By Yasmin Prabhudas* Peatlands are unique ecosystems formed of plant material that has partially decomposed, forming peat when soil becomes saturated with water. Also known as bogs, mire, moors and marshlands, and even featuring in some tropical forests and swamps, peatlands store up to a third of the world’s soil carbon. This is double the amount captured in the whole of the earth’s forest biomass, as they absorb the carbon dioxide that plants use during photosynthesis. The Global Peatlands Initiative, led by the UN Environment Programme, aims to save peatlands to prevent carbon from being emitted into the atmosphere. Its Global Peatlands Assessment outlines how some 50% to 60% of peatlands consist of carbon, more per hectare on average than all other ecosystems. They are the largest carbon stock in the biosphere, globally storing between 450,000 million and 650,000 million tons. A Global Feature Peatlands are estimated to cover about 500 million hectares (1.2 billion acres) in at least 177 out of 193 countries, where conditions, such as the climate, substrate (surface on which organisms grow) and hydrology (how water moves in relation to the land) keep the soil permanently wet. Some 33% of peatlands are in Asia, with 32% in North America, 13% in Latin America and the Caribbean, 12% in Europe, 8% in Africa, and 2% spread between Oceania and Sub-Antarctic Islands. The Katingan Project in Indonesia, for example, protects 149,800 hectares (about 370,000 acres) of peatland in central Kalimantan, home to one of the largest remaining peat swamp forests in the country. Human activity destroys 500,000 hectares (1.2 million acres) annually, and global estimates show that a total volume of about 2 billion tons of CO2 are emitted every year through degraded peatlands, excluding fires. Human activity destroys 500,000 hectares (1.2 million acres) annually, and global estimates show that a total volume of about 2 billion tons of CO2 are emitted every year through degraded peatlands, excluding fires. Biodiversity Given their varied wetland systems, peatlands are home to species such as orangutans in Southeast Asia, bonobos and gorillas in Central Africa, and the aquatic warbler in Europe. They also support other species during migrations. Among the members of the Global Peatland Initiative is the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Emma Hinchliffe, director of the IUCN UK Peatland Programme, offers a UK perspective: “Peatlands are the UK’s largest semi-natural habitat.[…] We have three broad different types of peatland—we’ve got blanket bog, we’ve got lowland raised bog, and we have fens as well.” Species that are attracted to peatlands are those that depend on their waterlogged nature. “We’ve got this really beautiful diversity of algae that lives within the peatlands, within the film of water that exists around plants,” explains Hinchliffe. “And then you’ve got this whole host of microscopic animals that feed on the algae, [..] all the different species of sphagnum moss. […]. It’s that kind of microscopic landscape that they form and all the roughness and complexity and texture that they create over the surface that gives us, for example, some of our water quality. Roughness helps us slow the flow of water over the surface to help delay flood peaks.” UK peatlands are also teeming with insects, wading birds, reptiles, and mammals. Agriculture The biggest risk to peatlands is drainage. Hinchliffe claims that in post-war UK, “there was this agricultural incentive to improve the land. And part of that improvement was really through large-scale drainage incentives.” The biggest risk to peatlands is drainage. “Once those tunnels are open within the peat, water moves through them, and they keep eroding and that, in itself, leads to habitat loss because a lot of the species are dependent on a wetland environment.” “The drainage doesn’t really tend to repair itself. Once those tunnels are open within the peat, water moves through them, and they keep eroding and that, in itself, leads to habitat loss because a lot of the species are dependent on a wetland environment.” Drainage also puts at risk peatland’s carbon stores. Overgrazing and burning are two other cross-boundary problems related to the use of peatland for agriculture. And peat is widely extracted and added to compost for horticulture. Atmospheric pollution Temperate and boreal peatlands (found in northern regions) and blanket bogs are particularly sensitive to the atmospheric deposition of nutrients from agriculture, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, often deposited through rainfall, which can change the vegetation. Afforestation In the UK, conifer plantations have been planted on expanses of blanket bog. Not only is the land drained, which risks the release of the stored carbon, but there are also implications for biodiversity. Hinchliffe claims: “A lot of the scientific evidence is starting to point towards the benefits of removing forestry and restoring peatlands in terms of carbon balance. “Trees and peatlands are two of our biggest natural climate heroes […] and you shouldn’t really be compromising one for the other by putting trees on peat.” Restoration But it’s not all bad news—peatland restoration is gaining momentum. The IUCN UK Peatland Programme, a networking and partnership-building organization comprised of practitioners and land managers, is among those leading efforts. It carried out an assessment of peatlands through the Commission of Inquiry on Peatlands back in 2011. And the development of a UK strategy has for the first time set a target of restoring 2 million hectares (4.9 million acres) by 2040. The main restoration technique involves rewetting the land. “Once you rework the area and that water level stops coming back up in the drainage ditches, everything else starts to respond and repair.” Techniques The main restoration technique involves rewetting the land. Hinchliffe states: “Once you rework the area and that water level stops coming back up in the drainage ditches, everything else starts to respond and repair.” Others involve changing the vegetation, by, for example, planting sphagnum moss. Restoration Projects Black Hill, central England Over the last 150 years, Black Hill has faced atmospheric pollution from nearby industrial towns and cities. Wildfires created expanses of bare black peat. But through a partnership program involving a range of stakeholders, such as the Environment Agency, Natural England and the National Trust, 50 million sphagnum fragments were spread to promote peat building. Langlands Moss Local Nature Reserve, Scotland Work at Langlands Moss Local Nature Reserve had initially focused on protecting and conserving 20 hectares (49 acres) of raised bog, but, in 2018, a feasibility survey found an estimated 298,199.6 cubic meters (about 10.5 million cubic feet) of peat underneath an adjacent forest. As a result, the boundary of the nature reserve was extended, doubling its size. Over 21 hectares (51 acres) of conifer trees were felled, and 21 dams and five “bunds” (low level banks of peat, which slow the loss of water and promote the growth of sphagnum) installed. The project will restore all the peatland to improve the hydrology and expand the natural lagg zone (fen vegetation). Cors Fochno, Wales Cors Fochno is the largest actively growing raised bog in the lowlands of the UK. It has peat up to 26 feet deep but has in the past been drained and subject to peat cutting. The restoration, carried out in partnership with the local community, landowners and contractors, has been ongoing since September 2020 as part of the New LIFE for Welsh Raised Bogs project. It involves removing invasive species and scrub and introducing light grazing, as well as restoring water levels through peat bunds, so wildlife and rare plants can thrive, carbon can be stored, and water purified. More than 8 miles of peat bunds have been created. How People Can Help There are several ways of helping—from raising awareness of this little-known ecosystem to avoiding products containing peat such as certain composts for the garden, or produce grown unsustainably on peat soils, such as dairy goods from the Netherlands. Volunteering is also an option: “There are a lot of communities out there […] where there’s the opportunity to go and volunteer and physically help,” says Hinchliffe. *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for non-profit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

