDNA, or genetic traces, of the very rare and endangered American eel. The Upper Delaware blitzes have also been successful at contributing to the scientific goal of collecting valuable data about biological life, including many so-called “first occurrences.” These are the first recorded observation of a species in a particular habitat. Their observations included over 40 first-occurrence mosses, several algae diatoms, and even eDNA, or genetic traces, of the very rare and endangered American eel . The next Upper Delaware BioBlitz is planned for 2026. Rocky Mountain BioBlitz Glacier National Park's ‘Weed Warriors” proudly stand behind the results of their Noxious Weed Blitz by collecting invasive, noxious weeds.  Photo: NPS About 2,000 miles and several mountain ranges to the west, another BioBlitz engages citizen scientists in the Rocky Mountains. The Crown of the Continent Research Learning Center (CCRLC) is a National Park Service-affiliated operation dedicated to research in several parks along the continental divide. It supports research activities in Glacier National Park, Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site, and Waterton Lakes National Park in Canada. The center, based in West Glacier, Montana, has an extensive citizen science program that includes monitoring endemic species like the common loon, mountain goats, and small, furry mammals known as pikas. Tara Carolin, director of the CCRLC, is responsible for organizing and promoting the center's activities. She explains that before it launched the BioBlitzes, the center was “lacking a robust inventory” of data. At the time, they asked “How can the public be helpful?” in filling this gap. In 2011 and 2012, the CCRLC began hosting events to monitor alpine aquatic insects. In 2014, it conducted a count of dragon fly nymphs as part of the National Park Service's Dragonfly Mercury Project , a nationwide study that works with citizen scientists to collect dragonfly larvae for the analysis of mercury contamination in water. In 2017, the center hosted a more formal BioBlitz that included a butterfly count. Since then, the center has hosted BioBlitzes with different emphases, including a mushroom BioBlitz and BioBlitzes to count alpine birds and nocturnal pollinators (moths). In 2024, the center hosted a noxious weeds BioBlitz. The center's BioBlitzes draw anywhere from 12 to over 100 participants, including “kids of all ages," according to Carolin. One of her favorite memories was watching a 5-year-old girl hold a butterfly during the butterfly count. “Mushrooms are crazy … there is something different every year.” The event that draws the biggest praise from the center's director is perhaps the mushroom BioBlitz. “Mushrooms are crazy … there is something different every year,” she says, adding, “there is a phenomenal amount of material even in a dry year." Finding Nearby BioBlitzes Whether it is to gather and identify “crazy” mushrooms, slithery American eels, or noxious weeds, BioBlitzes are helping to encourage volunteers, young and old, to engage with science and their natural surroundings across the continent and the globe. Beyond their own involvement and enthusiasm, these Citizen Scientists are also contributing to the collective gathering of valuable information, heightened awareness, and increased understanding of natural ecosystems and modern society's impact on their survival. They are also using modern digital tools to gather and share the information that they collect. During this critical time when environmental systems are universally vulnerable, this convergence of engagement, enthusiasm, and active participation is more important than ever. So, if there is BioBlitz near you, what are you waiting for? Go out and collect something. To find and conduct a BioBlitz, check these online resources: BioBlitzes: Bridging the Gaps and Inspiring Future Stewards (U.S. National Park Service) , iNaturalist ,   SciStarter , and others. Furthermore, local nature centers, environmental groups, parks and recreation departments, and educational institutions with biology or environmental science programs sometimes host BioBlitzes or are aware of upcoming events. *Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California, US. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has covered renewable power and other related subjects for over 10 years.

World Food Prize Winner Rattan Lal Champions Soil Health Act Rattan Lal conducting agricultural fieldwork. ©OSU World Food Prize 2020 winner and renowned soil scientist Professor Rattan Lal serves as director of the Rattan Lal Center for Carbon Management and Sequestration  at The Ohio State University. Dr. Lal has been advocating for healthy and productive soil for much of his life. HJIFEP research director Dinshaw Dadachanji sat down with Dr. Lal for an interview, excerpts from which follow: Earth & I: Dr. Lal, before we get into soil science and your advocacy for a Soil Health Act, could you tell us a bit about yourself?  Rattan Lal:  I have been working in agriculture since graduating from Ohio State University (OSU) with a PhD in 1968.    Ohio State University had given my name to the Rockefeller Foundation with whom I had previously worked in India. They were developing facilities in the Philippines, India, Mexico, and Nigeria. In 1969, I accepted the opportunity to work at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Ibadan, Nigeria, where I worked for 18 years before coming back to OSU in 1987. That opened up a great opportunity for me to become a soil scientist and study problems in developing countries. I had the opportunity to travel to countries in Southeast Asia, like Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines; to almost all countries in Africa; South America, including Brazil and Argentina; and Central America, Mexico, and other countries. I worked there [at IITA] for 18 years and became very familiar with the soils, problems, and climates of developing countries as a whole. It was God's gift that I had that opportunity, having come from a village in an isolated environment. Here, I was exposed to the entire world.   Rattan Lal conducting a training course on soil erosion in 1986.  ©OSU Working on soils to make them productive became my mission, and I continued that mission upon returning to Ohio State in 1987. The goal was how to make agriculture not only good enough for food and nutritional security but also for climate security.   That was a big, unique opportunity—that agriculture can be a part of the solution!   Earth & I :  How would you describe healthy soil?   Rattan Lal:  Scientists refer to soil health as its capacity to provide ecosystem services, such as food and nutritional quality, water filtration, and moderation of climate. These critical ecosystem services really come from soil.   Then the question as a scientist is how to determine that quality. Soil organic matter content is the key, like for human health, you would look at body temperature, blood pressure, and so forth.  The climate is a control factor at the heart of soil health. In soil, it is all organic matter content and its ability to hold water and nutrients, and its ability to grow plants. And that's why the center where I'm working is a carbon sequestration center. The climate is a control factor of soil organic matter content and it is at the heart of soil health.   Carbon sequestration is a mechanism to improve, protect, and sustain soil health. The reason soils in Africa have bypassed the green revolution  is because they did not have fertilizer and irrigation, and the soil organic matter content was so depleted—at less than 0.5% in the root zone, where it should be 2 to 3 %. Therefore, the productivity of soils in Africa without fertilizer is extremely low.  In India and Mexico, where the green revolution happened, they had access to rain (or irrigation) and fertilizers. The soil was in poor health, so they used fertilizer and doubled or tripled their production. But in the long run, we cannot continue dumping fertilizer. We must restore soil health.  