By Mark Smith* For centuries, humanity has tended to migrate from the countryside to the cities, creating increasingly dense urban centers. Now, shifting attitudes among younger workers, as well as high costs of urban living, technological advancements, and the COVID-19 pandemic, have led to a rise in de-urbanization, where city dwellers move to suburban and rural areas. Will this trend spell the end of urbanization as we know it? Or will things go back to the way they were? And what could the impact be on the environment? Origins and Growth Mass urbanization began with the industrial revolution in the 18th century, with adults migrating from rural hamlets to towns and cities to work in factories and other large employment centers. This population shift has steadily increased—between 1950 and 2014, the number of workers in cities rocketed from 0.8 billion to 3.85 billion globally. By 2018, a UN report estimated that 54% of the world's population lived in urban areas. COVID-19’s Impact on Cities Urban living was once viewed as a necessary career and lifestyle choice for many adults. However, emerging online or remote work technologies greatly altered this landscape—as workers realized they could use their home offices or nearby work centers to do their jobs, they moved away from cities. The COVID-19 pandemic intensified this de-urbanization trend. Firstly, densely populated urban areas are potential breeding grounds for disease, and many people chose to relocate to escape crowded areas. Even in the early days of the pandemic, some studies showed that nearly a third of Americans living in urban areas were considering moving out of those areas due to concerns about COVID-19. Secondly, lockdowns showed that economies could continue to function effectively even if large parts of the workforce worked remotely from home or in offices outside the world’s major cities and financial centers. A survey by PwC found 68% of United Kingdom chief executive officers believed there would be a shift towards low-density office usage while 35% expected an increase in de-urbanization. Economist Emiliano Mandrone, senior researcher at the Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) in Rome, has written extensively on the subject. The interaction between the COVID-19 health emergency and available digital technology produced “an extraordinary metamorphosis” of social and economic customs, Mandrone told The Earth & I. To be, not to have According to Mandrone, the changes brought about by COVID-19 restrictions and the resulting switch in work patterns tell only part of the story. Younger workers are expressing the desire to get more from their lives rather than just accumulating wealth and status. With this in mind, he said, employers will need to rethink how people live and work. “Cities have played a formidable role in history as a catalyst for human, economic, and technological resources that have produced much social and cultural progress,” he said. “That said, the fruit of our times is an organization of work that can do without physical presence for many work phases.” “We need to imagine new words for a new world,” Mandrone said. “Migration, vacation, and place of work are terms of the 20th century.” When young workers increasingly prefer “to be, than to have” and work is no longer associated with a place like an office, then migrating to a city is no longer a requirement for employment. “Remote work will allow you to stay in the countryside in spring or at the sea in summer, in a small town where you can breathe good air or in a large city full of opportunities depending on our needs of the moment,” Mandrone said. “A young person who wants to establish himself, or a couple with three children, or an adult who would like to discover new ways of living will be able to combine their needs with work according to specific sets of values and priorities.” He further claimed the era of summer exoduses, long queues on the highway, or rush hour on the subway was “over.” “This system, the result of the great centrifugal force produced by cities, has shaped our behaviors in the name of congestion,” Mandrone said. “Here, an intelligent way of life is to overcome the congestion and downtime that it implies, freeing up resources and time without penalizing work.” Finally, the move towards de-urbanization and remote working is likely to impact older workers. “Many countries are reforming their welfare to keep demography and finance together. The most practiced solution is to delay the retirement age,” said Mandrone. “This is much criticized by those who think they cannot work well in old age. If working meant leaving home one day out of two, it would be more tolerable, and that transfer of knowledge between generations could take place without the risks of an elderly, more fragile individual in the workplace.” De-urbanization Impact on the Environment A move toward de-urbanization could have a profound impact on the environment. The movement of people during the daily commute, coupled with the infrastructure needed to support large populations, contribute to the fact cities produce 72% of global greenhouse gas emissions. In fact, just 25 megacities—cities with populations over ten million people—produce 52% of greenhouse gas emissions. Reducing the commute is one way of tackling the problem. “Moving implies polluting, more if you use a private vehicle, less if you use a collective vehicle,” Mandrone said. “Therefore, reducing the spatial dimension in which we live reduces the aggregate demand for travel and therefore the pollution created. “Congestion is one of the keys to reducing pollution, and remote work offers a possible solution,” he said. There are also environmental factors related to the heating and cooling of buildings, and construction. Will the Trend Continue? Remote working is far from being embraced as the new normal everywhere, Mandrone said. “In Italy, over half of the people do not intend to work remotely and only 23% would like to work remotely over three days a week. This implies that even on the side of workers, there is a long way to go to understand the potential of remote work and read them to your advantage.” But different areas are already competing to be the destination of choice for workers looking to leave large cities. “In California, there is already an escape from expensive cities [like] San Francisco or are too large [like] Los Angeles to neighboring places, more on a human scale and with easier costs, easily accessible,” Mandrone said. “This will create competition between territories and cities to offer the best conditions.” Can Cities Bounce Back? While the COVID-19 pandemic kept many workers in their homes for months, there was already a growing desire among some young workers for a better work-life balance, which had fueled a rise in flexible working. This was compounded by rising costs of living in major centers, where housing was at a premium. But it