*By Rick Laezman Reducing carbon emissions from transportation has become one of the primary fronts in the battle against greenhouse gas emissions. The effort involves much more than just transitioning to electric vehicles. Transportation is a vast sector of commerce that includes many industries, such as air travel, railroads, and vehicle fleets. All of them are undergoing changes to incorporate cleaner fuels and reduce carbon emissions. The decarbonization effort has even reached the high seas, with many factors driving changes in cargo shipping. Adoption of new fuels is accelerating to reduce emissions and steer the industry onto a “greener” course. Currents of Change According to the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, the transportation sector is one of the world's biggest contributors of greenhouse emissions, at 15% of the total. That is second only to electricity and heat, which account for 31%. Within the transportation sector, international shipping accounts for 2% to 3% of global energy-related CO2 emissions, and it is facing pressure on numerous fronts to reduce its output of greenhouse gases. In addition to popular pressure and regulations from individual countries, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the UN agency that is responsible for the shipping industry, has adopted new strategies and standards that are regulating the industry. Using 2008 emissions as a baseline, the [International Maritime Organization’s] new regulations call for a reduction of at least 20%, but striving for 30%, by the year 2030. Using 2008 emissions as a baseline, the new regulations call for a reduction of at least 20%, but striving for 30%, by the year 2030. Similarly, the regulations call for a reduction of at least 70%, but striving for 80%, by the year 2040. Green Fuels and the Shipping Industry Each industry within the travel sector, including cars, trains, and airplanes, must navigate a different path to become green. Each of these paths is defined by the unique characteristics and limitations of the industries themselves. In the shipping industry, several factors including the size of the vessels, the power needed to propel them, and the paths they travel, make a transition to electric-powered ships impractical. According to a white paper from the market research firm, DNV, the primary challenge facing the maritime industry is its inability to easily electrify propulsion. In deep-sea shipping, “batteries alone are not an adequate substitute for combustible energy sources.” In other words, there aren’t going to be fleets of electrified shipping vessels any time soon. To cut carbon emissions, a more practical option for the industry will be transitioning to alternative fuels. DNV projects the shipping industry to meet the IMO’s target through a combination of measures. It will require a shift to low- and zero-carbon fuels. These include liquified natural gas (LNG), liquified petroleum gas (LPG), methanol, hydrogen, ammonia, and biofuel. LNG, liquified natural gas, consisting mainly of methane and some ethane, is considered a less polluting alternative to fossil fuels, and is gaining acceptance. At the top of the list, LNG, consisting mainly of methane and some ethane, is considered a less polluting alternative to fossil fuels, and is gaining acceptance. Trailing behind but gaining traction, methane and ammonia are even less polluting alternatives, but they face their own challenges related to availability and safety. New Builds Going Green Transitioning to cleaner burning fuels will require a major change in the industry because most ships are not equipped to run on alternative fuels. The World Resources Institute (WRI) notes that most commercial shipping vessels currently run on heavy fuel oil. It is well-suited to the industry because the fuel is inexpensive and its high energy density sustains ships for long distances across the ocean, but it raises concern of sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide emissions. 50% of new ships ordered in 2023 included alternative fuel capacity, compared with only 7% of ships currently operating in the industry. To decarbonize, the industry appears to be embracing the challenge of transitioning away from this polluting fuel. The number of orders for new ships to be built with alternative fuel burning technology is rising. DNV notes in its white paper that 50% of new ships ordered in 2023 included alternative fuel capacity, compared with only 7% of ships currently operating in the industry. The types of vessels that are being built reveal which fuels are emerging as the most promising to help the industry’s transition to zero emissions. For example, in January of this year, the global shipping giant, Maersk, announced it had built “the world's first large methanol-enabled container vessel.” The “Ane Maersk,” named after Ane Mærsk Mc-Kinney Uggla, a prominent member of the Maersk family, is the first in a series of 18 large methanol-enabled vessels that the company will deliver between 2024 and 2025. Methanol is not the only option. Last year, Finnish maritime technology developer Wartsila announced  commercial production of its Wartsila 25 Ammonia, that the company describes as the world's “first 4-stroke ammonia powered engine.” While methanol and ammonia are still in the early stages of adoption, LNG remains the leading alternative to fossil fuels in the shipping industry. According to the maritime services company, Lloyd’s  Register, new orders in 2023 are projected to increase the fleet of LNG-fueled ships by 90% to 1,938 vessels. The Undertow of Alternative Fuels If shipping companies appear to be embracing a future with alternative fuels, it remains to be seen which of these fuels will emerge as the best choice. Each has its own benefits and limitations. At this stage, LNG appears to have the strongest competitive advantage. According to DNV, about 90% of ships in the current global fleet powered by alternative fuels are powered by LNG. Its share of new ships on order is slightly less, meaning that other fuels are gaining ground, but it still represents an overwhelmingly dominant share of the total, at about 78%. The disadvantages for LNG are methane leakages during production, transportation, and storage, because the gas has an even greater warming effect than carbon dioxide (CO2). The disadvantages for LNG are methane leakages during production, transportation, and storage, because the gas has an even greater warming effect than carbon dioxide (CO2). The WRI notes that when accounting for leakages from LNG burning engines, this can cancel out, and in some cases even exceed, the carbon reductions achieved by LNG that make it an attractive alternative in the first place. Methanol faces a different set of challenges. According to Lloyd's Register, the biggest challenge facing the widespread adoption of this fuel in the shipping industry is the lack of sufficient storage space. Because it has a lower energy density than other fuels, it requires more fuel to generate the same amount of power. This necessitates larger space to store enough fuel to supply shipping vessels on their long journeys. Additionally, some methods of generating methanol, such as those using natural gas, are not considered green because they also can leak methane, a harmful heat-trapping gas. Other green methods do exist. For example, methanol can be generated through a process that combines electricity from renewable power, electrolysis of water to create hydrogen, and a catalytic reaction with captured carbon dioxide. However, these greener methods are expensive and have not been developed to a scale that can fully power the shipping industry. Ammonia may emerge as the leading fuel source for the shipping industry. It produces no carbon emissions from combustion. Finally, ammonia may emerge as the leading fuel source for the shipping industry. It produces no carbon emissions from combustion. When renewable energy is used to create the necessary elements for ammonia, hydrogen and nitrogen, the entire cycle is completely green, or carbon-free. As is the case with all other fuels, there is a drawback. Ammonia's main disadvantage is its high toxicity. The chemical is dangerous to humans and to marine life, and spills, leaks, and exposure can be hazardous. For it to become a practical alternative fuel for shipping, the industry will need to develop the proper technology and protocols to address these safety concerns. NOx emissions from combustion are also a concern. Sailing into Headwinds Another challenge facing the use of clean fuel alternatives is the adaptability of the world's existing fleet of ships. According to DNV, “only a small part of the existing fleet is currently able to run on alternative fuels.” Most ships are not equipped to burn alternative fuels, so they will have to be retrofitted or replaced by newly built ships with the proper technology. This will require major investments. The good news, DNV reports, is that “a rapidly increasing proportion of new ships are being ordered with alternative fuels.” As noted above, most of these are for LNG, but DNV says many shipowners are “keeping their options open” by ordering vessels ready to be retrofitted to alternative fuels, such as "methanol ready" or "ammonia ready." Many considerations go into the design of new ships or the retrofit of existing ships to burn on alternative fuels. These considerations span the entire supply chain, beginning with the sourcing and production of the fuel; its transport; ground-based fuel storage in bunkers; storage in tanks on board the vessels; the type of engine that can run on a particular fuel; plus, emissions, leaks, spills, and other safety factors. The shipping industry does have even more options. For example, carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an evolving technology that captures the CO2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels and stores it for other uses. CCS is being developed for various land-based applications and can be used on board maritime vessels. CCS will enable shipping to continue using fossil fuels while reducing its carbon emissions. It is being applied as a temporary “transitional technology” to help shipping reduce its carbon footprint while the industry makes the transition to long-term solutions involving alternative fuels. However, like alternative fuels, CCS is a developing technology that involves a significant expense, it also competes for usable space on maritime vessels; an area dedicated to a CCS installation is an area that can’t be used for the cargo that generates revenue for the ship's operator. The Slow Turning Gears of Decarbonization International shipping is doing its part to reduce carbon emissions. The process is long, slow, and expensive. Ship owners are responding to expectations that they decarbonize by retrofitting existing ships and ordering new builds that can run on alternative fuels. Many promising alternatives could help power the industry into a zero-carbon future. However, none of these is ready to transform the industry by itself or in the near term. For now, change will come incrementally and through a mixed bag of solutions working together to help shipping transition away from carbon-emitting fossil fuels. *Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California, US. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has covered renewable power and other related subjects for over ten years.

