According to The Guardian, new AI models such as ChatGPT are raising important questions about how much energy and water they consume—questions that these AI brainchildren, apparently, cannot answer. (The information is tightly guarded). But science does offer some educated guesses. A non-peer-reviewed research paper calculated the energy consumption used to train Hugging Face’s language model, Bloom, on a supercomputer over a 118-day period, plus its energy consumption over its lifecycle of 1.08 million hours. Included in the calculation were “the energy used to manufacture the supercomputer’s hardware and maintain its infrastructure; and the electricity used to run the program once it launched.” The answer: around fifty metric tons equivalent of carbon dioxide emissions, or “the equivalent of an individual taking about sixty flights between London and New York.” The researchers estimate that Bloom’s final training emitted approximately 24.7 tons equivalent of CO2 if “only the dynamic power consumption” (electricity used to power the program) is included. According to the researchers, limited available data suggests perhaps 500 metric tons equivalent of CO2 were produced in training ChatGPT’s GPT-3 model, or more than a million miles driven by “average gasoline-powered cars.” Another non-peer-reviewed study estimates that training GPT-3 in Microsoft’s data centers in the US could have potentially consumed 700,000 liters (184,920.45 gallons) of freshwater. That is enough, say the researchers, “for producing 370 BMW cars or 320 Tesla electric vehicles.” For now, educated guesses will have to suffice. When asked about its energy consumption, Google’s Bard answered, “My carbon footprint is zero.” Sources: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/jun/08/artificial-intelligence-industry-boom-environment-toll https://arxiv.org/pdf/2211.02001.pdf https://arxiv.org/abs/2304.03271

In 2023, Canadian Wildfires Filled Northeastern US Skies with Smoke, Which Even Traveled to Spain and France By Alina Bradford* June 7, 2023. Canadian wildfire smoke blankets NYC. ©Anthony Quintano/Wikimedia (CC BY 2.0) Hot, dry summers and autumns—and forest fires—seem to go together. In fact, there are “fire seasons” in many parts of the world. This shows that no matter where people live, they need to know how to protect themselves from wildfire smoke. In the US’s arid western lands, for instance, wildfires have been common occurrences for “thousands of years,” says the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Many are caused by lightning and other natural causes, but “approximately half” of wildfires are caused by humans, notes the BLM, which is dedicated to preventing both kinds of wildfires. But today’s wildfires are also affected by the longer periods of drought, says the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). “Wildfires require the alignment of a number of factors, including temperature, humidity, and the lack of moisture in fuels, such as trees, shrubs, grasses, and forest debris. All these factors have strong direct or indirect ties to climate variability and climate change,” says NOAA. Experts do not expect annual fire seasons to shorten or moderate anytime soon, based on 1984–2015 data, so it is a good idea for people to learn how to protect themselves from the negative effects of breathing in smoky air. This precaution is important for people in regions that are not prone to wildfires. For example, many of the northern US states in the Midwest and Northeast were blanketed by smoke from the Canadian wildfires in the summer of 2023. Eventually, the smoke traveled across the Atlantic to Spain and France. June 27, 2023. Canadian wildfire smoke reaches Europe. ©NASA/Wikimedia. Public Domain Wildfires Are Becoming More Common Climate change has made droughts more common, which means dryer forests and grasslands. Studies have found that the dry conditions from climate change doubled the number of wildfires since 1984 based on data in forested areas in western US. Wildfire seasons are also longer and more active based on 1979–2013 data, says NASA, and the dryer conditions make these wildfires harder to extinguish, allowing them to eat up more precious woodlands and forests, homes, and even towns. Since 2016, 1.2 million acres have been burned due to wildfires. If temperatures worldwide continue to rise, more wildfires are expected. Just a 1-degree Celsius temperature change is projected to increase the areas burned per year by as much as 600% in some types of forests, says the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. In response, the US Forest Service is promoting healthy forest restoration, with a focus on fire resistance, as part of the global Trillion Trees global initiative. However, as of August 2, sixty-seven large fires and 388,245 acres were already burned in eleven U.S. states by wildfires so far in 2023. As of August 2, sixty-seven large fires and 388,245 acres were already burned in eleven U.S. states by wildfires so far in 2023. Research from the Georgia Institute of Technology found that the smoke plumes from wildfires can worsen climate change by affecting the atmosphere. Thus, more climate change is expected to create more wildfires, and more wildfires are expected to create more climate change. It is a vicious cycle. May 2023. Western Canada from space. ©NASA/Wikimedia. Public Domain How Wildfire Smoke Can Affect Your Health While someone may think that a bit of smoke is no problem, they may be damaging their lungs by breathing in particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and