would be premature to suggest that the day of the city and megacity are over. Instead, some argue that cities should be reimagined rather than abandoned as an ideal place to live and work, with sustainability at the core of any new model. “One of the biggest lessons learned from the COVID-19 crisis is that sustainable, resilient cities were able to handle the pandemic better," Helsinki Mayor Jan Vapaavuori told a recent meeting of the World Bank. “It is actually worth putting even more emphasis on sustainability issues than before.” Others reiterate the idea that there should be no return to the way things were before the pandemic. “Let’s not go back to normal because normal wasn’t working,” said Prof. Diana Urge-Vorsatz of the Central European University of Budapest, Hungary. “Let’s go toward climate-neutral cities as much as possible.” With such a fundamental shift in how people live and work now underway, it remains to be seen what the balance between urbanization and de-urbanization will look like in the future. Cities that are more balanced and built around sustainability, coupled with more people working remotely in smaller communities further afield, could be a model we see more of. *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

By Mark Smith* At times it can seem that every headline carries news of some sort of climate-related disaster. In the last few weeks alone, the worst wildfires in fifty years have torn through the Canadian province of Newfoundland, while heavy rains described as a "1,000-year event" brought massive flooding to the normally arid Death Valley. Indeed, the figures on disasters related to extreme weather are grim. According to the UN’s World Meteorological Organization, a disaster related to a weather, climate or water hazard occurred every day on average over the past fifty years, with daily losses of 115 deaths and $202 million in damages. In fact, the organization claims the number of disasters has increased by a factor of five over that fifty-year period, driven by climate change, improved reporting, and more extreme weather events. But it added that thanks to improved early warnings and disaster management, the number of deaths decreased almost three-fold. So, are climate-related disasters on the rise, or, as one academic claims, are they actually declining? Or does it simply depend on which statistics are considered? Diverging Views Roger Pielke Jr., Professor of Environmental Studies at University of Colorado Boulder, has studied data from the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT). In his view, climate-related disasters have fallen by 10% over the last two decades. The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) in Belgium, which maintains EM-DAT, said its database includes disasters since 1900 that meet one of several criteria. These include at least ten deaths, at least 100 people affected, and the declaration of a state of emergency or a call for international assistance. In terms of loss of human life, Prof. Pielke cited research by global insurance company Munich Re in tracking disaster impacts. They found that in 2020, 8,200 people died in natural catastrophes compared with 550,000 similar deaths in 1920. Writing online on his Honest Broker Substack, Prof. Pielke hailed these findings as "very good news" and "completely contrary to conventional wisdom." He said: "As global population has increased, the number of people who die in disasters has declined precipitously due to better warnings, preparation, infrastructure, and response. This is a remarkable success story that too often goes untold." 22,000 Disasters Catalogued—So Far The EM-DAT contains information on more than 22,000 mass disasters in the world from 1900 to the present day. It is compiled from various sources, including UN agencies, non-governmental organizations, insurance companies, research institutes, and press agencies. Some trends about mass disasters might be due to improved, accurate reporting. For instance, EM-DAT data showed that disasters had risen for the whole of the 20th century, but then declined after 2000. "The period since 2000 is viewed as the most reliable for data reliability, but it is safe to say that even since 2000, coverage has improved," Prof. Pielke wrote. "So the 10% decline is possibly an underestimate." Cost of Disasters In addition to the tragic loss of life caused by mass disasters, mass disasters can be devastating on economies too. Yet, Prof. Pielke finds that the financial costs of disasters has been reduced in recent decades as well. "The world has made incredible progress with respect to the human and economic toll of disasters, and that progress is set to continue." He said: "As the size of the global economy doubled over the past thirty years, disaster losses dropped from about 0.25% of global GDP to less than 0.20%." He added that human-caused climate change was "real and significant," but added: "Emissions reductions are an imperative—nothing I’ve written here contradicts that. But those realities should not prevent us from respecting an empirical reality. The world has made incredible progress with respect to the human and economic toll of disasters, and that progress is set to continue." A Case of Defining Disaster? But does the interpretation of climate-related disaster statistics show them to be on the rise or falling? Certainly better awareness, rising living standards, and improved emergency response has led to declining death rates. However, that is not the only way to define disaster. Mass disasters "are on the rise," said Andrew Collins, Professor of Disaster and Development at Northumbria University in England. "There is no doubt about this if we consider the UN definition of a disaster as 'a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts.'" Prof. Collins is the former chair of the Global Alliance of Disaster Research Institutes (GADRI), which is made up of more than 220 research institutions worldwide. He currently heads a new GADRI working group on data for disaster risk reduction. He noted that one of the sources of confusion to any question of increase or decrease in mass disasters can be an "overemphasis on immediate mortality data," i.e., deaths in climate-related events. "With improvements in humanitarian response, emergency management regimes, and the evolution of resilience strategies at the local level by residents in at risk locations, overall death rates do indeed decline," he said. But while "overall mortality rates were going down, the numbers of people affected by weather-related disasters continued to increase in all income brackets," said Prof. Collins. While "overall mortality rates were going down, the numbers of people affected by weather-related disasters continued to increase in all income brackets." He added that he supports "possibilistic views rather than deterministic ‘no hope type’ of forecasts." "Human nature can still be as much of the solution as it has been part of the problem and reducing climate-related disasters has to be recognized as still possible with fundamental changes to the way we live," said Prof. Collins. What Action is Needed? In terms of what needs to happen next to tackle climate-related disasters, Prof. Collins called for more investment in next generation disaster prevention, response, and recovery. "By this, I mean that much of the world is already having to engage in recovery actions from both climate-related and other disasters, often interrelated and requiring the rebuilding of infrastructure, livelihoods, health, safety and society as a whole," he said. "What we need to do is to realize that putting disaster prevention into these recovery processes, as a response, is a strategic opportunity to improve the well-being and survivability of future generations." *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