Rattan Lal in an Ohio cornfield.  ©OSU Earth & I :  You mentioned often that there is a Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act here in the United States. However, we do not have a Soil Health Act yet, except in New York State, which recently passed the Soil Health Act. Could you say something about that?   Rattan Lal:  I'm really happy that New York State has now a New York Soil Health and Climate Resiliency Act  and related legislation. I think it would serve as a role model for all states to follow, and hopefully the US Senate and Congress will follow a similar path of rewarding farmers for restoring soil organic matter content at US$50 per credit (one metric ton of CO2 equivalent). Such payment for ecosystem services would motivate farmers and ranchers, who are the biggest stewards of soil, to transform agriculture from a problem into a solution for restoring the environment and advancing food, nutrition and climate security.  The reason I think there was a Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act was because air and water are easy to see. Air that is hazy, dusty, or smoky, as well as water that is muddy and polluted, are easy to see, but people do not see that clean air and clean water are, in fact, dependent on healthy soil.  That link is not obvious. That is where there is a social disconnect.  Clean air and clean water, as well as climate ... depends on the ability of the soil to be a sink of atmospheric CO2. From that point of view, there is [also] a political disconnect. Clean air and clean water, as well as climate from that point of view, depends on the ability of the soil to be a sink of atmospheric CO2. That link is not easy to understand, because even now when you talk to people about soil as a potential solution to climate change, they always talk about fossil fuels as an issue since they do not see the link.  The fact is that ever since agriculture began, going back 10,000 years ago, it and soil have been sources of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. As of today, soil and land that has been used for agriculture have contributed more than 550 gigatons of carbon into the atmosphere. Fossil fuels [used] between 1750 and now have also contributed about 450 gigatons.   Earth & I :  What features for the Soil Health Act would be most important?   Rattan Lal:  So, a soil health act would encourage farmers to mitigate and adapt to climate change, conserve, purify, and denature pollutants from water, and improve the activity and species diversity of the land. I think there's a bright future, and that eventually people will realize it. I must say that the Ohio General Assembly invited me to talk to them a few years ago; I briefly explained that we need an Ohio Soil Act or Soil Health Act. I've been invited [to speak] by the Columbus (Ohio) City Council. They said we want to talk to you and learn what the city can do to improve urban land, so that came as a surprise to me. So, you never know whether [or not] the new government will consider this issue.  Former German Chancellor Angela Merkel poses with Rattan Lal and fellow recipients of the Gulbenkian Prize for Humanity 2024.  ©Marcia Lessa/C. Gulbenkian Sometimes, people will go along with this and change their mind, but I'm convinced that it will happen—it's a matter of time. I'm optimistic that there will be a federal soil health act eventually. The government policymakers realized the importance of air, water, soil, and biodiversity. They are four components of the environment that go together. Biodiversity, air, and water—[and] their foundation is soil.  Now Europe is doing something like that. In Germany, there is the Federal Soil Protection Act. It is a soil health act that rewards farmers for following legislation. I think it will happen in the US as well. [ Soil protection  in Germany is carried out at many levels. The federal government lays down the legal frameworks, and the regional states implement them.]

Digging into Aquifers in Tough Landscapes Around the Globe   *By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe Deep seated water.  ©AquaterreX LLC  In a world that depends on liquid fresh water, almost all of it— 99% —lies buried beneath the Earth’s surface, with the remaining 1% found in rivers and lakes.     Since ancient times, people have tapped groundwater through wells, with many going to only shallow depths, but some reaching aquifers as far down as 200 or 300 feet.    In the 1860s, the first super-deep aquifer was discovered in the upper Midwest in the US. Known as the Deep Sandstone Aquifer , it is still supplying millions of gallons of water every day to Chicago and four other states.    Technological advances have now revealed the existence of many more large bodies of water lying far below the Earth’ surface. With drought or extreme stress threatening people in 36 countries, new efforts are underway to harvest … massive sources of fresh water—including those located in difficult terrain.   About 2 billion people already lack access to safe drinking water, the UN says  in its Sustainable Development Goal Report 2022. With drought or extreme stress threatening people in 36 countries ,  new efforts are underway to harvest these massive sources of fresh water—including those located in difficult terrain.   Adding to the urgency are growing concerns about pollution contaminating these precious resources and how to best harvest them safely. Self-Replenishing Aquifers Abound Around the world, four billion people depend on shallow groundwater sources to produce food and drink, according to the Canadian charity The Groundwater Project. About 25%  of all freshwater is used for irrigation, and half of the freshwater is used for domestic purposes, says  the UN’s Water Development Report 2024 .   Most of these underground sources fully replenish themselves—or grow—via snow, rain, and other avenues, but some do not.   In a 2024 study , researchers found that out of 1,693 globally distributed aquifer systems, groundwater levels have grown in 617 (36%) of them while only 97 (6%) became shallower over time.   The researchers also gathered trend data for 542 of these aquifer systems from 1980 to 2000. They could see that 30% of these systems saw groundwater-level decline at an accelerated rate. However, almost half (49%) saw increased groundwater levels.   Groundwater Contamination Worries A groundwater well with water inside.  ©TS Photographer/ Shutterstock In addition to concerns about access to fresh water, there is worrisome evidence about groundwater contamination from long-lasting per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) , a group of manufactured chemicals found in everyday items such as food packaging, fabrics to make clothes, and contents used in firefighting foam, that can accumulate in people and the environment.   While PFAS are hailed as effective synthetic chemicals for industry, critics are calling for their ban due to detrimental health effects and their potentially negative impact on groundwater. One study published in 2022 in Environmental Science & Technology Journal analyzed 254 groundwater samples taken from Eastern US states in 2019 . The researchers detected at least one PFAS in 54% of samples, while at least two PFAS were found in 47% of them. Overall, the USGS researchers’ model indicates that as many as 95 million people ... may rely on pre-treated groundwater with detectable PFAS for their drinking water.   In a 2024 study by the US Geological Survey  (USGS), researchers assessed 1,238 groundwater samples from across 48 US states. At least one PFAS was detected in 37% of the samples taken. Overall, the USGS researchers’ model indicates that as many as 95 million people in these states may rely on pre-treated groundwater with detectable PFAS for their drinking water.   