various toxic compounds found in wildfire smoke. “The short-term effects depend on your lung health and any underlying health conditions,” says Michael Green, MD, an OB/GYN and cofounder at Winona. “For example, someone with asthma might experience worsened symptoms while breathing in contaminated air. Breathing in smoky air can also increase the risk of cardiovascular issues, such as heart attacks.” “You may be damaging your lungs by breathing in particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and various toxic compounds found in wildfire smoke.” Over time, says Green, breathing in smoke can contribute to chronic lung health issues and decreased function and capacity. Long-term exposure to particulate matter specifically can increase the risk for severe health conditions like COPD, strokes, and heart disease. [See The Earth & I, August 2021] People who are most affected by wildfire smoke include young children, older adults, and those with cardiovascular or respiratory conditions like asthma, according to the New York State Department of Health. Some symptoms of smoke exposure include: Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat Nausea Shortness of breath Coughing Tiredness Runny nose Wheezing and shortness of breath Chest pain Fast heartbeat Headaches Asthma attacks Just a few days of exposure to wildfire smoke can have severe health consequences, including: Reduced lung function Bronchitis Increased risk of worsened asthma or other lung diseases Cardiovascular problems Heart failure Heart attack Stroke Increased risk of premature death How To Protect Against Wildfire Smoke Staying indoors is good, but it’s not always enough, say experts like Tony Abate. "Most of our homes are not totally sealed from outdoor air; this is why you feel drafts in the winter. This also means air laden with contaminants from Canada's wildfire smoke will find its way into our homes and our lungs,” says Abate, certified indoor environmentalist and vice president and chief technology officer at AtmosAir Solutions, an air purification and monitoring technology company. Still, “the best thing you can do for yourself is to stay inside,” says Green. From there, work to keep the indoor air as clean as possible. Limit indoor pollutants, such as smoke from candles, smoking, or using a gas stove since it is not safe to ventilate a home when it is smoky outside. From there, add additional steps to keep smoke out the lungs. Running an air purifier can help. When shopping, be sure to look for air purifiers that can trap PM 2.5-sized particulate matter. Also, pay attention to how many square feet it can cover, as it may take several air purifiers to clean larger homes. Stock up on filters so there is a ready supply since smoky conditions can arrive without warning. Proper maintenance of a home heating and air conditioning system is key, too. “The average air in a home can be a breeding ground for mold, dust, odors, bacteria, and airborne viruses,” says Abate. “Now, add wildfire smoke entering your home, and that can cause illness or discomfort.” “The average air in a home can be a breeding ground for mold, dust, odors, bacteria, and airborne viruses,” says Abate. “Now, add wildfire smoke entering your home, and that can cause illness or discomfort.” One way to deter smoke is to have a heating and air conditioning professional add bipolar ionization tubes to a home’s HVAC system, advises Abate. These devices continually emit ions into the air that attach to and neutralize airborne contaminants, including smoke, making the air cleaner. Also, use a high-efficiency air filter with an HVAC that has a rating of MERV 13 rating or higher to keep the air clean. Then, set the air conditioner to “On” instead of “Auto” to keep the air circulating and continuously filtered. If it is necessary to go outside, Green recommends wearing an N95 mask. Also, try not to breathe in deeply, since this can add damage to the lungs. That means no jogging, biking, skateboarding, or running to the bus stop. Know When Air Conditions Aren’t Safe Keeping an eye on the Air Quality Index (AQI) scores for the area is a good way to stay informed of smoky conditions. “We’ve been seeing a lot of these AQI scores in the news recently. The Air Quality Index basically provides the public with the shorthand it needs to understand more complicated data on the concentrations of harmful pollutants in the air; in this case, the pollutant of concern is PM2.5,” says University of Richmond landscape ecologist Todd Lookingbill, professor of biology and geography, environment and sustainability. An N95 mask. OSHA/Wikimedia/Public Domain The higher the AQI value, the greater the level of air pollution and the greater the health concern. If a person is a member of a sensitive group—like someone with asthma, an older adult, or someone suffering from lung disease—it is best to avoid prolonged outdoor activity when the AQI hits 100, explained Lookingbill. At 150, everyone should be paying attention and consider limiting intense outdoor activity and/or consider wearing a protective N95 mask. Once the AQI reaches 300 or more, the air is considered hazardous, and everyone should minimize outdoor exposure during these health emergencies as much as possible. The best way to keep up with the AQI is to check the official government site AirNow.gov in the U.S. Just type in a location and the site will tell the AQI and if the air is safe. The site will also show maps of wildfires in the area. *Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert that has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com.