French Scientist Proposes Possible Mechanism By Mark Smith* Few terms are more divisive among the medical fraternity than homeopathy. For its supporters, this branch of “alternative medicine” represents a host of potential treatments, but for others it represents a crackpot—perhaps even dangerous—dalliance with pseudo-medicine that has no place in modern healthcare. Both camps have made claims and counterclaims about whether homeopathy has any real merit, with critics often pointing to the lack of real scientific data to back it up, as well as a practical explanation of how it impacts the body. But could a branch of science that deals with the very building blocks of existence help shed new light on homeopathy? A French scientist thinks it can. And he’s not alone. What is Homeopathy? Homeopathy is a term many associate with “alternative medicine” for the treatment of mild ailments. But what exactly is it? Homeopathy seeks to treat conditions by using small doses of substances that might otherwise induce or exacerbate that condition. For example, treating the effects of hay fever by using extracts of an onion to prompt the eyes to water and nose to run would classify as a homeopathic treatment. Developed in the 1790s by German doctor Samuel Hahnemann, the fundamental belief underpinning homeopathy is that the body can cure itself if properly prompted and that “like cures like”—hence the term homeopathy, a contraction of the Greek words homeios (similar) and pathos (disease). It is possible that this homeopathic belief may have originated from observations of the effectiveness of inoculation and variolation (inoculation for smallpox, which is now obsolete) during the 18th century to treat certain diseases; in any case, it is a phenomenon that may be attributed in certain instances to the way the immune system or inflammatory response functions to heal disease or injury. In practice, homeopathy involves concoctions that can be made from things like herbs, crushed bees, poison ivy, and white arsenic, all designed to stimulate the body’s healing properties. Treatments are created by repeated dilutions of the relevant substance—a process known as potentization—and with each dilution the healing effect increases. How Is it Viewed? While homeopathy has gained a following in countries, including the United States, Germany and United Kingdom, mainstream medicine continues to view it with skepticism. The UK’s National Health Service (NHS) stopped funding homeopathy in 2017 after a report declared it to be “no better than a placebo.” But it continues to enjoy support from high profile figures globally, including Charles III—the king of England. There have been experiments showing efficacy for such ailments as rheumatoid arthritis. For instance, Gibson et al reported in 1980 that “there was a significant improvement in subjective pain, articular index, stiffness and grip strength in those [rheumatoid arthritis] patients receiving homoeopathic remedies whereas there was no significant change in the patients who received placebo.” Again, in 1989, a study by Fisher et al found “that the homoeopathic medicine R toxicodendron 6c was effective for a selected subgroup of patients with fibrositis. The improvement in tenderness, which is the best discriminator of fibrositis, was particularly distinct.” However, according to a brief by the Earl M. Bakken Center for Spirituality and Healing at the University of Minnesota (UMN), while research on low-dose, high-dilution substances in living organisms can be found in conventional peer-reviewed scientific journals, much of it is of insufficient quality and quantity to draw conclusions. The UMN brief suggests that homeopathy is not a therapy or modality, but “an entire system of medicine, with its own paradigm of understanding health and illness (see What is Homeopathy?).” It goes on to say that this profound difference will require researchers, if they seek to address efficacy, to keep the way “homeopathy is practiced clinically” in mind when designing their studies. They conclude that “the gold-standard, biomedical research model for drug interventions (one disease or symptom, one drug, double-blind, placebo-controlled, prospective trial) is not an ideal research process for homeopathy.” "This means,” they conclude, “that the gold-standard, biomedical research model for drug interventions (one disease or symptom, one drug, double-blind, placebo-controlled, prospective trial) is not an ideal research process for homeopathy.” An Atomic Explanation? While homeopathy has been around for centuries, it may be a relatively new branch of science that will unlock its mysteries and explain what’s going on. Quantum physics, which appeared in the 20th century, centers on the study of energy and matter at the very smallest atomic and subatomic levels, such as when a photon strikes an atom. Its aim is to uncover the behaviors and properties of the very building blocks of nature. In this minuscule world that includes “dark” and anti-matter, nature behaves very differently than it does in the visible world around us—a concept that is giving rise to a whole new type of scientific discovery. It is this branch of science that some believe may hold the key to explaining why homeopathy does have efficacy. Insights from a French Chemist Marc Henry is Professor Emeritus at the University of Strasbourg in France, and an expert in chemistry and knowledgeable in quantum physics. He told The Earth & I that early results of homeopathy, while very promising, had no theoretical framework to back them up to a scientific community. “During the 19th century, very good results were obtained against epidemics such as cholera,” he explained. “The success was so brilliant that all the kings, princes and nobility at that time were using homeopathy, and this is still the case today. “The development of chemical industries in the 20th century has led to a decline for the layman. The results were there—but there was no theory for explaining them.” It’s All in the Water It was