Delving Deeper into Groundwater Sources The Ogallala Aquifer spans the states of Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming.  © Wikimedia /Kbh3rd ( CC BY-SA 3.0 ) Finding and developing new underground deep-water sources will be necessary as populations grow and some aquifers shrink. In the US, the largest underground body of water is the 36,293-square-mile Ogallala Aquifer , which spans High Plains states from Texas to South Dakota.   While most of its operational parts are up to 200 feet deep, it has system components that reach between 1,000 feet and 1,200 feet deep. This range gives companies the potential to access groundwater and develop sourcing capabilities.   The availability of water from the Ogallala Aquifer “is critical to the economy of the region, as approximately 95% of groundwater pumped is used for irrigated agriculture,” says the Texas Water Development Board.   Moreover, throughout much of the aquifer, “groundwater withdrawals exceed the amount of recharge, and water levels have declined fairly consistently through time,” the Texas board says.   Indeed, the Ogallala Aquifer’s water levels experienced an estimated decline of 15.8 feet from 1950 to 2015, based on USGS data. This indicates that new sources of groundwater are needed. Accessing Deep Aquifers AquaterreX LLC, a global environmental services operation with offices in California, Florida, and Australia, is known for its ability to reach “Deep-Seated Water” (DSW), a trademarked term describing high-quality groundwater, typically sourced from deeper aquifers that are located below shallow aquifers.   [AquaterreX] uses a geospatial data analysis and assessment method to find water that is 200 to 300 meters (around 656 feet to 984 feet) below the Earth’s surface.   The company uses a geospatial data analysis and assessment method to find water that is 200 to 300 meters (around 656 feet to 984 feet) below the Earth’s surface.   The company, which says its approach is designed to mitigate any environmental impacts and concerns , has done groundwater projects in New Mexico; Texas; Australia; and now Chile, among others, since its founding in 2018.   “AquaterreX is the only company employing this combination of technology to locate and bring this source of fresh water to the surface,” says AquaterreX President James D'Arezzo . “In addition, DSW is a supplemental source of water that has not been made available to solve the planet's water challenges.”   Aquifers are replenished through the rain and snow that flow into local catchment basins. Since DSWs are deeper than shallow aquifers, they are less impacted by abrupt changes in regional hydrological cycles relating to rainfall and climate, AquaterreX notes. In addition, the vast amounts of water in these subterranean bodies can be used to locate deeper sources.    AquaterreX states that the world is not facing a lack of water but rather a lack of knowledge on where to find it. A 2015 study  estimated there were 22.6 million cubic kilometers of groundwater in the top 2 kilometers of the Earth’s crust. That is enough water to supply Earth for over 5,700 years at today’s global freshwater consumption rates of 3,949 billion cubic meters (or 3,949 cubic kilometers), based on the UN Food and Agriculture Organization’s AQUASTAT Dissemination System ’s estimate in 2021.   [22.6 million cubic kilometers] is enough water to supply Earth for over 5,700 years at today’s global freshwater consumption rates of 3,949 billion cubic meters (or 3,949 cubic kilometers).   While alternative sources to groundwater exist—such as desalination and unsustainable water management practices—these are expensive and/or entirely inaccessible for populations living in poverty.   Non-profit Background The research and development behind AquaterreX's DSW wells originated with AquaterreX’s non-profit parent organization, The Lawrence Anthony Earth Organization  (LAEO). As LAEO co-founder and International President Barbara Wiseman   explains in her biography, she “came across a relatively unknown science for water.” This led to a team of scientists developing the Deep Seated Water Technology, a registered term, to “locate sustainable water resources in drought-prone regions.”   In 2018, the for-profit company, AquaterreX LLC, was established. “Since then, the technology has been significantly improved to the point where AquaterreX has a near-100% certainty in locating underground water sources,” says D’Arezzo.   One of the obvious places to use the DSW technology was Australia, D'Arezzo says. Australia is  the world’s driest inhabited continent  and “one of the leading countries in terms of mapping its natural resources, including geology,” he says.     Methodology Limitations Despite its development over almost two decades, challenges remain within AquaterreX’s DSW groundwater process. For instance, assembling vast amounts of data and processing it through AquaterreX’s proprietary computer algorithms is a complex process.   “[A]cquiring, geologic, hydrologic, atmospheric, topographic, well log data, satellite imagery, and other information, which, when combined will reveal the optimum locations for ‘Deep-Seated Water’ (DSW).”   “This means acquiring, geologic, hydrologic, atmospheric, topographic, well log data, satellite imagery, and other information, which, when combined will reveal the optimum locations for DSW,” says D’Arezzo. Additionally, AquaterreX must then conduct an on-site survey, which can pose challenges regarding weather, terrain, and accessibility.   Despite these hurdles, DSW technology has been used to find groundwater in over 1,500 wells across Australia, the US, Africa, and Asia. The company states these drills have occurred in wells “where no water can be found.” In addition, it states that utilizing its technology enables AquaterreX to identify groundwater with nearly 100% certainty compared to an “industry average of 40%.”    Digging in Chile’s Atacama Plateau The Atliplano Atacama.  Photo licensed by Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe AquaterreX’s current projects include locating DSW on the Atacama Plateau (or Atacama Desert) in Chile, an exceptionally dry region  near the Salar de Atacama—the world’s largest source of lithium .   “We did this for Kinross Mining of Canada, as they wanted to locate water that would not interfere with the water needs of the Indigenous Tribes that live in the area,” says D’Arezzo. AquaterreX's senior hydrologist Arlin Howles conducting survey work at the Atacama Plateau at an elevation of 14,000 feet.  ©AquaterreX LLC As part of its Chilean project, AquaterreX performed its typical Phase I and II activities, which included sending a team to survey the area of interest at 12,000-14,000-foot elevations. As part of Phase I, AquaterreX used satellite imagery and data analysis to identify potential water locations. The company used a combination of geologic, hydrologic, atmospheric data, and advanced algorithms to locate areas of interest.   AquaterreX then moved on to Phase II and underwent a field assessment on site using its patented seismic and electro-resistivity technologies. These were employed to pinpoint well bores and identify the specific area AquaterreX would probe for groundwater.   Using above-ground data, AquaterreX developed a clear picture of how much freshwater was contained within the targeted area before digging. Virtual well data gave information on various factors, including the depth of groundwater, the thickness of water-bearing strata, estimated flow rates. In August , AquaterreX reported that it had located the deep water with precise well locations and could “meet the water volume requirements desired by the mining company ... without disrupting the shallow aquifer ecosystem” that local populations depend on.   Editorial notes Source: Interview with James D'Arezzo, President of Aquaterrex *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 10 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences.