Local Freediving Club Draws Attention to Sea Trash A club of Colombian freedivers has found a deeper way of doing their part to reduce plastic pollution in the Caribbean, according to a news report in La Prensa Latina. A local freediving club in the northern port city of Barranquilla meets from Monday to Friday to dive for trash in shallow pools and then on to deeper waters on weekends, not only to clean up the seabed of their beloved diving zones, but to draw attention to one of Earth’s most pressing environmental problems: marine pollution. Most of the items the divers bring to the surface are plastic—things like straws, cups, bags, and food wrappers. Freediving is a popular tourist attraction in Colombia’s coastal waters. In addition to their cleanup work, club members raise awareness on social media and do different activities to reduce the use of single-use plastics. “We’re looking to raise awareness that this is so beautiful (and) must be protected,” said one of the freedivers, Elkin Castro. Diving for trash is “a way of pushing ourselves,” said another diver, describing their work as a message to their bodies to give back some of the generosity they have received from the sea. Colombia has several seadiving spots near the major seaport city of Cartagena, the Archipelago of San Bernardo, and Isla Baru, among others, and ranks second among nations for biodiversity. [See The Earth & I, April 2021] Source: https://www.laprensalatina.com/colombian-freedivers-doing-part-to-reduce-plastic-waste-in-caribbean/

Forbes Advisor recently reported disaster-related data for the US in 2022. These include hurricanes and tropical storms, tornados, severe storms, hail, flooding, extreme heat and drought, extreme cold, and wildfires. A total of eighteen weather disasters, which killed 474 people, cost the US ​​$175.2 billion in damage last year. In the past ten years, the US had 166 billion-dollar weather disasters, costing $1.28 trillion in damage and resulting in 5,871 deaths. Over the past five years, the US has averaged eighteen billion-dollar natural disasters a year. For the past ten years, tropical cyclones ranked first in total disaster-related costs at $744.3 billion. “Severe” storms ($218 billion) and droughts ($112.9 billion) ranked second and third; From January 2013 through January 2023, 95% of the 200 most populated US counties declared a natural disaster. In 2021, 95% of catastrophic losses resulted from weather-related water impacts, hail, or wind. About 90% of US natural disasters involve flooding. By February 2023, approximately 3,500 wildfires had burned 28,700 acres for the year. Last year (2022) the US had 68,988 wildfires, burning a total of 7.57 million acres (2.83 hectares). Over 40% of those acres were in Alaska. Source: https://www.forbes.com/advisor/homeowners-insurance/natural-disaster-statistics/

In the sixteen years since a massive anti-desertification program started in the Sahel region of northern Africa, only 20% progress has been accomplished, and there are calls for more efforts and international funding. To reach the Great Green Wall’s restoration target of 100 million hectares of land [247 million acres] by 2030, “an average of 8.2 million hectares of land [20 million acres] per year would need to be restored at an annual financial investment of US $4.3 billion,” the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification said in a February 2023 progress report. While $16 billion has already been pledged to the wall, some $33 billion will be needed to complete it by 2030, E&E News reported late last year. Recently, Nigeria Vice President Kashim Shettima addressed the inaugural “Great Green Wall Day Celebration.” held in mid-July at the State House Conference Centre in Nigeria’s capital, Abuja. He called on all Nigerians and environmental stakeholders to regard the stalled Great Green Wall Initiative as an “Emergency Rescue Operation.” As reported by The News Chronicle, Mr. Shettima urged listeners not to relax on the Great Green Wall Initiative despite the Sahel’s temperature extremes, desertification, drought, and other challenges. “The completion of the Great Green Wall was a promise made by President Bola Ahmed Tinubu in his campaign manifesto because the cost of doing otherwise threatens our collective existence. We are, therefore, pleased to share that this inaugural Great Green Wall Day is both an exercise in demonstrating our commitment to this initiative and an act of self-preservation,” Mr. Shettima said, according to Daily Trust. Resolutions made one year ago on June 16 in Abuja at the 8th Ordinary Session of the Council of Ministers of Member Countries have yet to be implemented, adding to the sense of urgency. Launched in 2007 by the African Union, the Great Green Wall initiative is regarded as one of the world’s most ambitious land-reclamation projects. Backers believe the wall, which will stretch from the Senegal coast to the Red Sea, will help restore the continent’s forests, lead to hundreds of thousands of jobs, and sequester hundreds of millions of tons of carbon dioxide, as well as bring other human and biodiversity benefits. Sources: https://www.thenews-chronicle.com/combatting-climate-change-in-nigeria-the-great-green-wall-initiative/ https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/inline-files/GGWA%20review%20final%20report%20formatted.pdf https://www.eenews.net/articles/will-africa-ever-see-its-great-green-wall/ https://dailytrust.com/tinubu-committed-to-completing-green-wall-project-shettima/

