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In recent years, researchers have periodically identified human organs breached by a microplastic (MP) incursion that has spread to every corner of the planet. Microplastics have been found in Antarctica , in babies , and even in human blood  and lungs , so perhaps it was inevitable that researchers would find them in the human brain. ©Wikimedia/Patrick J. Lynch In a study  published by JAMA Network Open in September 2024, a team of scientists, led by Dr. Thais Mauad, an associate professor  of pathology at the University of São Paulo Medical School in Brazil, found microplastics in an anterior area of the brain called the olfactory bulb. This was the first known published study on microplastics in the brain. The olfactory bulb is a part of the brain  that processes information associated with smell. There are two bulbs per person, each located above a nasal cavity. Some researchers “worry the olfactory pathway may also be an entry point  into the brain beyond the olfactory bulb,” NBC News reported . The team analyzed the olfactory bulbs of 15 deceased individuals and found microplastics in eight of them. The most common polymer discovered was polypropylene (43.8%), and the most common identifiable shapes were particles (75%) and fibers (25%). The sizes of the MP particles ranged from 5.5 to 26.4 μm, while the mean fiber length was 21.4 μm.  The study authors said their discovery raises “important questions about … the mechanisms by which MPs might reach brain tissues” as “the presence of microplastics in the human olfactory bulb suggests the olfactory pathway as a potential entry route for microplastics into the brain.” They highlighted a need for further research on the “neurotoxic effects and implications for human health.” Sources : https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2823787?utm_source=For_The_Media&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=ftm_links&utm_term=091624 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10826726/#:~:text=Recently,%20in%20a%20clinical%20study,,%20and%2015%20%25%20were%20resin . https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-61739159 https://www.aol.com/microplastics-found-human-brain-151000303.html https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/microplastics-brain-new-research-finds-plastics-olfactory-bulb-rcna171200

Global Temperatures and Greenhouse Gas Concentrations Reached “Record Levels” in 2023   The Copernicus Climate Change Service, the EU’s Earth Observation Programme, recently released its seventh annual European State of the Climate report . It highlighted key climate-related events in Europe, as well as updates on the Arctic and global temperatures in 2023.   Europe is estimated to have suffered €13.4 billion (about $14.9 billion) in 2023 due to climate-related events, such as heatwaves, wildfires, floods, drought, and storms.  Globally, around 220,000 glaciers cover an area of approximately 700,000 square kilometers (about 172.9 million acres), but since 1976 about 8,200 cubic kilometers (about 1,967 cubic miles) of glacier ice has been lost.  In 2023, sea ice coverage in the Arctic reached its lowest in September, at 18% below average and sixth lowest based on a reference period of 1991 to 2020.  Globally, 2023 was the “warmest year on record” with the largest monthly temperature anomaly (deviation from normal) on record in September at 0.93°C (about 1.67°F) above average based on a reference period of 1991 to 2020.   Since 1993, annual average sea level rise has been 3.4 mm (0.13 in) globally and 2 to 4 mm (0.07 to 0.15 in) in Europe.  In 2023, the annual average concentration of carbon dioxide was 419 parts per million and for methane was 1,902 parts per billion, reaching record levels.    Source:   European State of the Climate Report 2023

Russia Ranked as a Top Exporter of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium Fertilizers in 2022   The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations released a new report  highlighting global export and agricultural use of inorganic fertilizers from 2002 to 2022. Fertilizer nutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus (as phosphorus pentoxide, or P2O5), and potassium (as K2O). Although P2O5 and K2O do not exist as compounds  in their respective fertilizers, calculations can be done to determine the actual percentages of phosphorus and potassium.    Russia was a top exporter of all three nutrients in 2022. It ranked first for nitrogen (18% of total), third in phosphorus (16% of total), and second in potassium (23% of total).  Meanwhile, India ranked first for phosphorus exports (24% of total), second for nitrogen (14% of total), and fifth for potassium (6% of total).  In 2022, Canada had the highest export of potassium fertilizers, accounting for 37% of the total. Meanwhile, Morocco had the highest for phosphorus fertilizers, accounting for 21% of the total.  Brazil was a prime importer of all three fertilizers, including about 2.06 million tons of nitrogen fertilizers, 1.13 million tons of phosphorus fertilizers, and 3.34 million tons of potassium fertilizers in 2022.  The US had the highest imports of potassium fertilizers at around 5.64 million tons from Canada in 2022, which was around 43% of Canada’s potassium fertilizer exports.  Overall, Asia had the highest total fertilizer use at close to 180 kg/ha in 2022, followed by the Americas (about 130 kg/ha), Europe (about 80 kg/ha), Oceania (about 60 kg/ha), and finally Africa (about 20 kg/ha).    Sources:   FAO. 2024. Inorganic fertilizers – 2002–2022 . FAOSTAT Analytical Briefs, No. 90. Rome.