*By David Dodge Janna Greir grazes 1,000 sheep and is experimenting with grazing Kunekune pigs on the Strathmore Solar Farm in Alberta, Canada.  Photo: David Dodge, GreenEnergyFutures.ca Canadian registered nurse Janna Greir always loved the idea of living in the country and operating a small farm, but her hopes to become a first-generation farmer seemed dim until she discovered a new collaboration between raising animals and solar farms. Today, Janna and husband Ryan oversee a flock of 1,000 sheep who graze on the vegetation on a huge solar farm, enabling both industries to prosper. This mutually beneficial arrangement, known as agrivoltaics, is in its infancy in Canada, but holds great potential for expansion. ‘Solar Grazing’ “My husband and I are both from Vancouver Island,” says Janna. “We didn't grow up on farms … but we knew that we had an interest in agriculture.” Previously, they both worked in a city while dabbling in farming. “We started with a small acreage and a few animals and quickly grew a passion for it and a passion in particular for sheep.” After Ryan found work in Alberta, Canada, they bought Whispering Cedars Ranch, just outside of the town of Strathmore. Then Janna discovered “solar grazing” from some friends who were doing it in Ontario. By coincidence, electric power producer Capital Power was building a solar farm just a short distance from their Strathmore ranch. Janna and Ryan did their homework on solar grazing, and although agrivoltaics was fairly new at the time in Alberta, Janna approached Capital Power in 2021 with a plan, and “they were just as excited about it as we were.” Aerial view of the Strathmore Solar farm where 1,000 sheep owned by farmer Janna Greir graze under contract.  Photo: David Dodge, GreenEnergyFutures.ca “It's created this unique partnership where it's allowed us to grow,” says Janna. “At one time, we only had one sheep and then 10 sheep, then 60 and 100 sheep. And now we have 600 breeding animals,” says Janna, whose flock now numbers 1,000 sheep. This partnership works because of two intersecting interests: Capital Power needs to control vegetation on their solar farm, and the Greirs need range and forage to graze their sheep. Since taking an interest in solar grazing, Janna has developed significant expertise in vegetation management, improving soil quality, and planting the right species to improve the land and growth of her sheep. She now owns Solar Sheep Inc. and is doing consulting for the solar industry, procuring custom seed mixes, all while expanding her own ranch operations to other solar farms. The Strathmore Solar project has a capacity of 41 megawatts on a total of 320 acres, with 240 acres inside the fence and another 80 acres outside the fence. In the first year, Janna ran 400 sheep in the solar farm; just a few years later, she supports 1,000 sheep on the solar farm, and there’s room for more. Janna has a contract to manage the vegetation, inside and outside the fence, of the solar farm. In the first year, Janna ran 400 sheep in the solar farm; just a few years later, she supports 1,000 sheep on the solar farm, and there’s room for more. “The sky's the limit with this site in particular because of the vegetation, and the way that it's managed allows it to rebound so quickly.” Asked about their own adoption of solar energy, Janna replies, “It's funny you should ask that.” “We have a 28.8-kilowatt solar install [on our ranch] very similar to this. We put it in last year, and essentially, that brings our farm to net zero,” she says. It also looks like the sheep at the ranch like the solar arrays. Sheep are lambing beneath the solar modules, which provide protection from sun, heat, wind, rain, and snow. Janna with her Kunekune pigs from New Zealand who have upturned snouts which means they are grazers, not diggers and very complementary to the sheep.  Photo: David Dodge, GreenEnergyFutures.ca Pigs and Solar The success with sheep has inspired Janna to branch out into other species. As she walks behind a row of solar panels, small pigs can be seen grazing beneath them. “These are a specific type of grazing pigs. They're called Kunekune,  and they come from New Zealand.” These pigs have upward-turned snouts, she says, and “they are not like traditional pigs where they root up the ground and they dig for all kinds of things.” Instead, the pigs eat like lawnmowers and also eat things left behind by the sheep, including parasites and worms, which interrupts the life cycle of the parasites. “The idea is not only to adapt and to allow for multi-species grazing, but the cool thing is when you're running more than one species of livestock, they eat different plants,” says Janna.   Expanding Agrivoltaics Janna jumped at the chance to join the board of the new Agrivoltaics Canada  organization set up to create awareness, provide education, influence policy, and “take agrivoltaics to a whole new level,” she says. “Canada is just in its infancy with regard to agrivoltaics. We've only just got our foot in the door,” she says. “There're tons of room for food production under solar. That could mean anything from grazing to crop production—they're even looking into berry production under solar, and specific types of gardens.” In the United States, the Inspire Project , supported by the US Department of Energy, has mapped 589 agrivoltaic projects . Inspire tracks projects with crop production, habitat improvements, grazing, and greenhouse operations. The state of Minnesota is a hot spot where sheep grazing is the most common application, although garden operations are increasingly emerging on solar farms. Inspire has also created the Agrivoltaics Calculator  to help evaluate low-impact solar development strategies. Back in Janna’s home province of Alberta, Claude Mindorff, founder of Agrivoltaics Canada and a former farmer, now works with solar companies. He’s jazzed about the potential of agrivoltaics, is keen to educate farmers on the potential, and is working on various models of farming integration. He’s working with Shawn Morton, a fourth-generation farmer from Joffre, Alberta, who runs a cow-calf operation and partners with various farming operations as well. Claude Mindorff and Shawn Morton walking between rows of solar panels on Morton's 100-year-old family farm.  Photo: David Dodge, GreenEnergyFutures.ca Keeping the Farm in the Family When Morton was first approached with the idea of solar on his land, he did what farmers usually do: “You always say no,” he says. But the solar guys were patient, and eventually, he met Mindorff and now has a 48-megawatt solar farm on his land. And part of his deal with the solar developer is to continue farming and grazing on the lands. Shawn Morton on his farm near Joffre, Alberta.  Photo: David Dodge, GreenEnergyFutures.ca   “If we can continue to use it in agriculture, I think the benefits are tremendous,” Morton says, standing between two rows of solar modules on his farm. Initially, he intends to hay the site and eventually run a herd of sheep on it. “As you can see up and down these rows, we're in the middle of May and already the grass has grown probably four inches,” says Morton, adding there was no impact on the quality of the land. More significantly, these new revenues from the solar lease have transformed his thinking about farm succession and his young daughter.  “I hope that my daughter will farm, or if she doesn't choose a career in agriculture, she'll have the benefit of being able to stay in agriculture with the revenue from the solar park.” “There's a financial benefit [in the long run]. I think it'll keep a lot of farmers on the land,” he says, adding “I'm able to farm full time with the financial benefit of the [solar] park.” “I hope that my daughter will farm, or if she doesn't choose a career in agriculture, she'll have the benefit of being able to stay in agriculture with the revenue from the solar park.” This is music to the ears of Mindorff, who explains there are essentially three kinds of agrivoltaics.    Farming beneath solar panels.  