Alki’s Oak and Clay Lines Bolster Basque Region Ecosystem and Economy By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe* Alki, a prospering furniture company in France’s hilly Basque Country, has found a way to bolster the region’s economy, communities, and ecosystems—by using local renewable stock to design and build furniture that can last for generations. A cooperative of local artisans who believe that sustainable development is the only way forward, Alki crafts its lines from certified renewable local hardwoods known for durability, and stability. Their furniture has a distinctive, contemporary look, showcasing a unity of purpose and design—and of functional and natural beauty. Concerned about increased atmospheric carbon, Alki’s primary resource is both natural and renewable. “Oak, Alki’s main material of choice, embodies our commitment to integrated sustainable development,” Eki Solorzano, Alki’s communications and press official, told The Earth & I. “We are able to trace the tree from the moment it is selected from reserved forests, with the focus being on sources certified for their sustainable management.” Most of the company’s oak comes from French forests. Alki ensures that the wood is Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) certified (Europe) and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified (US). “We are able to trace the tree from the moment it is selected from reserved forests, with the focus being on sources certified for their sustainable management,” Solorzano said. Alki works with European species of oak, a relatively plentiful, versatile wood that is hard, though fairly easy to work with. Oak also finishes beautifully for natural looks and is quite resistant to humidity and shrinkage, making it an ideal choice for luxury furniture or lasting goods. These include Alki’s Patrick Jouin-designed chairs at the National Library of France (Bibliothèque Nationale de France). The longer a piece of furniture lasts, the fewer trees are cut down to replace it. Rejecting Planned Obsolescence With both environment and user in mind, the furniture creator readily discards the age-old business strategy of “planned obsolescence,” whereby a manufacturer builds a product with its end in mind. In other words, products are sometimes made to become obsolete, unfashionable, or unusable in a relatively short period of time. The furniture creator readily discards the age-old business strategy of “planned obsolescence.” Alki’s mission, from its inception, was the opposite. Drawing on Talented Designers Typically collaborating with some of the most talented regional designers, Alki partners with those aligned with its values of renewable local sourcing and enduring products. “Each designer is carefully selected for each project because each one is different, just as each designer has their ideas, experiences, and background,” Solorzano said. Alki’s artistic director is French industrial designer Jean Louis Iratzoki. The brand also collaborates with designers and studios such as Ander Lizaso, Form Us With Love, Patrick Jouin, Samuel Accoceberry, and Patrick Norguet. Sticking to its values for sourcing and design has paid off. In 2023, Alki took its designs to the prestigious Milan Furniture Fair. Consistent Values from the Beginning Inspired by working with metal in the Mondragon, the largest group of cooperatives in Basque Country, Alki’s five founders were friends committed to living, working, and building a viable business in the region’s western Pyrenees mountains. Launched in 1981, Alki’s initial aim was to stem the flight of local youth and support the Pays Basque, a cross border region of France and Spain that was mired at the time in economic, social, and political crises. The group began by asking themselves which professions required the most human labor. “Working with metal required too much investment in machinery per workstation,” Eki Solorzano, Alki’s communications and press official, told The Earth & I. The founders settled on furniture, as manufacturing wooden furniture required less investment per workstation. Alki opened its first workshop more than 30 years ago in Itxassou, a small village in the heart of French Basque Country. Alki’s cooperative roots have since attracted ideological and financial support, ensuring that its impact continues beyond economics. Pursuing Sustainable Development To start, Alki managers prioritized the local region. All of Alki’s products are manufactured in its workshop in the heart of the French Basque Country, while 80% of its suppliers are based within a radius of less than 100 km (62 miles). “For many years, we have fostered alliances and joint efforts with local partners, whether they work with metal, clay, or upholstery,” Solorzano told The Earth & I. “The spirit of collaboration enables Alki to promote and preserve local expertise and techniques while strengthening our roots within our region,” she added. “Our ambition was, and still is, to craft a cultural and commercial project that would be a veritable catalyst for our environment, enabling it to flourish by encouraging cooperation between people and enterprises in order to offer our customers the very best,” said Solorzano. “With this [aim] in mind, Alki works alongside individuals, supporting initiatives and projects that bring added value and strive for the future of our region.” Quest for Innovation Although oak is ubiquitous in Alki’s products, the furniture makers use a variety of raw materials in their collections. “Our constant quest for innovation spurs us to explore new avenues and possibilities,” said Solorzano. This commitment led Alki to debut a chair line in 2015 called Kuskoa Bi, with seating crafted from a state-of-the-art, 80% plant-based material alternative to fossil-based plastics. The furniture maker’s Lur Collection features natural clay planters and a matching bistro table with a terracotta base, a collaboration with Basque pottery maker, Poterie Goicoechea. In one of its latest creations, Alki has integrated recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a recycled and recyclable plastic. “All these materials invariably come from local or European sources,” Solorzano said. Expanding Operations In September 2024, Alki will open its new zero-energy workshop in the heart of the Basque region. “The space has been designed so that it does not need heating or air conditioning, as it takes maximum advantage of natural light and fully operates with 100% renewable energy,” shared Solorzano. Planning for the workshop’s design and construction enabled Alki to review and optimize its manufacturing processes, a step that will result in an 80% reduction in volatile organic compounds emissions. In addition, all wood waste generated in production will be used to manufacture by-products. Looking ahead, Alki will continue to ensure that its extensive experience working with solid wood goes hand-in-hand with complementary trades, such as upholstery and wrought ironwork, to create timeless pieces, one heirloom at a time. *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past decade, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences. Sources: Interview with Eki Solorzano, Communication and Press at Alki https://Alki.fr/en/pages/notre-histoire https://Alki.fr/en/pages/perennite https://Alki.fr/en/pages/rse https://Alki.fr/en/pages/savoir-faire

By Gordon Cairns* Survival specialists talk about the rule of threes: People can survive three minutes without oxygen, three days without water, and three weeks without food. Oxygen is generally plentiful and most missing people will hopefully be rescued before 21 days, which allows them to focus on finding water—something human beings are remarkably resourceful at doing. Just ask Angela Hernandez and Harry Burleigh. In July 2018, the 23-year-old woman’s Jeep swerved off California’s Highway 1 and plummeted 200 feet to land on the Big Sur shore. Incredibly, she survived seven long days, using only a small hose to catch water dripping from moss on the rocks, before being rescued. As she lay sheltered below the cliff face looking out at the Pacific Ocean, she had time to consider the irony of the Earth being known as “The Blue Planet” for the amount of water it holds—water that she was unable to drink. While it’s true this aquamarine world has seven-tenths of its surface covered by water, only 3% of that is fresh, and only a tiny amount of that fresh water, 0.06%, is easy to access. New research is showing that it’s not only the waters of the oceans and seas that are not safe to drink. The purity of fresh water is also being degraded. Man-Made Impurities in Water A leading expert in water quality improvement, Dr. Satinder Ahuja, president of Ahuja Consulting, warns that human activity has reduced the amount of non-polluted water, making it more difficult to simply drink the water in its natural state. “Our civilization has managed to pollute our surface water, and even groundwater; this necessitates purification of water for drinking,” he writes in his Handbook of Water Purity and Quality (Second Edition), 2021. Even rainwater isn’t pure. “Rain is usually contaminated with various pollutants that we now put into the atmosphere,” Dr. Ahuja writes. According to Dr. Ahuja, over 700 different chemicals have been found in United States tap drinking water. The Environmental Protection Agency classifies 129 of these chemicals as being particularly dangerous and has set standards for approximately 90 contaminants in drinking water, including inorganic arsenic. Moreover, sanitized tap water is still not pristine. It may be “reasonably expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants” although not enough to pose a health risk, Dr. Ahuja writes. However, according to Dr. Ahuja, over 700 different chemicals have been found in United States tap drinking water. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies 129 of these chemicals as being particularly dangerous and has set standards for approximately 90 contaminants in drinking water. This includes inorganic arsenic, a known human carcinogen causally associated with cancers of the skin, bladder, and lungs. Nature Also Contributes Impurities In addition to man-made water pollution, nature also plays a large part in the quality of water. The vegetation it flows through, the rocks it runs over, the dust and salt that blows into it, the storms which add to it, and the droughts that evaporate it all impact water quality and give it a certain chemical signature. Water reacts to the organic materials it flows through, such as leaves and roots, soil bacteria, and algae, and, when the balance in this material shifts, the ecosystem and water quality changes. Aquatic plants produce oxygen and consume carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and phosphorous through photosynthesis, while decaying plant materials almost do the opposite, consuming oxygen and producing carbon dioxide, changing the physical and chemical composition of the water. Natural water can contain dissolved salts and minerals, which are necessary components of good quality water and help maintain healthy organisms that rely on this ecosystem. There is a great variation in the number of dissolved materials that water carries—from 200,000 parts per million (ppm) in saline aquifers to as little as 50 ppm of total dissolved solids in spring water. Under EPA recommendations, drinking water should contain up to 500 ppm of total dissolved solids. Natural water can also contain a variety of contaminants arising from erosion, soil leaching, and weathering processes. There is a great variation in the number of dissolved materials that water carries—from 200,000 parts per million (ppm) in saline aquifers to as little as 50 ppm of total dissolved solids in spring water. Another contamination problem is caused by fluoride. Many rocks and minerals in the Earth's crust contain this substance; it can be leached out by natural weathering and rainwater. In some regions, natural geology or soils contain concentrations of phosphorus and low concentrations of arsenic that endanger human and ecosystem health. Pathogens in the water, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites, remain a life-threatening problem. Should any of these be ingested, there is a risk of succumbing to a fatal disease, such as cholera, typhoid, or schistosomiasis, not to mention dysentery and other diarrheal diseases. “Each year there are about 250 million cases of water-related diseases,” with roughly 5 million to 10 million deaths, Dr. Ahuja writes. The specific number of people affected by waterborne diseases varies from year to year due to such factors as prevalence of environmental pathogens, public health infrastructure, and sanitation facilities. The World Health Organization (WHO) regularly provides estimates and updates on the global impact of various waterborne diseases, such as in their 2019 report. Cleaning Public Water With so many possible causes for making water undrinkable, public water treatment plants need to process water thoroughly through many stages to make it safe for the public. Most of the globe has sanitation services; however, in 2022, 2 billion people still lacked access to “safely managed” domestic drinking water, or water that is “clean, uncontaminated, and accessible at home,” according to the World Health Organization and UNICEF. [See Earth & I data brief of October 2022.] The five-stage water treatment process begins with coagulation, where chemicals with a positive charge are added to the water to neutralize the negative charge of dirt and other dissolved particles. This is followed by flocculation, where the water is mixed to form larger particles, and sedimentation, which separates the larger particles out of the water. The next step is filtration, where the clear water passes through different sized filters, and then the final step, disinfection. The treatment differs depending on the quality of the source water. Survival Techniques in the Wild If one has traveled off-grid—either accidentally or deliberately—without water, the best solution is to find a natural source of drinking water, according to The Survival University, based in Cripple Creek, Colorado [see map]. Look for lusher green vegetation, insects, or animal tracks, or listen for the sound of water to help locate this crucial resource. It is best to search on lower ground like Harry Burleigh. The veteran outdoorsman, minus his usual supplies, went on an impromptu fishing trip in the Southern Oregon wilderness in 2021. Lost and injured, and stricken with malnutrition, hypothermia, and dehydration, he survived 17 days by drinking creek water. If clear water can’t be found but there’s mud, this means groundwater should be available. Dig a hole about a foot deep and in diameter, and wait for it to fill with water. This might not look the most appetizing, but the water will be drinkable in an emergency, especially if it can be strained through some cloth. The Survival University cautions: “It's crucial to remember that any time you drink found water without purifying it, you're taking a risk.” “It's crucial to remember that any time you drink found water without purifying it, you're taking a risk.” Additional bushcraft skills have been adapted from people in Australia to be used in all sorts of environments. Rainwater is a lifesaving source and can be collected ideally in some sort of container and also a waterproof sheeting or jacket—even a cloth can collect enough moisture to slake a dehydrated person’s thirst. If the morning has heavy dew, this form of water can also be collected and may provide enough for a drink. Many types of vegetation can give water too. Depending on the location; fruits, coconuts, cacti, vines, palm trees, and bamboo can all be utilized for hydration. If lost near a visible source of water, then it is possible to make drinking water safer by boiling it with some sort of container and a way of making a fire—one should first try to filter out the larger particles in the water by passing it through a cloth. Given sufficient time, the UV radiation and heat from sunlight can kill bacteria, protozoa, and viruses in water stored in the right type of container (such as clear or blue PET bottles or clear glass bottles). Therefore, keeping the water in the sun can reduce the number of pathogens in the water if it is impossible to start a fire. Using one or two purification tablets, such as sodium hypochlorite, in the water can also help make the water drinkable, as will using a portable water purifier or filter. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

Breakthrough Research Suggests Diet Can Improve Mental Health Outcomes By Alina Bradford* For anyone grappling with mental health challenges, particularly depression, there is a beacon of hope, and it just might be on the dinner plate. Dr. Christopher Palmer’s latest read, Brain Energy, connects how food choices influence brain health and, consequently, mental states. He is not alone in this thought; a harmonious choir of scientific voices is singing a similar tune about the bond between diet and mental well-being. So, what are Dr. Palmer and others saying about this connection? Essentially, nutrients consumed—or lack thereof—can directly affect brain metabolism and, in turn, mood, energy levels, and overall mental health. The Link Between Brain Energy and Mental Health Palmer’s book, Brain Energy, can be boiled down into one overall concept. The body’s mitochondria and how well they function can affect a person’s health in almost every possible way. Throw off the function of these human cell powerhouses, and health can be negatively affected. When brain cells are affected, this can cause mental health issues. What was the most surprising thing Palmer found when researching? “That all of the risk factors for mental illness relate directly to metabolism and mitochondria. As a scientist and clinician, that was shocking,” Palmer told The Earth & I. Many different factors can throw off mitochondria, but the easiest to control—and one of the most researched—is what humans put in their bodies. The