Forbes issued a recent global report on which cities are currently winning (or losing) the war for cleaner air. Topping the “good” air-quality list of 480 global cities is Zurich, Switzerland, with PM2.5 levels of just 0.5 µg/m3. In the US, Omaha, Nebraska, has seen a list-topping decrease of 1.1 µg/m3 in PM2.5 levels since 2019. Globally, Ulan Bator, Mongolia, has seen the greatest air quality improvements in the world since 2019, thanks in part to a government ban on burning coal. The capital city of Mongolia, Ulan Bator has seen PM2.5 levels decline by 23.4 µg/m3. In Europe, North Macedonia’s capital, Skopje, has gone from most polluted European capital city to having the biggest decrease in PM2.5 particles, falling by 12.4 µg/m3. Skopje’s Green City Action Plan helped it achieve this positive ranking. On the other hand, among national capitals, Baghdad, Iraq, has experienced the worst increase in air pollution, with PM2.5 levels rising by 31.6 µg/m3. Since 2019, the city of Dammam, Saudi Arabia, has seen the worst air quality declines of any city in the world, thanks to hosting the world’s largest airport (King Fahd International). Dammam has seen PM2.5 levels rise by 111.1 µg/m3. For Europe, the Spanish city of Salamanca has seen PM2.5 levels increase the most by 5.1 µg/m3. Source: https://www.forbes.com/sites/duncanmadden/2023/03/17/mapped-new-survey-shows-air-pollution-changes-in-cities-around-the-world/?sh=71947808f6c6

The US National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) compiled the following about key measurements for May: May 2023 was the third-warmest May since records began to be kept in 1850, or 174 years ago inclusive. The year-to-date (January–May) surface temperature of Earth was the fourth warmest of “such period” on record. The US National Center for Environmental Information (NCEI) is “virtually certain (> 99.0%)” that 2023 will rank as one of the top ten warmest years on record with an 89% chance of ranking in the top five. Ocean temperature hit a record global high for May, marking its second consecutive record-breaking month, when compared with 1985–1993. Amid unusually high May temperatures in North America, Canadian wildfires burned more than 6 million acres in late May and early June, causing widespread deterioration of Canadian and US air quality. Though Africa, Asia, and Europe each had a “top-20 warmest May,” Oceania’s May was cooler-than-average—the coolest May for the region since 2011. Antarctica, too, had a “cooler-than-average May.” The Arctic, on the other hand, experienced its fifth-warmest May on record. Source: https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/global-climate-summary-may-2023

Studies Break New Ground Amidst Climate Worries According to ScienceDaily, two separate studies have broken ground—and altered previous concepts—about how plant roots know to grow deeper during heat and associated drought. Researchers hope their discoveries can assist plant breeders with efforts to help plants cope with rising global temperatures. A team of scientists at the Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University (SLCU) in the UK has discovered a molecular signaling-pathway that is activated when leaves are exposed to low humidity. This causes plant roots to grow towards water. Meanwhile, a team led by researchers from Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (MLU) in Germany, succeeded in demonstrating that roots are equipped with a temperature sensing and response system of their own. The team’s study, published in The EMBO Journal, provides new information on how roots themselves both detect and react to higher temperatures. As reported by ScienceDaily, Professor Marcel Quint from the Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences at MLU said, “Until now, it was assumed that the plant shoot controlled the process for the entire plant and acted as a long-distance transmitter that signaled to the root that it should alter its growth." Prof. Quint and team discovered that root cells increased production of the growth hormone auxin, which was sent to root tips to stimulate cell division, enabling roots to grow deeper into the soil. "As heat and drought usually occur in tandem, it makes sense for the plants to tap into deeper and cooler soil layers that contain water," Quint explains in the ScienceDaily report. The SLCU researchers, on the other hand, found that when the leaves of a plant are exposed to low humidity, they signal the plant's roots using the drought stress hormone abscisic acid (ABA) to direct them to continue growing. This was surprising because ABA is thought to be a growth inhibitor, rather than a growth promoter. Sources: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/07/230710113829.htm https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/06/230626163430.htm

Policies for Reducing Carbon Emissions Can Have Unintended Consequences By Dhanada K Mishra* From “global warming” to what some international leaders call “global boiling,” the Earth appears increasingly off-balance. Dramatic wildfires, floods, heat waves, sea temperature rise, and polar ice melting, which are expected to increase in “frequency and ferocity," as the World Economic Forum says, keep climate crises at the forefront on people’s minds. As countries worldwide strive to reduce their carbon emissions, there are potential unintended consequences that could threaten any progress made in combating climate change. Policymakers need to be aware of these unintended consequences that impact the economy and environment. For example, green policies pushing for efficiency and renewable energy have helped develop renewable energy technologies like solar, wind, hydropower, and green hydrogen, succeeding in generating energy