Photo: AgriSolar Clearinghouse CC BY 2.0 Three Kinds of Agrivoltaics One kind is “ field agrivoltaics , where you have cereal grains. There are designs for vertical panels where you can grow tall crops like corn, grain, and canola in between,” he says. “Then there is what we call the market garden  approach,” where the solar canopies almost touch at the top or they are V-shaped and almost touch on the sides. “They provide shade and shelter for tender fruits like strawberries, bench strawberries, blackberries, blueberries, or haskaps (honeyberries).” Mindorff says one can also grow leafy vegetables. “Any of the nightshades, potatoes, beets, tomatoes, or peppers grow incredibly well under solar,” he notes, adding that there is now ongoing research in Oregon, Arizona, and other places. The third  kind of agrivoltaics “is what you see here [at Joffre], where you have single ground mount panels  or single axis tracking where grazing is the primary activity underneath. You rotate crops in every few years to reduce the site becoming root-bound.” “[I]t would take less than 1% of the agricultural lands, under utility-scale developments such as [in] Joffre” to “provide Canada’s electricity,” Mindorff notes that critics worry that solar farms will take up valuable land. However, Dr. Joshua Pierce of Western University in Ontario has found it would take “less than 1% of the agricultural lands , under utility-scale developments such as [in] Joffre” to “provide Canada’s electricity,” says Mindorff. Solar rarely, if ever, goes on prime farmland because farmers already know the best use for that land. Janna Greir has dramatically improved the productivity of the land under the Strathmore Solar Farm with good vegetation management designed both for increasing forage and biodiversity at the same time.  Photo: David Dodge, GreenEnergyFutures.ca Agrivoltaics’ Potential to Improve Productivity In many cases, the quality of the farmland and productivity is increased  in agrivoltaics. As ranchers such as Janna Greir bring their expertise to vegetation management, soil quality improves, and so can biodiversity. And with growing expertise, innovation is coming fast. For instance, Janna has some ideas for solar farms to use solar trackers with slightly different spacing and the placement of some of these mechanisms and cables out of the way or underground, so that solar farms could drastically improve the potential of the land. “For instance, we could come early in the season, and we could hay it. And we'd have extra forage for our animals throughout the winter,” says Janna. In the northern climate of Alberta, her sheep can stay on the solar farm from May until the end of November, but in the winter, they must be fed back at their ranch. “We've got forage for animals for six, seven months of the year on the solar farm,” she says. “But feeding them for those additional six months is extremely expensive.” “Being able to produce forage and/or crops underneath solar that you could continue to use it for your operations at home throughout the winter. ... That would be a game changer, for sure,” she adds. *David Dodge  is an environmental journalist, photojournalist, and the host and producer of GreenEnergyFutures.ca , a series of micro-documentaries on clean energy, transportation, and buildings. He’s worked for newspapers and published magazines and produced more than 350 award-winning EcoFile radio programs on sustainability for CKUA Radio.

Transforming Healthcare Based on Whole Food, Plant-Based Nutrition *By Alina Bradford Whole, plant-based healthcare starts with knowledgeable providers.  ©Prostock-Studio/ iStock Around the world, healthcare professionals are collaborating to harness the benefits of whole-food, plant-based diets to address chronic diseases, improve patient outcomes, and support planetary health. Organizations such as The Plantrician Project, Doctors for Nutrition, and the International Journal of Disease Reversal and Prevention (IJDRP) are at the forefront of this effort. Through their work, they aim to transform healthcare by tackling fundamental causes and risk factors of various chronic diseases and illnesses using dietary and lifestyle changes. “The growing movement stems from mounting evidence linking whole-food, plant-based diets to improved health outcomes,” says New York City-based nutritionist Bharathi Ramesh . “Conditions such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and obesity have been shown to improve or even reverse with such diets.” A paradigm shift will recognize food as medicine and address the need for sustainable, preventive healthcare, Ramesh says. “Educating practitioners empowers them to guide patients toward dietary changes, aligning treatment with evidence-based nutrition practices. This movement also addresses the environmental and ethical concerns tied to traditional diets.” The Plantrician Project—Eating Well for Health Providing a patient with a plant-based diet plan.  Photo: beyzahzah/Pexels The Plantrician Project , a nonprofit organization, is a key advocate for integrating plant-based nutrition into medical practice. Their mission focuses on combating the global epidemic of chronic diseases, including heart disease, diabetes, and cancer, by equipping physicians and healthcare providers with evidence-based education and tools through programs and events like the International Plant-Based Nutrition Healthcare Conference. They also offer resources such as toolkits and patient education materials that allow practitioners to incorporate plant-based nutrition into their clinical approaches. Collaborations with groups like the American College of Lifestyle Medicine and the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine strengthen this eating-well-for-health initiative. Prominent figures in the field, such as Dr. T. Colin Campbell, Dr. Michael Greger, and Dr. Dean Ornish, further support the project’s efforts, emphasizing the importance of dietary change in preventing and managing chronic diseases.   Doctors for Nutrition—Leadership from Australia In Australia, Doctors for Nutrition plays a leading role in advocating for plant-based diets to prevent, manage, and reverse chronic illnesses. Founded in 2018, this organization educates healthcare professionals and the public about the scientific evidence supporting whole-food, plant-based nutrition. According to Doctors for Nutrition, “As much as 88% of health loss  can be attributed to non-communicable diseases, many are preventable through diet.” Through partnerships with physicians, dietitians, and researchers, Doctors for Nutrition has successfully integrated plant-based practices into healthcare systems, influencing both practitioners and patients. Through partnerships with physicians, dietitians, and researchers, Doctors for Nutrition has successfully integrated plant-based practices into healthcare systems, influencing both practitioners and patients. Scientific Journal Builds Evidence The International Journal of Disease Reversal and Prevention  (IJDRP) is another vital player in this movement. Since its launch in 2019 by the Plant-Based Nutrition Movement, the IJDRP has published research focused on preventing and reversing chronic diseases through plant-based nutrition and lifestyle changes.  This peer-reviewed, open-access journal is a critical resource for clinicians, researchers, and the public. It publishes studies on the effects of plant-based diets on conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity while also featuring case studies that document patient outcomes. By making research accessible to everyone, the IJDRP ensures that the benefits of lifestyle medicine are widely understood and implemented. Evidence Behind Plant-Based Diets Scientific evidence has reinforced the work of these organizations. A recent study published in the IJDRP detailed the reversal of lupus nephritis  in patients following a six-week raw vegan diet. Another study published in American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine highlighted the complete reversal of type 2 diabetes  (T2D) in patients who adopted a whole-food, plant-based diet.  