Research Behind Diet and Mental Health The turning point in Palmer’s research came when he decided to treat a patient with schizoaffective disorder using a ketogenic diet. Within months, the patient’s chronic auditory hallucinations and delusions began to subside, and eventually, by Palmer’s estimates, the patient went into 90% to 95% remission. This led Palmer to a theory that mental disorders are metabolic disorders. The success of the ketogenic diet may not be surprising to anyone who has lived with epilepsy. The diet has been a treatment for the disease for over 100 years, and many studies over the past decades have found that the diet is a useful treatment. Scientists are looking into how gut health, vitamin deficiencies, fasting, and more can positively or negatively affect a person’s mental health. Since epilepsy is a disease linked to the mind, it is not a large jump to suspect that diet may be able to treat mental illness, as well. Palmer is not the only one with this suspicion. Many other scientists are looking into how gut health, vitamin deficiencies, fasting, and more can positively or negatively affect a person’s mental health. For example, a study in 2023 found that there may be a link between low riboflavin levels and poor mental health. Many studies have also found there may be a link between poor diet and seasonal affective disorder (SAD), though more research is needed to determine what diet may improve SAD symptoms. Dozens of studies have also found a link between the Mediterranean Diet and good mental health. Additional Factors That Can Influence Mental Health While diet can play a large role in mental health, it is not the only factor. Palmer points out in his book that many things can positively or negatively affect mental health, such as genetics, medications, drugs, alcohol, hormones, pollution, inflammation, sleep, physical activity, and stress. All of these can affect mitochondria function, which directly affects brain function. Diets That Can Help Boost Mental Health All of this research is great, but what can someone do to improve their mental health today? “The first thing I tell people is that there isn't a one-size-fits-all solution for all people,” says Palmer, who is the founder and director of the Metabolic and Mental Health Program and director of the Department of Postgraduate and Continuing Education, both at McLean Hospital in Belmont, Massachusetts. “Different people do well with different diets and different lifestyle choices, so it's important to understand the science, as I outline in Brain Energy, all of the treatment options, and then figure out what works best for you,” says Palmer. “If I tell everyone to eat more broccoli, I can guarantee you that that advice won't be all that helpful for most people. It's a little more nuanced than that.” “If I tell everyone to eat more broccoli, I can guarantee you that that advice won't be all that helpful for most people. It's a little more nuanced than that.” For anyone looking to fix their diet to aid their mental health, here are a few things that studies have found to be potentially helpful: Give the keto diet a shot. This diet focuses on foods high in fat and low in carbohydrates (sugars). This diet breaks down fats and produces ketones that energize cells. Try the Mediterranean Diet. This diet is centered on eating fruit and vegetables, legumes, whole grains, nuts, fish, white meats, and olive oil. “These foods bring a repertoire of nutrients with anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties, and several of these work together to support brain integrity and chemistry,” said Lina Begdache, a dietitian, nutritionist, and assistant professor of Health and Wellness Studies at Binghamton University in New York. “Research has also shown that the Mediterranean Diet supports resiliency, which protects from mental health decline,” she told The Earth & I. Try to avoid processed foods, meat from animals injected with growth hormones, and other toxins that can be found in foods. “These factors affect brain health at different levels,” said Begdache. “Some of them work by inhibiting the production of certain brain chemicals, such as serotonin, which regulates mood. Others promote inflammation by reducing the ability of the blood-brain barrier to control the entry of toxins into the brain. Another concern is that pesticides or their metabolites may later affect the functions of gene (expression) which eventually lead to several neurological diseases.” Increase fiber intake, as this has been found to help with depression and anxiety. Consume more polyphenols if struggling with depression. Some foods that contain polyphenols include legumes, citrus, grapes, tea, coffee, nuts, soy, and spices. It turns out that diet can play a pivotal role in managing and possibly alleviating symptoms of depression. This idea is not just food for thought; it is becoming a substantial theory backed by growing evidence that suggests healthier eating patterns could lead to healthier mental states. Imagine if tweaking what is on the plate could brighten a person’s mood and offer a new avenue for managing depression. This concept opens a new realm of possibilities for those seeking solace from the grips of this disorder. It is a reminder that sometimes, hope can come from the simplest changes, like switching up the menu. Exploring and understanding this link goes well beyond the topic of food; it is a potential lifeline for millions. So, here's to nourishing both body and mind, one meal at a time. *Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert who has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com.

By Marion Warin Miller* “Eco” or “green” schools have been around for decades, but an extraordinary international school on the Indonesian island of Bali is breaking new ground for environmentally oriented education. Green School Bali (GSB), founded near Ubud, on the island of Bali, is dedicated to building “a community of learners making our world sustainable.” Successful entrepreneur and visionary environmental activist John Hardy founded GSB in 2008 with his wife, Cynthia. Years earlier, he had moved to Bali from Canada to escape the harsh Canadian climate, and in 2006, he sold his shares in his eco-friendly Bali jewelry business. Hardy’s growing concern with the deterioration of the environment prompted him to take decisive action for the sake of his four children and future grandchildren. As a child, he had disliked school (he had undiagnosed dyslexia), so his vision for Green School Bali was to create a school with a hands-on, interactive, and fun-loving learning environment that would appeal to a wide range of students. Green School Bali has won awards and praise. GSB is the “most unique and impressive” school, former UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said when he visited the school in 2015, according to the Australian publication, The Age. British business billionaire Richard Branson [Virgin Group] also admired the school, saying he had “never been more jealous” of school kids in his life, the same article said. Spectacular Bamboo Architecture At first sight, the most striking aspects of GSB are its spectacular architecture and lush jungle environment. Most of the school’s more than fifty buildings are constructed from bamboo treated with boron to prevent insect damage and increase longevity. They showcase ways in which building materials and designs can be both environmentally responsible and aesthetically pleasing. The classrooms are wall-less, and many have their own permaculture garden attached. Most of the school’s buildings are constructed from bamboo … [and] showcase ways in which building materials and designs can be both environmentally responsible and aesthetically pleasing. In 2004, Hardy was fortunate to meet Jörg Stamm, a prominent German architect who specializes in building green structures made from bamboo instead of traditional lumber, concrete, or steel. When Hardy decided to open his ecologically oriented school, Stamm assisted him by constructing unique and astonishing structures on the Green School Bali campus. He used parabolic arches to create the largest bamboo bridge in Asia, the Millennium Bridge in Sibang Kaja, Bali. It has a span of 23 meters (25 yards) over the Ayung River, which runs through the school’s campus. He also employed spiral towers to create Heart of School, a stunning central campus building. Other bamboo masterpieces on GSB’s campus include the Arc, a towering sports and community center; a wall-less and peaceful yoga pavilion next to the river; and a zero-waste Innovation Hub, all designed by Hardy’s eldest child, his daughter Elora, the founder of Ibuku, a futuristic bamboo architectural firm. Commitment to Energy Efficiency and Waste Reduction The school’s commitment to energy efficiency is evidenced by its use of solar panels and its giant hydroelectric vortex turbine power plant on the Ayung River. Combined, they provide 100% renewable electric energy. The school’s commitment to go completely for renewable energy won