Italian physicist Emilio Del Giudice who proposed that water molecules form structures, and that these structures are then able to store tiny electromagnetic signals. During homeopathy’s potentization, the crude medicine is diluted in a water/ethanol solution, followed by a vigorous shaking at each stage of dilution. This process reduces the toxicity of the original substance while retaining the substance’s electromagnetic properties. This is supposedly the case even for dilutions beyond Avogadro’s number, a level where it is presumed that molecules of the original substance no longer exist. This would mean a homeopathic treatment might send an electromagnetic message to the human body that matches the electromagnetic frequency of an ailment. By doing so, it could stimulate the body’s own healing responses. What is Water Memory? A controversial aspect of homeopathic theory relates to something called water memory, the purported ability of water to retain a memory of substances previously dissolved in it—even when the water has been diluted to such an extent that there are no detectable traces of it left. Prof. Henry believes that water plays a “crucial role” in conveying this coded information needed to make homeopathy effective. However, experiments by other researchers have shown that the theory of “water memory” appears unreliable. Scientists argue that the concept of water memory defies the third law of thermodynamics, which says that “disorder tends to a maximum.” They refer to “the established scientific model” of atoms and molecules moving randomly in liquids, a phenomenon known as Brownian motion. This law, they argue, would disallow water memory of a previously dissolved substance that no longer shows existence in the liquid. Manzalini and Galeazzi, on the other hand, state in a 2019 study that all living organisms are an “open system” that exchanges energy, matter, and information with the external environment, “operating far from thermodynamic equilibrium.” How is this so? They explain that such exchanges take place through complex “non-linear” interactions of literally billions of different biological components, at multiple levels, from the quantum up to the macro-dimensional. This “open system," as they call it, exhibits something known as “quantum coherence,” which is “an inherent property of living cells, used for long-range interactions such as synchronization of cell division processes.” This “open system” exhibits something known as “quantum coherence,” which is “an inherent property of living cells, used for long-range interactions such as synchronization of cell division processes.” They claim to find support for their theory in quantum biology, which they say demonstrates that quantum coherence is “a state of order of matter coupled with electromagnetic (EM) fields.” They say this ordered state supports the workings of life and is explained by quantum field theory (QFT), a “well-established theoretical framework” in quantum physics. Prof. Henry theorizes: “Water, owing to its very small molecular weight, has a well-resolved electronic excitation spectrum. It can then use vacuum's energy to create ‘coherence domains’—predicted by quantum field theories.” In a two-part 2019 piece in Homeopathy & You, Prof. Henry defined a coherence domain—in the case of water—as “a large amount of similar densely packed water molecules that display a coherent collective behavior as a densely packed swarm of birds in the sky behaves as a whole, autonomous, inseparable entity.” Prof. Henry is widely published on the subject and a strong advocate of a quantum explanation for what he says is homeopathic efficacy. He freely admits he is not a quantum physicist but a chemist who has studied it. He said that because homeopathy was not rooted in the atomic and subatomic world, some argue that the behaviors of quantum physics cannot be applied to it. But he takes the opposite view. “I used the same quantum physics as that involved in superconductors and superfluids that are macroscopic quantum things. So, we just cannot say that quantum physics rules the world of infinitely small things.” Funding is Needed He added that there was “a strong need” for additional funding to further the understanding of the intersection of quantum physics and homeopathy. “What I see ahead for the field of homeopathy is to have money for a better characterization of what is a homeopathic remedy,” he said. He referenced the DynHom project, led by Michel van Wassenhoven, which is devoted to promoting the effectiveness of homeopathy. He said: “Giving more money to this kind of research based on sophisticated—and expensive—measuring devices is crucial.” Quantum Medicine? Despite the deep skepticism of the medical and pharmaceutical professions, scientists like Prof. Henry believe the quantum realm—with all of its quirks and strange behaviors—holds the key to providing a scientific explanation for what has previously been unexplainable. Securing that explanation will require funding, dedication, and a will to take the research further in order to see if homeopathy can ever become an accepted tool at the disposal of the mainstream medical community. *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

Herbal Remedies and the Fight Against COVID-19 By Mark Smith* Vaccines have proven to be a vital weapon against the COVID-19 pandemic, but lack of access to them in developing nations means other solutions are being sought—with herbal medicines being one line of defense that may show promise. A study published in the medical journal, The Lancet, estimates vaccination programs may have helped save the lives of almost twenty million from COVID-19 between 2020 and 2021. But getting those vaccines to people remains a challenge in some regions. In March 2022, the United Nations said its research found that of ten billion COVID-19 vaccine doses administered worldwide, only 1% had been given out in low-income countries. Among the issues hampering vaccine efforts are the cost of the vaccines themselves, insufficient healthcare infrastructure—such as a lack of staff to physically administer injections—as well as shortages of things such as refrigeration, with most vaccines having to be preserved at low temperatures. Vaccine hesitancy also continues to loom large, due to fears over side effects and misinformation. With these challenges in mind, the race is on to find alternative defenses to COVID-19—and one of those potential defenses could be something many developing nations have relied on many times before: herbal medicine. An Ancient Solution to Poor Health Herbal medicine has existed for millennia and been used by every culture on Earth. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates around 80% of the world’s population uses some form of traditional medicine today. Many modern pharmaceuticals have their roots in traditional herbal remedies. In fact, 40% of the products we use today are derived from natural ingredients. Aspirin’s development was based around the bark of the willow tree, while the contraceptive pill was derived from the roots of wild yam plants. Some childhood cancer medicines have been based on rosy periwinkle, while the Nobel Prize-winning research on the malaria drug artemisinin started with a review of ancient Chinese medical texts. Spurred by growth of the self-help and wellness cultures, herbal remedies have gained popularity in the West in recent years—the global market for herbal medicines reached an estimated US$110.2 billion in 2020. Moreover, sales of herbal remedies are projected to hit US$178.4 billion by 2026. This surge in popularity has been echoed by increased research and development. In March 2022, the WHO and the Indian Government set up the WHO Global Centre for Traditional Medicine (GCTM). The GCTM, using modern scientific technology and methods, aims to harness the potential of traditional medicines and apply them to medical problems on a global scale. Unsurprisingly, COVID-19—and the lack of modern treatments for it—energized the search for remedies from ancient methods. Last year, as Hong Kong’s COVID-19 outbreak became the deadliest in the world, the Chinese government sent aid that included a million packets of honeysuckle, rhubarb root, sweet wormwood herb and other natural ingredients in accordance with the principles of traditional Chinese medicine. In India, though, the government’s suggestions that herbal medicine should be used to fight COVID-19 symptoms received some pushback from prominent academics and scientists. Why Herbal Treatments for COVID-19? With the creation of vaccines and antiviral treatments that have finally proven effective against COVID-19, why would herbal remedies be needed to fight the virus? Dr. Pattanathu Rahman, a Senior Lecturer at the Centre for Natural Products Discovery at Liverpool John Moores University in England and a visiting Professor at SOA University in India, cites a range of factors. First is availability. Countries such as India, China, and many African nations have often had little choice but to turn to herbal remedies to treat diseases in the past. Dr. Rahman has visited most of the top research Institutions in India as part of British Council’s delegations and is collaborating with them on UN sustainable development goals (SDGs) on healthcare and the environment. He said: “Vaccines are available in most of the Western countries, but in many developing countries, they can't afford it; they don't have infrastructure to manufacture. If they want to import, it's too expensive. So, one of the options they have right now is herbal medicine because in some of the tropical countries they have access to these herbs.” Dr. Rahman is one of many academics around the world currently studying the use of herbal medicines to fight COVID-19. In collaboration with scientists in India, South Africa, and South Korea, his team has published a study which he said shows biochemicals from herbs used in traditional medicine could prove to be effective COVID-19 antivirals. In an exclusive interview with The Earth & I, he said early indicators from the study had proven promising, with in-vitro lab tests now underway and full results expected in the coming months. Using computer modeling, Dr. Rahman and colleagues screened 605 herbal biochemicals against the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 ‘spike’ proteins. Using advanced computer modeling of molecular docking and dynamics simulations, Dr. Rahman and his colleagues screened 605 herbal biochemicals known as phytocompounds from thirteen medicinal plants, against the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the now infamous “spike” proteins of the SARS-CoV-2 variants Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta and Omicron. The team selected plants with known antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties such as garlic, green chiretta, and celery. They found that five phytocompounds could bind to the COVID-19 spike protein and prevent the virus from entering cells and causing infection, potentially offering new ways to prevent and treat the disease. A Second Line of Defense? Efforts to repurpose herbal medicines to fight COVID-19 have led to a surge in related studies around the world, but disagreement remains as to their effectiveness. Some academics have raised concerns that certain herbal treatments could exacerbate COVID-19 symptoms. A study published in the European Journal of Medical Research looked at recent studies involving traditional herbs, herbal bioactive metabolites, dietary supplements, and functional foods that could help prevent and/or treat COVID-19. Summing up its conclusions, the study stated: “Based on the studies reviewed in this work, it was concluded with no doubt that phytochemical components present in various herbs could have a starring role in the deterrence and cure of coronavirus contagion.” But a different overview of studies, published by the National Library of Medicine into herbal medicine’s use against COVID-19, found that while there was “considerable evidence” demonstrating the advantages of herbal medicine interventions, the quality of the evidence was “inadequate to provide solid and accurate judgments” about the effectiveness of herbal medicine therapies for COVID-19. A Viable Long-Term Solution? One of the issues facing the herbal medicine sector is disinformation. Some herbal “remedies”—especially those touted mainly on social media—may not have any positive impact on disease or may even be harmful. It is therefore vital to check a herbal medication to see if it has been tested by reputable academic institutions. The US National Institutes of Health (NIH) still says there is “no scientific evidence” that any alternative remedies can prevent or cure COVID-19. Some studies of herbal remedies being carried out around the globe have shown promising results, while others have proven less conclusive. But the prize of having more herbal remedies available that are effective and affordable means scientists around the world will continue their research. Dr. Rahman believes it won’t just be developing nations that benefit if herbal remedies are proven to be viable. He said they could be particularly valuable while vaccines are being repurposed against new variants. “Herbal medicine definitely will have a big role to play both in the UK, US and many Western countries, because COVID-19 will not finish tomorrow, or next week, next month, [or]next year,” he said. *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