In the T2D study, mostly elderly patients (mean age 71.5 years) at a US wellness clinic were treated with a “low-fat, whole food, plant-predominant diet while receiving standard medical treatment.” According to the research team, 37% of the patients achieved T2D remission . Here are more studies that link plant-based eating to healthier bodies: A 2024 study in The Lancet Planetary Health affirmed that a plant-based diet called “ Planetary Health Diet ” lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease. A 2023 study found that vegetarian diets were associated with significant improvements in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol . Another 2024 study published by the American Diabetes Association found that the average total daily dose of insulin decreased significantly, and insulin sensitivity increased significantly for subjects on a vegan diet in just 12 weeks. Meta-analyses, including one from 2024, confirm the reduction in mortality risk  associated with plant-heavy dietary patterns.  Studies link plant-based eating to healthier bodies.  Photo: Ella Olsson/ Pexels Better Personal Health and the Planet Studies have also shown this plant-based focus is good for the environment as well as the body. Reducing reliance on animal agriculture helps decrease greenhouse gas emissions  and conserve natural resources, aligning with global efforts to mitigate climate change. By addressing both human and planetary health, plant-based diets are increasingly recognized as a powerful tool for a sustainable future. [I]n 2023, New York City Health + Hospitals introduced plant-based meals in 11 of its hospitals. For example, in 2023, New York City Health + Hospitals introduced plant-based meals  in 11 of its hospitals. Patients could choose, for instance, a dinner of Fiesta Black Bean Burger on a Whole Wheat Bun with Cauliflower, Whole Wheat Sicilian Pizza with Plant-Based Cheese, or Red Curry Vegetables with Roasted Tofu, the hospital said. The patients didn’t feel restricted, as the meal program received a patient satisfaction rate above 90%. This not only benefits the patients but also the healthcare system, potentially leading to cost savings. A Vision for the Future The combined efforts of The Plantrician Project, Doctors for Nutrition, and the IJDRP are not just shifting the healthcare landscape but are shaping a global movement. Meanwhile, practical resources and collaborative efforts ensure that plant-based nutrition messages reach diverse audiences. Ramesh says some key programs and initiatives that aim to transform global healthcare by integrating dietary strategies into patient care include: The International Plant-Based Nutrition Healthcare Conference  (Plantrician Project): A global forum to educate healthcare providers on integrating plant-based nutrition. Nutrition in Medicine : Free resources to teach medical students about the role of diet in health. Forks Over Knives : Encourages public and professional awareness of plant-based diets. Doctors for Nutrition Summit : A conference showcasing scientific findings and practical guidance. “Together, these initiatives have led to improved patient outcomes, including weight loss, better glycemic control, reduced medication dependence, and overall enhanced quality of life,” says Ramesh. As the evidence grows, the importance of plant-based nutrition in healthcare becomes clearer. By addressing the causes of chronic diseases and prioritizing prevention, these organizations create a roadmap for a healthier, more sustainable future.  *Alina Bradford   is a safety and security expert who has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com .

*By Rick Laezman Hydrogen bus by European manufacturer Solaris. ©Markiewicz/Solaris Bus & Coach S.A. (CC BY-SA 4.0) The nation's largest contributor of greenhouse gases, transportation , is on a path to reduce its carbon emissions, and electric vehicles (EVs) are leading the way. But EV technology does not have a monopoly on change. Enter hydrogen. As the most abundant element in the universe, and the third most common element on Earth, it holds tremendous potential as a clean-burning alternative to fossil fuels. The idea of hydrogen cars is not new. The concept has been discussed and tested for decades. While still mostly on the sidelines, the technology may now be ready to join the great race against global warming and help vehicle travel further reduce its emissions. Hydrogen Fuel Cells Hydrogen can be used to power vehicles in more than one way. The most common is with a device known as a hydrogen fuel cell. Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) generate power through a process that is not unlike the way a battery works in an electric car. Electrical energy is discharged, harnessed, and transmitted via an electrical motor to produce wheel rotation, which propels the vehicle. Unlike a battery, however, a fuel cell converts the chemical energy of hydrogen to generate electrical energy. As long as the fuel (hydrogen) is present, the fuel cell can continue to function. Figure 1. Hydrogen fuel cell car concept. ©bgpsh/shutterstock In a fuel cell vehicle, compressed hydrogen gas is stored in a tank, similar to gasoline in a conventional vehicle. But instead of running through a combustion engine, the hydrogen is fed into a fuel cell stack, which is an aggregate of cells where the electro-chemical conversion takes place (see Figure 1). Each cell contains a positive and negative electrode, which are wrapped around an electrolyte. The hydrogen gas is channeled through the negative electrode, the anode. Meanwhile, oxygen is fed to the positive electrode, also known as the cathode. A catalyst at the anode splits the hydrogen molecules into electrons and protons. The electrons then travel through a separate circuit, which creates a flow of electricity that is harnessed to power the vehicle’s electric motor (see Figure 2). At the same time, the protons travel separately through the electrolyte to reach the cathode where they reunite with the oxygen and the same electrons they were separated from. Fuel cells are efficient, quiet, and clean; there is no combustion, there are no toxic emissions. Fuel cells are efficient, quiet, and clean; there is no combustion, there are no toxic emissions. The only thing that comes out of the tailpipe of a fuel cell-powered vehicle is water, one of the most innocuous substances on the planet. Figure 2. Hydrogen fuel cell ©Pepermpron/shutterstock The benign impact of a fuel cell is one of its greatest selling points. If society is able to effectively harness the gas, it will have a virtually limitless supply of clean fuel. Hydrogen Combustion Engines Not surprisingly, hydrogen fuel cells aren't the only type of vehicle engine powered by hydrogen. The gas can also be burned in an internal combustion engine (ICE), just like petroleum gasoline, diesel, and ethanol. Like fuel cells, the hydrogen ICE is gaining traction, and more companies are looking closely at the idea. If a hydrogen-powered internal combustion engine could be commercialized, it could solve the problem of emissions generated by the burning of fossil fuels without losing the power and efficiency of an ICE. Attention has focused on the use of hydrogen ICEs for medium- and heavy-duty vehicles—including vans, buses, and trucks—because ICEs are more efficient than fuel cell engines for vehicles that carry heavy loads over long distances. The concept is still very much in the development phase, but industry stakeholders are taking it seriously. Attention has focused on the use of hydrogen ICEs for medium- and heavy-duty vehicles—including vans, buses, and trucks—because ICEs are more efficient than fuel cell engines for vehicles that carry heavy loads over long distances. Hydrogen would provide these types of vehicles with the fuel density they need but without the pollutants. Concept of a hydrogen ICE truck by Iveco at IAA Transportation 2024, Hanover, Germany. Photo: Matti Blume (CC BY-SA 4.0) Earlier this year, the US Department of Energy (DOE) announced  $10.5 million in funding awards for three projects focused on research, development, and demonstration in this area. PACCAR Inc., an American truck designer and manufacturer, Cummins Inc., an American engine manufacturer, and MAHLE Powertrain, an American company that provides engineering and consulting on hybridized ICEs, were awarded funding. Together, these three ICE projects will support the use of hydrogen in the medium- and heavy-duty