them the prestigious Zayed Future Energy Prize in 2017. This gave them the funding to complete “The Vortex,” their giant hydro-turbine power plant, and in 2019, they held a ceremony to announce that Green School Bali had gone “100% off the grid,” thanks to 23.7% solar power and 76.3% vortex power. The school also boasts comprehensive waste reduction and water collecting initiatives. These include organic waste treatment toilets and a robust recycling program—they ingeniously reuse much of the recycled materials through their KemBali Recycling Center, which services the school and the local community. [The school] ingeniously reuse[s] much of the recycled materials through their KemBali Recycling Center, which services the school and the local community. GSB says its natural, green campus environment has a profound impact on the health and well-being of both students and teachers. As Principal Sal Gordon has written, “At Green School, a student’s well-being matters more than their grades.” The school believes that when the well-being of students is taken care of, they will function at their best. Green Curriculum The Green School’s curriculum has project-based environmental studies as a core component and integrates them in traditional subjects, such as mathematics, literature, and science. The students gain hands-on learning experiences with permaculture gardening (led by Hardy’s son, Orin, founder of the Kul Kul permaculture farm) and caring for the campus. They also initiated projects, such as the Bye Bye Plastic Bags movement, which is reducing plastic bag use on Bali and in 50 other locations around the world. This project-based approach ensures that students not only learn about environmental issues but envision and plan meaningful actions to address them. Students are further taught about the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals to end poverty and inequality, ensure people’s health, and protect the planet. [The school’s] project-based approach ensures that students not only learn about environmental issues but envision and plan meaningful actions to address them. At the end of their schooling, students in the 12th grade undertake and present—in TED-style talks—a capstone project, called Greenstone, which helps them build their resumes. Those in 8th grade graduate after completing a similar year-long Quest project. Research has shown that these types of inquiry-based education are more effective because they engage the children and their interests. GSB involves parents—many of whom move their families to Bali and work remotely so their children can attend the school—the local community, and indigenous culture in its programs. Students and faculty at GSB have developed the Bio Bus, a large vehicle powered by biodiesel produced from used cooking oil which students collect from restaurants. Three such buses are used to transport local students to and from school, and on weekends, the buses can be used by others in the community. This project provided interdisciplinary process learning for the students. The school also provides after-school programs and activities for students from local schools. Furthermore, they offer scholarships to local students. As one teacher reports, “Our students aim to raise awareness among their peers outside Green School about the importance of cherishing Mother Earth and caring for our planet.” In a recent project with the Green School Foundation, the students learned “about waste management practices and organic gardening with SD 4 Sibang Gede [a school in Sibang Gede village] students and teachers.” Training for Educators Green School Bali’s impact and influence extends outside the school’s campus and even beyond Indonesia. The school offers a training program for educators from around the world, the Green Educators Program, enabling them to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to provide students with quality education and a path to sustainability leadership. Also, through The Bridge @ Green School, Green School for Grownups, GSB offers education for parents and other local adults. Additionally, GSB is becoming a global movement. It has helped sister schools open in New Zealand, South Africa, and Tulum, Mexico (opening in 2026). These schools operate based on the same philosophy of holistic education and the three primary rules of GSB: “Be local, let your environment be your guide, and envisage how your grandchildren will be affected by your actions.” Dr. Goodall’s Visit In 2012, esteemed author and primatologist Dr. Jane Goodall visited GSB, where she gave the graduation keynote address and released two endangered Bali Starlings in a symbolic gesture of GSB’s efforts to protect wildlife. “I think all the students here are incredibly lucky, because there is this great atmosphere of learning about the things you care about, interacting with the environment, and learning some of the core values of success in life, which is respect and kindness and understanding,” she said in her address. “I have the impression of a community of people who care about each other and who care about the natural world, and I truly think that when the students graduate from here they will become leaders of the right sort to try and move this troubled world into a new phase which we so desperately need." Editor’s note: GSB provides insights into their educational programs and vibrant campus through their online Virtual Open Days several times a year. *Marion Warin Miller is a French bilingual researcher, writer, and editor now residing in Northern Virginia. She has master’s degrees in Business and Economics, and International Economics and Economic Development. She has also ministered for community development and world peace. As a grandmother of eight, she cares deeply about environmental stewardship and preserving natural wonders for future generations. She has traveled to many natural sites in countries around the world and now retreats to the gorgeous Shenandoah Valley National Park area whenever time allows.

Member States Urged to “Begin the End” of Plastics Pollution Whether by consensus or by two-thirds majority vote, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) is urging UN member states to sign the first-ever legally binding global treaty to end plastics pollution by the end of 2024. The resolution to develop the treaty (“the instrument”), which will also cover plastics in the marine environment, was introduced at the resumed fifth session of the UN Environment Assembly (UNEA-5.2), in March 2022. The UN’s International Governmental Committee (INC) was tasked with creating an agreement that addresses the full life cycle of plastic, from production to disposal. Work on the treaty began with the INC-1 session in Punta del Este, Uruguay, in December 2022, followed by INC-2 in Paris (May 29–June 2, 2023) and INC-3 in Nairobi, Kenya, in November 2023. The fourth session, INC-4, is scheduled from April 23-29, 2024, in Ottawa, Canada, with a final session, INC-5, scheduled from November 25-December 1, 2024, in Busan, South Korea. The two 2024 INC treaty gatherings follow the November 2023 Conference of the Parties (COP 28) in Dubai, where delegates agreed to transition away from fossil fuels to achieve net zero by 2050. However, since plastics are produced from fossil fuels, some observers speculate that increases in plastics production are “the ‘Plan B’ for the fossil fuel industry.” The UNEP has raised concerns over an International Energy Agency prediction that plastic production will account for almost half of oil demand growth by 2050. UNEP Executive Director Inger Andersen told stakeholders at COP 28 that “plastics are not a lifeboat for you as energy systems decarbonize. The world can’t afford the emissions.” Though negotiators are committed to producing a treaty by the end of 2024, finding agreement among member states will not be easy. According to UNEP, an analysis has shown that fossil fuel and chemical industry lobbyist participation in the negotiations is on the rise. Some member states have included fossil fuel company lobbyists in their delegations at a time when UNEP is warning that “producers’ responsibilities schemes” are expected to be established to “tackle plastic pollution at its source.” According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), plastic production is predicted to triple by 2060, while recycling rates currently linger below 10%. The World Wildlife Fund estimates the “societal cost” of plastic pollution, emissions, and clean-up may be nearly $3.7 trillion just from plastic produced in 2019 alone. The situation, says UNEP, is “a call to action to everyone—governments, businesses, schools, and communities—to join forces and address one of the most urgent challenges we face.” Sources: https://www.undp.org/blog/beginning-end-plastics-pollution https://www.unep.org/inc-plastic-pollution https://www.oecd.org/environment/global-plastic-waste-set-to-almost-triple-by-2060.htm https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?3507866/These-costs-for-plastic-produced-in-2040-will-rise-to-US71-trillion-unless-urgent-action-is-taken