By Mark Smith* From fabled lost cities to mysterious ancient artifacts, for centuries the Amazon has inspired imaginations with tales of adventure, discovery, and feats of great civilizations long gone. But what if the real treasures to be found were not the gold of idols or the ornate designs of ceramic pots but knowledge of how to make soil more productive, resilient, and beneficial to the environment? It was the indigenous peoples of this part of the world who first discovered and used something called biochar, and now those lessons from the past are inspiring the researchers of today. Biochar’s promise is multifold. Not only can it improve soil quality and, therefore, food production, but by its very nature it actively reduces greenhouse emissions. For this reason, it is seen as something that could become a pillar of climate-smart agriculture. But are some things best left in the past, or could biochar help inspire a new era of farming? What is Biochar? Biochar gets its name from a combination of the Greek word bios—meaning life—and “char,” short for charcoal. It is a type of charcoal made through “pyrolysis,” a process in which organic material from agricultural and forestry waste, like wood chips or old leaves (also known as biomass), are burned in containers with very little oxygen, which prevents combustion. This creates a highly porous and fine-grained charcoal with a high pH and carbon content, and has a much slower decomposition rate than the original biomass. This process also gives it its strikingly black appearance and the nickname “black carbon.” Although it has seen a recent revival in interest, biochar is not new. It was first used more than 2,000 years ago in the Amazonian basin. People there created fertile and rich areas of soil called terra preta—which means “dark earth.” These scattered patches of black earth stood in sharp contrast to the acidic and nutrient-poor soil found in the rest of the rain forest. Biochar soil was higher in biomass and produced a greater proportion of edible foods. Benefits of Biochar To get maximum use from soil, it must retain its “good stuff”—its ability to retain water and nutrients—and that is where biochar comes in. Biochar composition helps soil hold onto nutrients and water while increasing biodiversity and making it extra resilient to droughts. It is also lightweight and has a large surface area so it can be spread over larger areas of farmland. The process also releases little, if any, contaminants, and the heat generated can be captured and used as clean energy. Learn more about the benefits of biochar in this article. Modern Research Biochar has enjoyed a recent revival in interest, due to the growing need for new solutions to the world’s environmental and food-production problems. Indigenous peoples typically produced biochar by burning organic materials such as wood, crop residues, or animal manure in pits or mounds and then burying the resulting charcoal in the soil to improve fertility. In contrast, modern methods typically involve using specialized equipment to pyrolyze organic materials at high temperatures in an oxygen-limited environment. Dr. Wei Ren, associate professor at University of Connecticut’s Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, has been one of the academics involved in this new wave of biochar research. Her team synthesized global data from nearly 600 studies on biochar to analyze its potential as a climate-smart agricultural practice. The study highlighted the effects of biochar in field experiments on crop yield. The data showed that "biochar significantly increased gross soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks (by 26.6%) and crop yield (15.7%), reduced soil CH4 (−14.8%) and N2O (−23.1%) emissions, and ammonium (−24.9%) and total inorganic N leaching (−23.2%) but had no effect on soil CO2 emissions." Dr. Ren told The Earth and I: “Many studies suggested that biochar applications could store carbon in the soil, boost crop yields and ability to withstand extreme weather events, increase fertilizer efficiency, dispose of non-hazardous waste from agriculture and forestry, and help increase climate resilience in farming systems.” “When it comes to applications at broad scales, further efforts are still needed to investigate its techno-economic feasibility [and] stability in the soil.” Dr. Ren added that given that a significant portion of total greenhouse gas emissions are attributed to the food systems, a successful biochar strategy could play an essential role in mitigating climate change and contributing to sustainable agriculture, but also cautioned that more research needed to be done. She said: “When it comes to applications at broad scales, further efforts are still needed to investigate its techno-economic feasibility, stability in the soil, effects on soil properties and a wide range of ecosystem services and life cycle assessment.” Potential Drawbacks Some studies have reported adverse effects of biochar, suggesting it may increase the pH of acidic soils and suppress some crop yields, due to reduced nutrient and water availability. Dr. Ren said that environmental and societal benefits of biochar applications are “highly variable” and “large uncertainties” remain. She added: “Biochar effects highly depend on natural and anthropogenic factors, such as soil and climate conditions, management practices, crop types, biochar types, etc. It needs further effort to examine biochar’s environmental benefits and the trade-off between benefits and cost. “Our studies suggest that the effectiveness of biochar applications highly depends on soil and climate conditions and their combination with other conventional or conservation practices. However, it needs further efforts to identify if particular parts of the world especially benefit from biochar applications.” The team’s work has drawn the attention of the research community and the public, including biochar companies and other organizations that have contacted Dr. Ren with interest in collaborations. Dr. Ren said her research will continue focusing on interactions among climate, ecosystem, and human activities. Black Carbon or Black Gold? The lost treasures of antiquity are usually depicted as gold goblets and fine stone works, but the potential bounty of lost and revived knowledge could perhaps prove even more precious. Biochar could be one such benefit, helping to enable soil to preserve its richness while also helping to cut the impact of greenhouse gas emissions. But it is clear more work needs to be done to establish whether it can be put into widespread use. *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