Pumpkins are 92% Water and Rich in Vitamins and Minerals   Autumn is the season of harvest and gratitude, whether it be through Thanksgiving in the US, Chuseok in South Korea, or Erntedank fest  in Germany. Accompanying such celebrations are tasty seasonal dishes, including the pumpkin variety. Below are some facts on these large fruits.  According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, global production in the “pumpkins, squash and gourds” category was 22.8 million tons in 2022. Highest production was in Asia (50.5%), followed by Europe (21.2%), the Americas (15.4%), Africa (11.9%), and Oceania (1%).  In the US, over 1 billion pounds  of pumpkins were harvested by the top six producing states.  Morton, Illinois, is called the “ pumpkin capital of the world ” because 85% of the world’s canned pumpkin is packed in the Nestle/Libby’s plant there.  Pumpkin is nutritious  given its vitamin and mineral content, including vitamin A, vitamin K, iron, and magnesium. Pumpkin seeds contain copper, magnesium, phosphorus, and zinc but are high in fat.  Pumpkins are about 92% water  and are winter squashes.  When composting pumpkins   (especially jack-o-lanterns), paint, candles, and wax should be removed beforehand.    Sources:   https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize   [search “pumpkins, squash and gourds”]   https://www.morton-il.gov/citizen-support-center/tourism/   https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/pumpkin-nutrition-review#nutrition   https://www.ers.usda.gov/newsroom/trending-topics/pumpkins-background-statistics/   https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/10-things-you-probably-didnt-know-about-pumpkins   https://www.treehugger.com/how-host-pumpkin-smash-and-compost-jack-o-lanterns-4854373

Potential as a Fuel Rises When Paired with Renewable Energy (“Green Hydrogen”)   Hydrogen (H) is the most abundant element  in the universe; it is typically found bonded to carbon (such as hydrocarbons in petroleum) and oxygen (as in water). Hydrogen is not widely used as a fuel at this time .  However, given its energy density, molecular hydrogen (H2) has potential to be used as fuel, especially in conjunction with developments in renewable energy. Below are some facts on hydrogen as an element and fuel.    Hydrogen (H2) condenses into a liquid at -423°F  (-253°C), about just 20°C above absolute zero—the lowest possible temperature.   In comparison to gasoline , hydrogen has almost three times the energy density by mass (120 megajoules (MJ) per kilogram to 44 MJ per kilogram) but only about a fourth by volume (8 MJ per liter to 32 MJ per liter).   As of 2020, 99% of hydrogen  production in the US is from fossil fuels (95% from steam-methane reformation  and 4% from coal gasification). These methods are known as “gray hydrogen” from not removing the resulting carbon dioxide.   When steam-methane reformation is combined with carbon capture and storage, it is termed “ blue hydrogen .”  Only 1% of US hydrogen production is from electrolysis, a form of “ green hydrogen ” that does not use fossil fuels nor produce carbon dioxide (aside from energy costs).  Global hydrogen use reached 95 megatons in 2022 , with the highest use by China (29%). This was followed by North America (17%), the Middle East (13%), India (9%), Europe (8%), and the “rest of the world” (24%).    Sources:   https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/1/hydrogen    https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2020/07/f76/USDOE_FE_Hydrogen_Strategy_July2020.pdf    https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydrogen/   https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/pictures/HydrogenProduction_CGEP_FactSheet_052621.pd    https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ecdfc3bb-d212-4a4c-9ff7-6ce5b1e19cef/GlobalHydrogenReview2023.pdf