transportation sector. Navigating California's Hydrogen Highway Developing the proper engine technology is only part of the challenge to a future with hydrogen vehicles. A robust and reliable infrastructure for making hydrogen fuel available is also essential. Given how the nation's charging network for electric cars is lagging behind, hydrogen fueling stations face a similar problem. The marketplace is not always efficient enough in the early stages to encourage growth of new technologies. Therefore, government plays an important role. Much like it has been with EVs and solar power, the state of California has been a national leader in advancing hydrogen power. Much like it has been with EVs and solar power, the state of California has been a national leader in advancing hydrogen power, and, in that respect, also forward-thinking. It took steps to create a refueling infrastructure to support hydrogen cars more than 20 years ago. Then-Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger waved the checkered flag on the race for hydrogen in April 2004 when he signed Executive Order S-07-04. It initiated the so-called “ California Hydrogen Highway Network (CaH2Net) ,” whose mission was to assure that hydrogen fueling stations were in place to meet future demand created by hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles entering California roads. The CaH2Net marked the beginning of a process to coordinate between the California government, academia, and private industry stakeholders to establish a shared vision and create a blueprint of actions needed to create a hydrogen highway in the Golden State. Nearly 10 years later, California passed Assembly Bill 8  (AB 8; Perea, Chapter 401, Statutes of 2013), which among other things, dedicated up to $20 million per year for 10 years to support continued construction of at least 100 hydrogen fuel stations. According to the latest annual report  on the progress toward meeting the goals set by AB 8, “California’s hydrogen fueling network has grown to 65 stations, with 59 Open-Retail stations available for customer fueling as of August 10, 2023.” Most of those stations are in the highly populated areas of San Francisco and Los Angeles. [There is] a correlation between the delay in fueling station buildout and a similar delay in market projections for the sale of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. A number of factors are cited for the delay in reaching the state's goal of 100 stations. The report does note a correlation between the delay in fueling station buildout and a similar delay in market projections for the sale of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Although the state has not reached its goal, it is still on the way and not far off. The report projects the state could still have 100 fueling stations by as early as 2025. Hydrogen Vehicles Around the World California is not the only benchmark. According to market research firm, Interact Analysis , in the first half of this year, 41 countries and regions around the world had operating hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs). Another seven countries were planning or constructing their very first stations. The distribution of hydrogen stations around the globe is highly concentrated. “China, South Korea, Japan, and Germany have more than 100 operating stations, together accounting for 72% of the global total,” the report said. According to the same data, California accounts for more than 75% of the total in the United States. Hyundai ix35 fuel cell electric vehicle at hydrogen refueling station, Wuppertal. Germany. Photo: Artur Braun CC BY-SA 4.0 A closer look at the world's leader, China, suggests what it might take for hydrogen to catch on elsewhere. Interact Analysis reports that the expansion of HFEVs and HRSs in China is the result of government promotion that has triggered a cycle of expansion. The promotion of hydrogen and hydrogen vehicles became an official Chinese government policy starting in 2019. It was reiterated in subsequent years leading to growth in the industry and demand for refueling stations. This increase in demand encouraged 30 provinces and municipal cities across China to issue policies covering the development of HRSs, totaling more than 1,200 sites. While the United States is not a one-party state, government can still play a role, and the US has taken steps to encourage the development of the hydrogen industry. Last year, the Biden Administration announced an award of $7 billion from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law to seven “regional clean hydrogen hubs.” [S]even projects, scattered across the country, will produce, deliver, and provide end-use of clean hydrogen, derived from diverse domestic resources like solar energy, wind, nuclear energy, biomass, and natural gas with carbon capture. The seven projects, scattered across the country, will produce, deliver, and provide end-use of clean hydrogen, derived from diverse domestic resources like solar energy, wind, nuclear energy, biomass, and natural gas with carbon capture. The administration expects the hubs to “catalyze multistate hydrogen ecosystems,” which will expand and connect to form “a national hydrogen economy.” HFCEVs on the Road Many manufacturers have entered the race to build hydrogen fuel cell EVs. According to the national Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership , a non-profit collaboration of manufacturers, organizations, government agencies, and other stakeholders, over 18,000 FCEVs have been sold or leased in the U.S. as of September 2024. Models include the Toyota Mirai, Hyundai Nexo, Honda Clarity, Audi H-Tron Quattro, Chevrolet Colorado ZH2, Mercedes-Benz GLC F-Cell, and Nissan X-Trail. AC Transit and Sunline Transit also each manufacture their own line of hydrogen fuel cell transit buses. Toyota’s hydrogen fuel cell model Mirai at the 2020 Montréal International Auto Show. Photo: Bull-Doser/Wikimedia Currently, in the United States, only two models are available to the public. The Toyota Mirai  is a sedan that starts at about $50,000. The Hyundai Nexo  is an SUV that starts at around $60,000. To ease the pain of refueling, both manufacturers offer a $6,000 credit for the purchase of hydrogen that lasts up to six years on a purchase and three years on a lease. One final consideration is safety. Hydrogen is an extremely flammable gas. This poses a danger for vehicles that have been involved in an accident. It's important to note that traditional petroleum gasoline is also flammable. But manufacturers have developed designs and rigorous testing methods to make vehicles safe by guarding against the possibility of an explosion after a collision. HFCEV manufacturers have taken similar measures. Toyota has addressed safety in the Mirai through the design of the fuel cell tank and the refueling nozzle, and rigorous testing of both. Hydrogen is as safe as any other fuel used in a car, proponents say. Hydrogen may even have an advantage over petroleum gas because it is so light. In the event of a tank leak after a collision, the gas is likely to quickly dissipate into the atmosphere, unlike petroleum gas, which will dissipate much more slowly, increasing the time and likelihood that it could ignite from a spark. The Future of FCEVs While still a long way from competing with traditional vehicles, and not even close to its chief rival, EVs, hydrogen vehicles have a promising future. Multiple studies project strong growth in the years ahead, with total market value growing from around $1 billion to about $40 billion by the end of this decade. Like so many other new technologies, the prospect for growth presents a quandary. Consumers are not likely to invest in a new vehicle until the refueling infrastructure is available, but the same infrastructure is not likely to be built out until there is enough demand from vehicle owners. The solution is investment. Judging from the actions of private and public stakeholders, the intent is there. It should only be a matter of time before their actions will pay off. *Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has been covering renewable power and other related subjects for more than ten years.