New Report Tracks Plastic Chemicals and Their Potential Hazards The PlastChem project, funded by the Norwegian Research Council, is a collaboration of researchers from Norwegian and Swiss institutions. Project objectives include compiling data on all known plastic chemicals, linking plastic chemicals to polymers of concern, and providing scientific evidence to guide policy development. In March 2024, researchers released the first version of their State of the Science on Plastic Chemicals report. Over 9 billion tons of plastic chemicals are produced per year. More than 25% of plastic chemicals lack basic information on their chemical identity. The report found 16,325 plastic chemicals with a chemical abstract service registry number (CASRN). Of these, 11,950 (73%) are organic chemicals, 3,449 (21%) are chemicals without information, and 926 (6%) are inorganic chemicals. Only 47% of all plastic chemicals with CASRNs, or 7,585 chemicals, have data on their functionalities. The five functions associated with the greatest number of plastic chemicals are colorants (3,674), processing aids (3,028), fillers (1,836), intermediates (1,741), and lubricants (1,684). More than 4,219 plastic chemicals are viewed as hazardous because they are persistent, bioaccumulative, mobile, and/or toxic (PBMT). Out of the 16,325 chemicals, 10,726 chemicals (66%) do not have hazard data at this time, and 1,191 chemicals (7%) are considered less hazardous. Some 1,875 chemicals classified as hazardous are still marketed for their use in plastics, which means chemicals of concern can be present in all plastics types. At least 6,300 plastic chemicals have a high exposure potential, including over 1,500 compounds known to be released from plastic materials and products. Over 9,000 plastic chemicals do not have publicly available information on their origins or uses in plastic. Source: Wagner, M., Monclús, L., Arp, H. P. H., Groh, K. J., Løseth, M. E., Muncke, J., Wang, Z., Wolf, R., & Zimmermann, L. (2024). “State of the science on plastic chemicals - Identifying and addressing chemicals and polymers of concern.” Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10701706

Children Urged to Reduce Plastic Use in School Cafeterias During the week of April 17–24, 2024, non-profit Cafeteria Culture (CafCu), in partnership with Fund for the City of New York, is raising awareness among school children and the public about the billions of plastic utensils, wrappers, and other packaging items that are discarded annually from school lunch programs across the globe. CafCu’s signature event, Plastic Free Lunch Day (PFLD), takes place the week of Earth Day 2024 in New York City’s 1,700 K-12 public schools but also invites partnerships with schools as far away as Japan. What kind of impact could a program like PFLD have? According to CafCu’s website, “If every school in the US reduces just two pieces of plastic per school lunch each day, we can eliminate 10 billion pieces of plastic per school year.” The non-profit began in 2009 as Styrofoam Out of Schools. It was successful in catalyzing the elimination of Styrofoam lunch trays in every NYC public school and nine other large US school districts. This change alone is estimated to have stopped 4.2 million Styrofoam trays from entering the waste stream per week. This led to the formation of CafCu and its first PFLD event, held in 2022. School children are encouraged to bring reusable utensils from home and buy or bring lunches that don’t require utensils. Students are also asked to avoid plastic plates, condiments in plastic packaging, and any other plastic-packaged item, such as snacks or drinks during the PFLD events. CafCu says the kids in its programs discuss environmental issues, collect and analyze local data, and talk with decision makers about solutions, including ones the students have designed. The organization is also behind the production of the student-led documentary, Microplastic Madness (2019), already screened in at least 45 countries. CafCu invites under-resourced schools to host a free screening of Microplastic Madness (View official documentary trailer here). What’s next for the organization? Having helped to eliminate Styrofoam from all NYC public schools, it expects PFLD to play a major role in the non-profit’s biggest goal yet, to eliminate the remaining single-use plastics from NYC and US public school cafeterias. Sources: https://www.cafeteriaculture.org/plastic-free-lunch.html https://urbanschoolfoodalliance.org/plastic-free-lunch-day-partnership/ https://www.cafeteriaculture.org/about.html

Report Projects Large Increases of Global Bioplastics Production by 2028 European Bioplastics is an association that represents the interests of over 80 member companies mostly in bioplastics, research, and consulting, from Europe, US, and Asia (China, Japan, and Thailand). Bioplastics differ from conventional, petroleum-based plastics in that many bioplastics are biodegradable depending on their method of production and biopolymer. In December 2023, the association released its Bioplastics Market Development Update 2023, which has global bioplastics production projections into 2028. A forecasted 2.182 million tons of bioplastics were produced in 2023, of which 1.136 million tons (52%) were biodegradable and 1.047 million tons (48%) were not. However, the actual amount utilized in 2023 was 1.799 million tons (82%). This is similar to 2022 when 1.507 million tons (83%) out of 1.813 million tons were utilized. Some 43% of bioplastics (about 0.934 million tons) went into rigid packaging (0.356 million tons) and flexible packaging (0.577 million tons) in 2023. Global bioplastics production is projected to rise to 2.670 million tons in 2024, but then jump by about 81% to 4.839 million tons in 2025. This would be due to a more than doubling of biobased/non-biodegradable bioplastics production from 1.095 million tons to 2.241 million tons and about a 65% increase of biodegradable bioplastics production from 1.575 million tons to 2.598 million tons. In 2028, global bioplastics production is projected to rise to 7.432 million tons, about 340% of the 2.182 million tons produced in 2023. In 2023, the types of bioplastics with the highest global production capacities were polylactic acid (PLA) at 31.0% (biodegradable), then polyamides (PAs) at 13.5% and polyethylene (PE) at 12.3% (both biobased/non-biodegradable). By 2028, the types of bioplastics with the highest global production capacities are projected to be PLA at 43.6%, followed by PA at 18.9%, and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA, polyesters produced by microorganisms) at 13.5% (biodegradable). Sources: https://docs.european-bioplastics.org/publications/market_data/2023/EUBP_Market_Data_Report_2023.pdf

Discontinued Gas Products Still Flowing into Europe Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant gases are being phased out in Europe and elsewhere, but in an April 8 report, London-based nonprofit Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) warned of a widespread, illegal HFC trade going on in Europe. HFCs are used for essential services such as refrigeration, air-conditioning, building insulation, fire extinguishing systems, and aerosols, according to the US Environmental Protection Agency. But HFCs are implicated as a greenhouse gas, and their use is being reduced and discontinued. The Climate and Clean Air Coalition says there are many climate-friendly alternatives, so HFC emissions can be virtually eliminated by 2050. European Union emissions of fluorinated greenhouse gases (F-gas) peaked in 2014, the European Environment  Agency in 2023. These emissions have since fallen by about 25% in part because of an EU-wide HFC phase-down that started in 2019 under the Montreal Protocol, the EEA said. It added that the EU is currently “on track” to meet its targets and phase out HFC use by 2030. The EIA report said the illegal HFC gas trade it spotted five years ago is continuing. EIA said its investigators, acting partly undercover, found evidence that “significant levels of trafficking persist” despite the refrigerant phase-down. The EIA attributes the problem to organized crime cashing in on the highly lucrative trade by circumventing “weak” enforcement via sophisticated evasion tactics. The gases are sourced by smugglers from China and Turkey, and brought across the continent into Bulgaria and other countries just outside the EU bloc. Their final destinations are nations such as Greece, Germany, France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain, according to the EIA. Smugglers avoid detection by “disguising” HFCs as less-regulated hydrofluoroolefins (HFO), which has a lower potential to react with ozone. According to EIA Senior Climate Campaigner Fin Walravens, HFC smuggling is not only driven by outsized profits for traffickers, but it is also “fueled by ongoing demand for the gases, primarily used in the cooling sector.” “Globally, HFCs are being phased down under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer,” she said. In the meantime, she said, “There is an urgent need for coordinated proactive enforcement efforts across the EU to combat HFC climate crime.” Sources: https://eia-international.org/news/illegal-smuggling-of-refrigerant-gases-into-europe-continues-as-the-climate-crisis-worsens/ https://www.ccacoalition.org/short-lived-climate-pollutants/hydrofluorocarbons-hfcs https://www.epa.gov/snap/reducing-hydrofluorocarbon-hfc-use-and-emissions-federal-sector-through-snap#:~:text=Hydrofluorocarbons%20(HFCs)%20are%20greenhouse%20gases,fire%20extinguishing%20systems%2C%20and%20aerosols. https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/hydrofluorocarbon-phase-down-in-europe