The Philippines, India, and Indonesia had Highest Natural Disaster Risk   The Ruhr University Bochum’s Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV) and Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft in Germany published the 2024 edition of their annual World Risk Report .  The report’s “WorldRiskIndex,” calculates natural disaster risk of 193 countries based on their exposure (to disasters), vulnerability, susceptibility, lack of coping capacities, and lack of adaptive capacities*.   The Philippines had the highest risk, with a WorldRiskIndex of 46.91.  In contrast, Monaco had the lowest risk, with a WorldRiskIndex of 0.18.  China had the highest “exposure” value of 64.59, but it ranked 22nd overall with a WorldRiskIndex of 21.31.  Many countries in Africa had low exposure but high vulnerability, susceptibility, lack of coping capacities, and lack of adaptive capacities. For example, Central African Republic had the highest vulnerability of 73.86 but ranked 107th overall with a WorldRiskIndex of 3.44 due to a low exposure value.  Among G20 nations, Indonesia and India were ranked second and third high risk overall, with WorldRiskIndex values of 41.13 and 40.96, respectively.   The US ranked 19th overall with a WorldRiskIndex of 22.56.  The EU nation with the highest risk was Italy (48th overall) with a WorldRiskIndex of 11.11.    *See page 43 of the report for more details on each parameter.  **Risk is classified based on ranges of WorldRiskIndex values: very low (0.00–1.84), low (1.85–3.20), medium (3.21–5.87), high (5.88–12.88), and very high (12.99–100.00).    Sources:   Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft / IFHV (2024): WordRiskReport 2024. Berlin: Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft.

UN Report Finds Most Goals “Severely Off Track”   A new UN   report   examines progress on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) from their 2015 baseline to current levels. Among the 135 assessable targets (out of 169), nearly half (48%) had “moderate to severe deviations from the desired trajectory” to 2030 targets. Another 18% experienced “stagnation” and 17% experienced “regression.” Only 17% were considered “on track or target met” by 2030, the UN said in its “sobering” report.  Goal 17, which encompasses global partnerships, funding, and communication efforts to achieve the SDGs, had five “on target or met” progress reports, the most of any of the goals.  Overall, four SDGs had no targets that were on track or met. These included Goal 1 (no poverty), Goal 6 (clean water and sanitation), Goal 13 (climate action), and Goal 16 (peace, justice, and strong institutions).  Regarding Goal 7 (affordable and clean energy), installed capacity for renewable electricity generation increased from 250 watts per capita in 2015 to 424 watts per capita in 2022.   Regarding Goal 11 (sustainable cities and communities), population-weighted exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) decreased from 39.1 µg/m3 in 2010 to 2014 to 35.7 µg/m3 in 2015 to 2019. However, PM2.5 concentrations increased slightly in Northern Africa, Western Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa.  Regarding Goal 12 (responsible consumption and production), e-waste generation increased from 6.3 kilograms per capita in 2015 to 7.8 kilograms per capita in 2022. However, only 1.7 kilograms per capita were collected and recycled properly in 2022.  Regarding Goal 13, developed countries met the annual $100 billion goal for climate finance in 2022 for the first time. However, this is still far from the estimated $6 trillion needed for developing countries by 2030.  Regarding Goal 14 (life below water), proportion of sustainable fish stocks (in other words, “maximally sustainably fished” and “underfished” stocks) decreased from 90% in 1974 to 62.3% in 2021.    Source:   Sachs, J.D., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G. (2024). The SDGs and the UN Summit of the Future. Sustainable Development Report 2024 . Paris: SDSN, Dublin: Dublin University Press.