By Mark Newton* Electricity is a fundamental lifeblood of our 21st century lives—and few of us could imagine living without it. With electricity fulfilling such a huge part of our daily needs, we often expect it to be provided by large, powerful energy companies operating on state sponsored infrastructure. But the need for such companies to compete economically and provide huge amounts of power often means they resort to the cheapest—and dirtiest—methods of doing so. However, changes are afoot. The reduced cost and increased efficiency of renewable technologies means people can now uncouple their power supply from the energy giants. Across the globe, communities are banding together to create their own energy networks, or mini-grids. What is a Mini-Grid? A mini-grid is a miniaturized version of the national grids which power our countries. Often, they are separate from the main grid and are designed to serve specific homes or communities. Since they are not required to power entire cities or states, they have much lower energy generation requirements and come in a series of shapes and sizes. Some may power dozens of homes, while others could potentially power thousands. In theory, a mini-grid could be powered by any power source, but the lower energy demands of mini-grids also makes them ideal for renewable energy, such as solar and wind. By taking advantage of such technologies, communities across the world, including underserved ones, can benefit. In particular, mini-grids can help to provide electricity to isolated rural communities or make life more affordable for neighborhoods in bustling metropolises. Solar Solutions One of the most common forms of mini-grid is the “community solar project.” This involves groups of households coming together to purchase solar arrays on a larger scale. Participants within the mini-grid can either pay for part of the array and receive their contribution back in energy credits (reducing their energy bills) or join a subscription-based system. The subscription model is much more common and is like a traditional energy contract. Homes within a certain radius of a community solar project can subscribe to the mini-grid and receive clean electricity from it. With this approach, the subscriber does not own any part of the mini-grid themselves but helps maintain it with their payments. This is great for renters or for people whose homes are impractical for their own solar panels. This differs from a normal “green power program” which has also become increasingly popular. With green power programs, homeowners can elect to receive a larger share of their power from renewable energies. There is a common misconception that green power programs provide power directly from renewable sources. Instead, they merely include a larger proportion of green energy within their mix. Of course, these companies still function on a for-profit basis, and their green energy is often priced as a premium product. Within a renewably sourced mini-grid, the electricity is usually provided at a hefty discount. As well as being potentially cleaner and cheaper, mini-grids provide other benefits. By being positioned geographically closer to their end users, mini-grids can generate and transfer power at a lower voltage, without needing to “step down” the electricity to a distribution voltage. Often power is lost in this process, and it also requires extensive infrastructure such as power cables and substations. All this needs additional land, expenses, and equipment insulated with sulfur hexafluoride—a potent greenhouse gas. Power for the Disadvantaged However, mini-grids are not simply a money-saving project for middle class, environmentally conscious suburban communities. Localized, clean power has the potential to benefit hugely different people across the globe. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency, by 2016, around 133 million people were served by off-grid renewables, with about 2.1 million people connected to solar mini-grid networks. Growth was especially large in the Global South. Between 2008 and 2016, mini-grid users tripled to nearly 9 million across Asia and grew six-fold to 1.3 million across Africa. Central to mini-grids' potential is their ability to electrify previously off-grid communities, such as rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Many of these communities rely on fossil fuel generators or other dirty sources for electricity, which are expensive, unhealthy, and require logistical efforts. Even if communities are connected to national grids, there is often not enough power to go around, resulting in blackouts. Mini-grids can help bolster these communities with cheap, clean energy. For example, projects such as SolShare in Bangladesh have used “Internet of Things” devices to connect separate solar arrays into one complete network. This allows the surplus generated to be sent to other households, even if they do not own a panel themselves. Other digital technologies are also being used to better develop mini-grids. Organizations such as Village Data Analytics have been using satellite imagery and machine learning algorithms to identify rural African villages which could most benefit from mini-grid electrification. Their platform can spot buildings, identify markets and hospitals, and generally direct renewable energy companies to the best spots for mini-grid installation. Information about such communities is often lacking even within their own national governments. But some of the world’s most developed cities can also benefit. For example, in New York City community solar projects have been established in traditionally deprived neighborhoods to offset living costs. The Solar One project aims to add solar panels to residential buildings in underserved districts of the city. The money saved from the mini-grid will then be used to subsidize free high-speed Wi-Fi for the residents, around 16 percent of which lack an internet connection. The recent coronavirus pandemic has laid bare the impact this “digital divide” can have on education and opportunities. But there are challenges to mini-grids. Starting and expanding local projects often requires expensive equipment, such as batteries and smart power management software, which can lead to high initial costs. Despite their grassroots nature, mini-grids often require capital from investment groups to get off the ground. Although platforms, such as the UK’s Community Energy England, exist to make things simpler, access to finance is still one of the major hurdles. Another hurdle is regulatory. Developing a mini-grid comes with a plethora of bureaucratic and technical specifications to ensure the safety of the mini-grid. Although such specifications are often streamlined for developing nations, existing regulations can put off potential users and increase the cost, or risk to mini-grid investors. But what is clear is that the world is on the cusp of an energy revolution. Instead of being passive consumers of anonymous power coming through wall sockets, many consumers are now mobilizing to ensure they benefit from cleaner and more ethical electricity. If nothing else, the spread of mini-grid shows that the stranglehold of major power companies can be broken to the benefit of all, especially disadvantaged communities. In a way, they can literally provide “power to the people.” *Mark Newton is a Berlin-based freelance journalist and researcher originally from the UK. After specializing in conflict and security studies, he has recently shifted his focus towards sustainability and environmental concerns.