Ooho Gel Packets and Casein Films Take a Bite Out of Plastic Pollution By Gordon Cairns* When American entrepreneur Nathaniel Wyeth patented the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle in 1973, he couldn’t possibly have imagined how this handy, cheap, and disposable item would be part of the global environmental catastrophe facing nations today. Like other plastic packaging, the PET bottle was invented to replace heavier, more expensive containers such as those made from glass, wood, and paper. Ironically, this innovation became popular just as these other items started to get recycled: UK’s first recyclable glass bottle bank opened in 1977 in Barnsley, England. The success of plastic bottles changed people’s behavior in the West—from drinking safe, clean water from the tap to buying a plastic bottle of clean water—and created one of the fastest growing industries in the world. Sales of this product grew by 73% in the decade between 2010 and 2020. A Marathon Problem However, the problem of disposing plastic bottles grew too. For instance, after London’s 2018 Marathon, an estimated 750,000 bottles littered London’s streets; likely ended up in a landfill. Marathons encourage the public to lead healthier, fulfilling lives while raising millions of dollars for charity, but a downside emerged: These events typically supply hydration to runners with single-use plastic bottles, which are then immediately discarded. To target this environmental concern, in 2019, the London Marathon organizers cut that waste by over a third by supplying the runners with liquid in 30,000 edible packages called Ooho. The packages are made from seaweed and calcium chloride and created by regenerative packaging company Notpla. Rather than taking a sip and tossing the bottle away, runners could burst the bubble (Ooho) made from seaweed and swallow it or discard the skin, given that it is edible and biodegradable. This pollution reducing product has since been used at other major sporting events including the Zevenheuvelenloop marathon in the Netherlands and the Göteborgsvarvet half-marathon in Sweden. It also fills vending machines at the London Aquatics Centre. Limitations of Edible Packaging While the idea of getting water from an edible package might seem to be a clever way to replace the ubiquitous plastic variety—a million bottles are sold every minute—the Ooho isn’t quite ready for that. The package is designed for a single gulp rather than the portability and volume that plastic allows. Its delicate membrane also isn’t great for storing in a grocery store without extra packaging, which defeats its original purpose. Yet despite its present limitations, there’s plenty of opportunity, as well as impetus, for further development and improvement. Other challenges [of edible films] include higher vulnerability to heat, requiring another layer (typically plastic) to protect it from contamination, and higher production costs. Edible packaging is generally made from edible biopolymers (proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides), plasticizers, or food-grade additives. Their materials include coatings, films, pouches, and sheets. The films should be a good barrier of oxygen (to slow decay), water, and aroma. Compared to PET/PS films, edible films tend to have disadvantages of lower tensile strength and higher water vapor permeability, while having the advantage of higher resistance to oxygen permeability. Other challenges include higher vulnerability to heat, requiring another layer (typically plastic) to protect it from contamination, and higher production costs. Meanwhile, lipid-based films can be made from fatty acids (monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides), waxes (such as paraffin), and other oils (such as palm and peanut), raising health concerns. Packaging Revisited in History Despite numerous public campaigns to raise awareness of plastic waste, it has continued to rise. A report from the Minderoo Foundation revealed that between 2019 and 2021 the amount of plastic waste rose by 6 million metric tons (6.6 million tons) with recycling unable to scale up quickly enough. With no clear sign that people will give up single-use plastics, science has been looking to the past to solve this 21st century problem. While it might seem modern, edible packaging was being used to protect our food 600 years before plastic was ever invented. The first known example of edible film used for food preservation was made in the fifteenth century from soymilk (Yuba) in Japan. In the 1930s, emulsions and waxes were developed to coat fruits, with the purpose of improving their appearance, controlling the ripening process, and decreasing the loss of water. By the 1960s, however, comestible packaging had limited commercial appeal and was mainly used as wax coatings on fruit and vegetables. A Review of Edible Packaging Methods But as environmental crises have a way of re-focusing the mind, scientists across the world have returned to these old ideas, making incredible advances by using different edible foodstuffs for a variety of purposes as outlined in Edible Food Packaging, edited by Amrita Poonia and Tejpal Dhewa. These include a remarkable range of edible packaging products that can replace plastic varieties. A multitude of products can be made from fruit residues alone, revealing the potential usefulness of unwanted food. Some of the methods being trialed include a film made from peach puree that can create an oxygen barrier to preserve nuts, confections and baked goods; peel from pomelos that delays oxidation and increases the shelf life of soybean oil; and a pulp formed from arrowroot starch and blackberry that promotes the stability of anthocyanins (a type of antioxidant) found in grapes, apples, and cabbage, making them easier to handle and more attractive to the consumer. The beauty of using fruit and vegetable waste is that these products are plentiful, as they have the highest percentage of waste amongst all foodstuffs. However, thus far, many of these products are not as efficient as those created from plastic and also take longer to apply to the food being preserved. For these and other reason, Poonia and Dhewa believe comestible packaging is not yet able to function alone in the market: “Edible films and coatings cannot entirely replace synthetic packaging. Usually, secondary packaging is necessary for handling and hygienic practices.” “Edible films and coatings cannot entirely replace synthetic packaging. Usually, secondary packaging is necessary for handling and hygienic practices.” They believe there is a need to combine synthetic and natural packaging: “In this sense, it is important to apply eco-friendly food preservatives to control the loss of the nutritional value of the perishable foods and to reduce the requirements and waste of conventional packaging, improving the economic efficiency of packaging materials.” Making Edible Packaging Consumer-Friendly Of course, as a marketable product, there would be no point in creating edible packaging options if consumers won’t buy them, but two recent studies on public perceptions have been positive. One study published this year evaluated consumer attitude, acceptability and purchasing intentions of 100 participants in Portland, Oregon. The participants were asked to evaluate three types of edible food packaging: muffin liners, cranberry pomace fruit leather wraps, and powdered drink sachets. All were rated positively by the participants, with two-thirds saying they would buy all three products if they came to market. A 2021 study of a similarly sized group of consumers in Indonesia were asked to try a chili powder that came in an edible gelatine package. It, too, received a positive response, with the consumers highly likely to replace their current unbiodegradable packaging with the new edible product. If these innovative modern scientists and manufacturers can create edible, biodegradable packaging that is lightweight and easy to transport, then a path to dent the use of single-use plastics may be opened. Biodegradable or edible packaging has the potential to become as commonplace as banana skins. Meanwhile, conscientious consumers can do their bit to prevent plastic waste by reusing, reducing, recycling the plastic containers used, or eliminating their use altogether. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.