mostly without greenhouse gases—except during initial construction and maintenance. From 2019 to 2020, renewable energy grew from 27% to 29% of the global electricity supply. Power from sun and wind alone increased from 7.8% to 10.1%. The use of fossil fuel coal decreased from 36.6% to 35.4%. However, some policies have increased energy consumption and created more, often hidden, emissions rather than reducing them. As a result, alternative, market-driven mechanisms—such as carbon credit policies—are also expected to play an important role in addressing climate change. Carbon Credits to the Rescue? Carbon credits, or cap-and-trade or emission trading systems (ETS), constitute a market-based approach to mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. They provide financial incentives for individuals, companies, or countries to reduce their carbon footprint by funding projects that reduce or remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. Carbon credits, or cap-and-trade or emission trading systems (ETS), constitute a market-based approach to mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon credit policy refers to the use of carbon credits for a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions as a way to mitigate climate change. Carbon credits are certificates representing quantities of greenhouse gases that have been kept out of the air or removed from it, either by avoiding emissions (for example, refraining from cutting down rainforests), reducing emissions (by improved energy efficiency), or enhancing removals (carbon capture and planting forests). Carbon credits can be traded or sold in voluntary or compliance markets, depending on whether the buyers are motivated by their environmental goals or regulatory obligations. One good example of the earliest functioning carbon credit system is the California Cap-and-Trade Program, which covers about 85% of the state’s emissions from various sectors, such as electricity, industry, transportation, and natural gas. Another example is the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), the world’s largest carbon market that covers more than 11,000 power plants and industrial facilities in thirty-one countries. How Do Carbon Credits Work? Each carbon credit represents 1 ton of carbon or CO2eqv. Each identified emitter is assigned a certain number of credits representing its emission limit. As the company or organization reduces its emissions below the assigned limit, it generates credits that can be retained for future use or traded in the compliance carbon market overseen by a regulatory body. The CDP Carbon Majors Report 2017 found that 71% of all global emissions from 1988 to 2015 came from just 100 companies worldwide. Carbon credits primarily focus on reducing emissions rather than addressing the root causes of climate change. The need for transformative changes in energy systems, industrial practices, and consumer behavior is often overlooked. When companies rely heavily on carbon credits, they divert attention and resources away from efforts to reduce emissions at the source. Carbon credits primarily focus on reducing emissions rather than addressing the root causes of climate change. The Taskforce on Scaling Voluntary Carbon Markets (TSVCM) estimates an increase of demand for carbon credits by a factor of fifteen or more by 2030 ($50 billion) and by a factor of up to 100 by 2050 (more than $300 billion). While carbon credits effectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions, there are also some potential unintended consequences of market-oriented carbon credit policies. Here are a few examples: Carbon leakage occurs when companies move their operations to countries with lower environmental standards to avoid emissions regulations and take advantage of cheaper carbon credits. This can lead to an increase in emissions in the relocation countries, offsetting the emissions reductions achieved by other companies in the country of their origin. Carbon markets can be volatile, with prices for carbon credits fluctuating based on supply and demand. This can create uncertainty for companies and organizations relying on carbon credits to offset emissions. Some companies may use carbon credits to create the appearance of environmental responsibility without reducing their emissions. This is known as greenwashing and can undermine the effectiveness of carbon credit policies. It's important to note that these unintended consequences are not inherent to carbon credit policies but rather can arise due to the way these policies are designed and implemented. The Good and the Bad An example of an effective carbon credit project is the Renewable Biomass Project developed by Sustainable Carbon in Brazil. This project aims to replace non-renewable biomass (such as native wood) with renewable biomass (such as sawdust or rice husk) as fuel for producing ceramic bricks and tiles. By doing so, the project reduces greenhouse gas emissions, preserves native forests, improves air quality, and supports local communities. On the other hand, one of the most egregious examples of a carbon credit project gone awry is the HFC-23 destruction project in China and India, registered under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol. This project involved the destruction of hydrofluorocarbon-23 (HFC-23), a potent greenhouse gas that is a byproduct of chlorodifluoromethane (HCFC-22) production, which is used as a refrigerant and a feedstock for other chemicals. The project claimed to avoid emissions of more than 100 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent annually and generated millions