*By Ellie Gabel When summer fades and autumn arrives, landscapes transform into a vibrant mix of red, yellow, and orange hues as leaves begin to fall. While the sight may be beautiful, it also presents a dilemma—what should be done with the fallen leaves?   Fallen Leaves Are Beneficial Leaf litter refers to organic material, including leaves, twigs, and other plant debris, that fall to the ground. Three layers  comprise leaf litter: the litter layer (with dead leaves), fermenting layer (with rotting leaves), and humus layer (materials that are completely rotted). Over time, leaf litter breaks down through natural processes and becomes a rich humus essential for plant growth.   Leaf litter is vital to forest ecosystems because they provide habitat and food for various organisms. Once leaf litter is colonized by fungi and microorganisms , invertebrates like beetles and earthworms consume and break it down into smaller pieces. This process is crucial as this organic matter is then mixed with and enriches the soil. Leaves left on the ground in yards or wooded areas can also create microhabitats for insects and small animals like frogs, salamanders, and hedgehogs. The cover provided by leaf litter offers shelter for amphibians  and helps retain moisture  in the soil, which is particularly important during dry periods. The Pitfalls of Burning or Landfilling Burning leaves releases harmful pollutants into the air, including particulate matter that can exacerbate asthma-related symptoms  when inhaled. Carbon monoxide and benzo(a)pyrene ( found in cigarette smoke ) are also emitted, the latter which can be a potential factor in lung cancer. When leaves and other organic materials decompose in a landfill under anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions, they produce methane, a greenhouse gas (GHG). According to data  from the US Environmental Protection Agency, yard trimmings (including grass, leaves, and tree and bush trimmings) accounted for 35.4 million tons in municipal solid waste in 2018. Although 22.3 million tons (about 63%) were composted or mulched and 2.6 million tons (about 7.4%) were combusted, the remaining 10.5 million tons (about 29.7%) were landfilled.   When leaves and other organic materials decompose in a landfill under anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions , they produce methane, a greenhouse gas (GHG). Moreover, some leaves (such as from soybeans) are also found to emit nitrous oxide , another GHG. Leaving leaves on streets or sidewalks is also unfavorable, as they can become slippery hazards when wet or frozen. A study found that the timely removal of leaf litter from streets can significantly reduce phosphorus and nitrogen levels  in stormwater runoff. When washed into local waterways, these nutrients can contribute to water pollution and algae blooms, harming aquatic ecosystems. Composting for Soil Health One of the best ways to handle autumn leaves is by composting them.   To compost leaves effectively, it's helpful to shred them down into smaller pieces, allowing for quicker decomposition. This can be done with a leaf shredder or by running over them with a lawnmower. Shredded leaves themselves can also be used for “mulching perennial flower beds, shrub borders, and over tree roots,” with a 2 to 3 inch layer  being ideal.   Having the right ratio of “brown” (carbon) to “green” (nitrogen) is essential for composting, with an ideal (C:N) ratio of 30:1 . Leaves are rich in carbon, with a C:N ratio of 40:1 to 80:1. However, to create a more balanced compost pile, leaves should be mixed with nitrogen-rich "green" materials like grass clippings, vegetable scraps, or coffee grounds.   Having the right ratio of “brown” (carbon) to “green” (nitrogen) is essential for composting, with an ideal (C:N) ratio of 30:1. Nitrogen can also be added through  dried blood, cottonseed meal, or bone meal. However, having too much “green” materials can make the pile smelly and attract nuisance animals. In Toronto, Canada, the city’s leaf composting program diverts 90,000 tons of yard waste  from landfills annually and has gained popularity for its impact on local gardens and green spaces. The program collects leaves from residential areas, processes them into compost, and gives it to the public for free during “ Community Environment Days .” This initiative showcases how communities can turn what might be considered waste into a valuable resource while encouraging sustainable practices.   Many municipalities provide programs that collect leaves for composting or mulching, ensuring they are reused rather than wasted.   Mulching For Weed Control In addition to composting, fallen leaves can be used as mulch, providing multiple ecological benefits. Mulching with leaves helps retain moisture in the soil , prevent erosion, and suppress weeds. In one to two years, [leaves] will naturally break down into a substance known as leaf mold, which can be used as a soil amendment or 2-inch mulch layer. For gardeners, leaving a thin layer of leaves on garden beds can act as a natural mulch  to suppress weeds. If a yard generates more leaves than can be used for compost, excess leaves can be saved for later use by piling them up in a corner of the yard. In one to two years, they will naturally break down into a substance known as leaf mold , which can be used as a soil amendment or 2-inch mulch layer.   By adopting sustainable practices such as composting and mulching, individuals and communities can turn autumn leaves into a beneficial component of the natural world. Rather than seeing leaves as a seasonal nuisance, they should be appreciated for their vital role in supporting soil health and biodiversity. *Ellie Gabel is a freelance writer from North Carolina who specializes in covering the latest innovations in science and technology and how they can be used to better the world we live in. In addition to writing for publications like Power Magazine, Global Trade Magazine, and Electronics360, Ellie is also the associate editor at Revolutionized.com .