Nobel Laureate David MacMillan Sees Revolutionary Change on the Horizon   *By Robert Selle   David MacMillan at a 2024 conference for high school STEM scholars in New Jersey held at Princeton University’s Frick Lab. He brought his Nobel Medal for the high school students to see up-close. ©Wendy Plump “We’re one catalytic reaction away from solving climate change,” says David MacMillan, co-winner of the 2021 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and professor at Princeton University. The source of his enthusiasm is a process to catalyze the mineralization of aerobic carbon, changing carbon dioxide (CO2) to carbonate rock, otherwise known as limestone.** Intellectual Generosity: Driver of Scientific Breakthroughs For the Scottish chemist, who is now 56, science is about excitement, curiosity, risk taking, creative thinking—and being willing to shun groupthink. Even more fundamentally, it’s about gratitude and sharing of discoveries, for without these values, science would be siloed and selfish. “Generosity,” MacMillan says , “is really important as a scientist because you’re going to have to be around other people, and you’re going to have to give and take and share” with other scientists. If you don’t, he warns, a person’s career will surely suffer. He believes in karma, though not in a spiritual sense. “I really do believe that people who are generous, the world knows they’re generous and gives them back fivefold. … Being generous as a scientist is an extraordinarily important attribute.” MacMillan and his wife used his share of the Nobel Prize money (about $500,000) to set up the May and Billy MacMillan Charitable Fund, in honor of his parents for their lifelong support. Speaking of gratitude, MacMillan  and his wife  used his share of the Nobel Prize money (about $500,000) to set up the May and Billy MacMillan Charitable Fund, in honor of his parents for their lifelong support. MacMillan’s wife is Jiin Kim MacMillan, of Korean ancestry, who is a chemist and pharmaceutical industry consultant involved in drug development. They have three daughters. David MacMillan with his wife Jiin Kim MacMillan and their three daughters. ©Corinne Strauss “My parents cared enormously about giving us opportunities,” the Nobel laureate  says. “They cared about education. They’d give you the shirts off their backs to allow you to better yourself. So, this seemed like a great way to honor what they did for me and my siblings.” The foundation provides educational opportunities for financially disadvantaged students in Scotland. It selects a program in Scotland each year for a one-time grant. The first recipient was the University of Glasgow, spurred by MacMillan’s appreciation for helping launch him on his career path and because “they have a great program in place to help underprivileged kids get to university and stay there.” “I also think it’s so important to give back,” MacMillan says. “There were so many people, our predecessors, who created opportunities for people like me. So, to get the opportunity to also do the same thing going forward is important.” The scientist hails  from the hamlet of New Stevenston, next to the small town of Bellshill, nestled between two giant steel mills in a coal mining area about 10 miles from Glasgow. His father was a steelworker and his mother a maid, and he was raised in government housing in a row house community.   His brother Iain was the first in his family to attend university, and he did so against his parents’ wishes. But when Iain got a job the first day after graduating that earned more than their father’s, the senior MacMillan became a fan of undergraduate study and pushed David there. The scientist says that his brother is his life’s inspiration. ‘Study What Speaks to You’ MacMillan’s advice for someone just getting into chemistry—or any field of science—is to “sample it, see what speaks to you.” “[O]nce you think, ‘I really like this,’ regardless of whether you’re in college or high school, go find someone who’s doing that in a lab.” “Second, once you think, ‘I really like this,’ regardless of whether you’re in college or high school, go find someone who’s doing that in a lab. And sort of beg or pray to join that lab and work there part time for a summer. Then, if there is still the feeling, ’This is fun. I really enjoy doing science,’ immerse yourself, throw yourself into it,” MacMillan says. David MacMillan (far left) with a few of the members of his lab who were co-authors on a paper in Science, standing in Princeton’s Frick Lab. ©C. Todd Reichart In the 1980s, during his first year at the University of Glasgow, studying physics, MacMillan many times felt close to dropping out. He tried getting various jobs but wasn’t good at job interviews, so he couldn’t land any work. In his second university year, however, “it was not so much I found organic chemistry as organic chemistry found me.” He had to travel an hour to his classes and then an hour home, and during this time he would devour a worn organic chemistry textbook. After a while, he was far ahead of his coursework and could truly begin to feel how organic molecules come together on the nanoscopic level. He came to feel he could do chemistry naturally—and joyfully. “There’s a lot of fun in doing that, and that’s what organic chemistry felt like to me.” Questioning Science Orthodoxy Regarding the pre-2000 consensus thinking around metal catalysts, the Nobel Prize winner says, “The way the chemistry works in this one area—everyone does it this way, [but] does it make sense? And some of it made sense, but some of it seemed kind of strange to me that we were doing it in this bizarre [metal-catalyst] way. So, we started to question, are there other ways to do it? Are there other ways to think about it? And that’s when we started to have ideas about going in this completely different direction.” [T]hose who hold the purse strings—that is, the research-proposal reviewers at the various foundations and government agencies—are often constrained by chemistry orthodoxy. He also noted that without donor funding there’s no scientific progress. But those who hold the purse strings—that is, the research-proposal reviewers at the various foundations and government agencies—are often constrained by chemistry orthodoxy. “Funding agencies are great,” MacMillan said, “but sometimes reviewers for funding agencies are difficult because reviewers are often looking for things based on what we already know. And sometimes young [researchers] want to go in a completely different direction that makes no sense compared to what we already know. ... So, we do the things that ‘make sense’ as opposed to the things that are more unusual or higher risk.” 'Eureka’ Moment MacMillan’s “eureka” moment in the organocatalysis field came in 1998 as a first-year assistant professor at the University of California at Berkeley. A first-year graduate student in his lab, Tristan Lambert, asked him a simple question about a particular organic chemical reaction. “I went to the board, I was drawing up the answer to the question, and right there, right then, we had the idea,” MacMillan said. “But I thought, it looks too simple, there’s no way this is going to work. [But] we tested it that afternoon, and it worked—that afternoon!” MacMillan’s discovery was that simple, cheap organic molecules could perform the same molecular-level breaking-and-joining catalytic function as expensive toxic metals. Organocatalysis was born. He is often asked what is going to be the next big development in organocatalysis, and he tells people , “I have absolutely no idea. But … it’s not going to be based on who has the most money. It’s going to be based on who has the best idea.” ** MacMillan notes that there is an enormous amount of alkali metal salts that exist in the Earth’s crust, slowly absorbing CO2 to create carbonates. But this happens at a snail’s pace.  “So, if you can accelerate that process through catalysis, it would easily be the world’s most important chemical reaction,” he says. (For a detailed account of organocatalysis and MacMillan’s breakthrough, see “ How Catalysis is Poised to Rock Our World " and " Innovations in Chemical Catalysis Will Revolutionize the Future ” by David MacMillan.) *Robert Selle  is a freelance writer and editor, based in Bowie, Maryland.