of carbon credits that were sold to European countries. However, several studies have revealed that the project had serious flaws and negative impacts, such as: Creating perverse incentives: The project paid more for destroying HFC-23 than for producing HCFC-22, which encouraged the expansion of HCFC-22 production and increased the consumption of ozone-depleting substances. This is a perfect example of the cobra effect, where a policy achieves the opposite of its intended outcome. Overestimating emission reductions: The project assumed a high baseline emission factor for HFC-23, which was not representative of the actual performance of the chemical plants. This resulted in inflated emission reductions and excess carbon credits that did not reflect real environmental benefits. Undermining climate goals: The project flooded the carbon market with cheap and dubious carbon credits, which lowered the carbon price and reduced the incentives for other emission reduction actions. The project also allowed European countries to meet their emission targets without making domestic abatement efforts. What Can Be Done? The role of climate policies such as carbon credit has its strong supporters and detractors, and the results so far have been mixed at best. What can be done? At the individual level, consumers and investors can demand more transparency and accountability from carbon credit providers and projects and choose high-quality credits with clear environmental and social benefits. They can also educate themselves and others about the role and limitations of carbon credits and advocate for more ambitious and effective policies at the national and international levels. Consumers and investors can demand more transparency and accountability from carbon credit providers and projects and choose high-quality credits with clear environmental and social benefits. At the society level, civil society organizations, media outlets, academic institutions, and other stakeholders can monitor and evaluate the performance and impact of carbon credit projects and markets and expose cases of fraud, corruption, or malpractice. They can also promote best practices and standards for carbon credit accounting, verification, and reporting, and foster dialogue and collaboration among different actors in the carbon credit value chain. At the global level, governments, intergovernmental organizations, and industry associations can harmonize and strengthen the rules and regulations for carbon credit markets and ensure that they are aligned with the goals of the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. They can also support innovation and development of new technologies and methodologies for measuring, reporting, and verifying carbon credits, and facilitate access to finance and capacity building for carbon credit projects in developing countries. In conclusion, it is critical that policymakers consider both short-term and long-term impacts of each decision they make to assure that progress is not reduced by its sometimes-unintended consequences, either economically or environmentally. Only careful consideration and planning will mitigate damage caused by current human activity so that future generations will live on a habitable Earth. *Dhanada K Mishra has a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Michigan and is currently based in Hong Kong. He writes on environmental issues, sustainability, climate crisis, and built infrastructure.

The World Economic Forum (WEF) has found that global seafood consumption (per capita) has more than doubled since the 1960s and reached a new record high. Average global consumption of seafood set a record in 2019 at 20.5 kg (45.19 lbs) per capita. This per capita seafood consumption measure has been trending higher since the 1960s, when it was 9.9 kg (21.83 lbs). Iceland has the highest national seafood consumption per capita at 91.19 kg (201.04 lbs). The second-highest seafood-loving nation is the Maldives, with consumption at 84.58 kg (186.47 lbs). Portugal and South Korea come in third and fourth, respectively, at around 57 kg (125.7 lbs) per person. Conversely, Afghanis only consume 0.24 kg (0.53 lbs) of seafood per person per annum, far below any other nation on the list. Also at the bottom of the fish-eating list were Germany, Brazil, and India. Source: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/11/chart-shows-countries-consume-fish-food-security/

An Introduction to Recycling and Reuse By Robin Whitlock* The world was introduced to plastics in 1907, when Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland created the first synthetic plastic with two ingredients (formaldehyde and phenol). Its popularity has been phenomenal—by 2021, some 391 million metric tons of plastics were produced worldwide, according to Statista 2023. Unfortunately, the constant demands for plastics—which were created to be durable—have led to a world that is literally awash with plastic pollution, on both land and sea. The first plastics recycling plant opened in 1972 in Pennsylvania, US, and, today, UK-based ENF Recycling keeps a global directory of 26,300 plastics recycling plants. But, as the UN Environment Programme describes it, with 7 billion metric tons of plastic waste created every year and less than 10% of it recycled, “Our planet is choking on plastic.” The sheer variety of plastics remains a major barrier to effective recycling. Plastics require specific recycling methods to deconstruct their molecular structures, and although some public education has been done about plastics recycling, there are many questions about how to sort the types and what can be