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Feasibility Study Says Orbiting Solar-Powered Servers Could Lower Carbon Footprint   Orbiting data centers could deliver more sustainability than their Earth-based counterparts, says a newly released feasibility study  by Thales Alenia Space, a joint venture European aerospace company.  Supplying sustainable energy for servers that process nearly incalculable numbers of AI, cryptocurrency, and blockchain transactions is a pressing environmental challenge. But this is a challenge that needs to be met if Europe hopes to meet its target  of net zero emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050.      Along with orbiting solar-powered servers’ potential to lower emissions through energy savings, Thales Alenia Space expects them to deliver a return on investment of several billion euros by 2050, reports   The Wall Street Journal  (WSJ).     The company’s feasibility study is comparing the environmental impacts of space-based data centers—powered by solar energy accessed beyond Earth’s atmosphere—to those of Earth-based data centers, said WSJ.  Called ASCEND, short for “Advanced Space Cloud for European Net zero emission and Data sovereignty,” the project was launched in 2023 and is funded by the European Commission.  The study’s head, Damien Dumestier, said   the company has been coordinating “a consortium of 11 partners since January 2023” with an initial focus on the carbon footprint of Europe’s land-based data centers. He said the team already calculated the continent’s terrestrial data center CO2 equivalent consumption at 20 million tons per year from now until 2030. The ultimate goal, he said, is to target a power capacity of “10 Terawatt-hours (TWh) to cut the energy requirements of Earth-based data centers by 10%.”   Dumestier cited other environmental benefits of housing servers in space. Water consumption, he said, would be “greatly” reduced as space is relatively cold. Keeping servers cool on Earth currently requires “several tens of millions of liters” of water every year, he said.    The project envisions a capacity of 10 MW (megawatts) per orbiting data center, which Dumestier said would require a solar panel surface area of about 35,000 square meters (nearly 377,000 sq. ft). He compared that with the 7,500 square meter (about 80,700 sq. ft) solar panel surface area of the International Space Station, which is nearly one fifth its size.   The orbiting modules required for such a task would be large and heavy, said Dumestier. “We need to make sure that a suitable launch solution can be developed and that the overall structure is as light as possible to minimize the carbon footprint of launch operations. Optimizing payload weight and volume will also be a key challenge,” he added.   In a June press release  announcing the feasibility study’s findings, the company said ASCEND, with help from aerospace launch company ArianeGroup and the European Space Agency, has “validated the feasibility of a launcher capable of conducting multiple launches while mitigating their carbon footprint.” The company said modular units comprising the data centers could be assembled in orbit using robotics.  Dumestier believes projects like ASCEND can advance space technology while lowering the environmental impact of digital technology. Space, he says, is “vital” for Earth’s future. “It offers multiple possibilities to complement terrestrial infrastructures. And it’s an unparalleled asset to better manage the delicate balance between developing human activities and protecting the environment.”  Sources:   WSJ: Putting data centers in space could reduce their carbon footprint   Thales Alenia Space wins EU feasibility study for 'Ascend' space data centers - DCD ( datacenterdynamics.com )   Thales Alenia Space reveals results of ASCEND feasibility study on space data centers | Thales Alenia Space