done to improve the recycling success rate. The realities of plastic recycling and what can be done to reduce plastic pollution are examined below. The Various Types of Plastic Most plastic packaging is labeled with a number from 1 to 7, identifying what the type of plastic is. Each type has unique properties with varying degrees of recyclability, as given below: 1 - Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE) (e.g. water bottles, plastic trays) PET is a thermoplastic polymer resin related to polyester and thus is often used for clothing fiber. It is also used for single-use bottled drinks because it is lightweight, easy to recycle, transparent, and has a reduced risk of leaching harmful substances into the environment as the plastic breaks down. More than 82 million tons of PET were produced globally in 2021, and, because of this, PET is one of the largest sources of plastic waste. However, it is also the most commonly recycled type of plastic. Fifty-two percent of PET is recycled in Europe compared with just thirty-one percent in the US. Most recycled PET (from bottles) in Europe does not become material for more PET bottles, according to a report produced in 2022 by Zero Waste Europe. Instead, it is turned into plastic trays, fibers, film, or strapping. Only thirty-one percent of recycled PET plastic becomes more bottle material, with sixty-nine percent being allocated to the manufacture of other PET products. 2 - High-density polyethylene (HDPE) (e.g. milk cartoons, shampoo bottles) HDPE is a thermoplastic polymer obtained from ethylene (or sometimes called “polythene” when used for HDPE pipes). This material has a high strength-to-density ratio and is often used for the production of plastic bottles, shopping bags, corrosion-resistant pipes, geomembranes, and plastic planks as an alternative to wood. It has a high melting point and so is resistant to heat until high temperatures are reached. However, when the melting point (about 130 °C or 266 °F) has been reached, it is very malleable and can be quickly and efficiently molded for a variety of purposes. It is easily recycled and is often accepted by recycling centers across the world, but the necessity of sorting it from other types of plastic means that only about ten to fifteen percent of it is recycled in Europe currently. This reuse rate needs to increase because HDPE is not biodegradable, and, worse still, constituent pollutants can leach out into the environment when it is landfilled. Because HDPE can hold large volumes of goods without breaking, it is commonly used for retail and grocery shopping bags. While some US communities are seeking to ban these “plastic bags” or penalize users (charging them a nickel a bag, as in Baltimore, Maryland), there are also many retailers that offer collection points where the bags can be deposited and recycled. 3 - Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (e.g. piping) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is another widely produced synthetic polymer, available in both rigid and flexible forms. The former is suitable for constructing pipes, doors, and windows and also for plastic bottles, packaging, and credit and debit cards. Meanwhile, the latter form, with the addition of plasticizers, becomes softer and more flexible and can be used in plumbing, electrical cable insulation, flooring, signage, inflatables, and rubber substitutes. When fibers, like cotton or linen, are blended with PVC, it can be used for producing waterproof tarpaulins, canopies, and vehicle and furniture covers. There is a common misconception that PVC cannot be recycled, but this is erroneous as there are a number of ways in which the material can be recycled. These include reuse, regrinding, melting, and repeated extrusion. However, it must be recycled separately from other plastic waste because of its high chlorine content and the high levels of hazardous additives it contains. 4 - Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) (e.g. food bags) LDPE is made from ethylene and was first produced in 1933 by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI). It is often used to produce transparent plastic film, such as food plastic wrap; bubble wrap; and plastic bottles. The more rigid forms of LDPE are often collected by curbside recycling operatives. Its low-density forms can also be recycled, but not as easily since it can be contaminated by the substances it was used to wrap. 5 - Polypropylene (PP) (e.g. margarine tubs, ready-meal trays) PP is similar to polyethylene, but it is slightly harder and more heat resistant with a high chemical resistance. It can be recycled to produce a wide variety of products, but polypropylene bags must be collected, sorted, shredded, separated based on color, and then it needs to be compounded before it can be recycled effectively. Not all local recycling centers can handle PP, so there are particular companies that do this. 6 - Polystyrene (PS) (e.g. plastic cutlery) PS (known as Styrofoam) is made from the aromatic hydrocarbon styrene and can be either solid or foamed. Its solid form is usually clear, hard, and brittle. It is not an effective barrier to oxygen or water vapor and has a low melting point, despite being one of the most widely used plastics. It is commonly used for protective packaging but is not biodegradable and, especially in its foam form, presents a serious source of litter pollution. Furthermore, while expanded polystyrene (EPS) can be recycled, classic polystyrene cannot, due to its origins as a product of hydrocarbon styrene. 7 - Others—such as polycarbonates (PC) PCs are usually viewed as the plastics that are the hardest to recycle—if they can be recycled at all. However, PCs are translucent and resistant to impacts, which make them popular among manufacturers, especially as alternatives to glass. They are less likely to be used for food packaging due to evidence showing that they can release harmful bisphenol A (BPA). Some countries have even banned PCs for use in baby bottles for this reason. There is a large group of additional plastic types, many of which either cannot be recycled or can be recycled only by specialist recycling companies. This group includes materials such as nylon, polycarbonate, melamine, and other substances. Current Practices of Recycling, Reusing and Repurposing Plastic Plastics recovered by curbside recycling teams are sent to either a Materials Recycling Facility (MRF), which separates plastic waste from other non-plastic materials, or a Plastic Recovery Facility (PRF), which sorts plastic waste by type. An optical sorter is used to distinguish the different types of plastic. The plastics are then sent to a reprocessing plant, where they are washed, shredded, and subjected to further sorting. The third stage in the process is melting them down into plastic pellets, which are then sold for use in manufacturing other plastic products. According to a 2017 study, only nine percent of plastics produced from 1950 to 2015 were recycled due to the complexity of the processes involved. Furthermore, a recent report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) predicts that global plastic use will nearly triple (to 1,230 Mt) by 2060, meaning that global plastic pollution will more than double (to 1,014 Mt) from 2019 levels. Another update, published by Greenpeace in 2022, lists five main reasons for the low rate of plastic recycling: Plastic waste is difficult to collect. Mixed plastic is difficult to sort. Plastic recycling poses environmental risks. Recycled plastics have toxicity risks. Plastic recycling has poor economics. Reusing Plastics at Home or Out and About At home or out and about, there are a number of ways in which plastic can either be avoided or reused. Many people, for example, are now carrying their own reusable straws or drink containers around with them, which can be used in cafes and restaurants instead of plastic items. Likewise, sturdy canvas or plastic bags that have been kept for reuse can be used for shopping instead of accepting new plastic bags from a retailer. When actually buying products, consumers can be selective, choosing only those goods that are packaged in truly recyclable containers, such as glass, paper, or cardboard. Many plastic containers can be reused in the garden, for example by making hanging planters out of them. Simply fill them with soil, insert a plant or seeds and hang from a suitable location using garden twine. A Clever Approach to Recycling Given the low rate of recycling currently, the best thing for reducing plastic waste is to think foremost about personal consumption patterns and approach. Perhaps the first stage in this process would be to find out from local authorities exactly what materials they recycle. A second step would be to avoid, as far as possible, buying products using plastic packaging. The final step would be to reuse, as far as possible, the plastics at home in various ingenious ways. *Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests, including green transportation.

Investing issues were dominant in a recent report, “7 Sustainability Trends that Will Shape Business in 2023,” based on public data and published by AccountAbility, a leading consultancy and standards firm. Trend 1: Achieving Net Zero More than 40% of the largest global corporations have set net zero targets, an increase of 20% from December 2020. However, only about half of companies with net zero targets include “interim GHG [greenhouse gas] emission reduction targets” in their plans. Trend 2: Stakeholder Activism Globally, of some 20,000 adult and teen Gen Zs surveyed by Edelman, 57% think that brands have more power than governments to “solve social ills and societal problems.” A record number—282—of US corporate shareholder votes were held on Environmental, Social, Governance (ESG) issues in the 2022 proxy voting season. Trend 3: Geopolitics Almost all (94%) of global business executives agreed their company was impacted by “unexpected geopolitical risks” in 2021. Globally, about 25% of boards “regularly” consider geopolitical risk. Trend 4: Building “Future-Focused” Boards of Directors About 27% of board seats globally were held by women as of May 2022. More than 70% of newly elected board members come from a professional background “versus 15% from blue collar backgrounds.” Trend 5: ESG Disclosure Reports Some 96% of the world’s largest companies report on “ESG matters.” About 49,900 companies are expected to report under the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive, up 422% from “current levels of sustainability disclosure.” Trend 6: Sustainable Supply Chain Some 74% of companies surveyed globally had supplier codes of conduct in 2021, compared with 64% in 2019. Globally, about 51% of companies surveyed had a “sustainable procurement policy” in 2021, compared with 38% in 2019. Trend 7: Ecosystem Services Over half of global GDP ($44 trillion) is “moderately or highly dependent on ecosystem services.” Exposure to risk due to nature loss is highest in India and Indonesia, where “highly dependent sectors respectively comprise 33% and 32% of national GDP,” respectively. Source: https://www.csrwire.com/press_releases/777271-accountability-7-sustainability-trends-2023-report-shaping-global-business