By Mark Newton* The intermittent nature of some renewable energies, such as solar and wind power, presents significant challenges for transitioning to an entirely renewable energy grid. Simply put, wind and solar energy do not generate a consistent amount of power over even short time spans. At night solar power lies dormant—ending power generation—while on calm days wind turbines become 800-foot-tall, motionless lawn ornaments. In other circumstances, solar and wind might produce too much power for immediate demand. Faced with this situation, the common solution is to sell that energy at negative wholesale electricity prices—essentially paying consumers to use up excess power. Of course, this is not a road to sustainable or prosperous business success, and it is one of the reasons states and energy providers still rely on fossil fuels. Despite their dirty nature, fossil fuel-fired plants can be quickly and easily modified to match energy demand. Need more power? Simply burn more coal (or natural gas). But what if there was another way to put that excess renewable power to use? That is where renewable energy storage solutions come in. If the excess power can be stored, it can be released later when demand is higher. In this way, the peaks and troughs of renewable energy production can be smoothed over, making it more competitive economically. The Simple—But Expensive—Solution Fundamentally, the goal is to convert the original renewable energy into another form, which can be contained, before being passed back into the grid, often via a turbine or generator. Known as "Power-to-X," this can be achieved in several ways, with the best solutions losing the least amount of power between stages. The most straightforward method is to use surplus power to charge large lithium-ion batteries. However, these are expensive, unwieldy, and potentially hazardous. Moreover, for lithium-ion batteries to be economical, their estimated cost should be around $20 per kilowatt hour (kWh). Currently, they average around $132 per kWh. Efforts are underway to produce the next generation of batteries. One solution is instead of spreading lithium-ion batteries across a grid—increasing costs—they are pooled into utility-scale or grid-scale facilities. These larger utility scale batteries can maintain more power at a cheaper comparative rate, and potentially replace older fossil fuel plants. By placing them at critical junctions in a grid, they can also serve multiple renewable power generation sites. By placing larger utility scale lithium-ion batteries at critical junctions in an electric grid, they can also serve multiple renewable power generation sites. Unfortunately, this approach may exacerbate one of the biggest drawbacks with lithium-ion batteries: They contain elements such as lithium and cobalt. These metals are often extracted in open-pit mining, placing pressure on local environments. Cobalt, in particular, is largely imported from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a nation with a poor track record in human rights. Faced with this, researchers are also developing new breeds of batteries that do away with lithium and cobalt by using sodium or organic polymer-based batteries. Many of these, however, cannot match the power density of lithium-ion batteries. Luckily, there are also other ways to store renewable energy. Storing Power with Water, Weights, and Heat One common solution is pumped storage. When lots of energy is being produced, and electricity prices are low, water is pumped uphill into a reservoir. The electricity is therefore being converted into potential kinetic energy. When energy is in demand and prices are higher, that water can be released downhill through turbines like a traditional hydroelectric dam. Although fairly efficient, this system is expensive, large, and dependent on local geographic features. However, attempts are underway to refine it. Switzerland is inaugurating its state-of-the-art pumped storage power plant Nant de Drance on September 10-11, with a storage capacity of 400,000 EV batteries. One Dutch project aims to replicate the process on the seafloor using inflatable bladders, while a German start-up has developed shipping container-sized batteries that recreate the process using air and gas. A similar effect can also be achieved using weights and pulleys. One Scottish project is using excess power to lift weights in disused mine shafts, before lowering them again through generators. Another method is "power-to-heat." This involves using surplus renewable energy to create so-called "Carnot batteries." Within a Carnot battery, materials are superheated and stored. When power is needed, this thermal energy is converted back into electricity, often via heat engines or steam turbines. The best materials for Carnot batteries are those that retain heat over long periods, such as sand, stones and, more recently, molten salt. On the plus side, Carnot batteries can be built anywhere and use cheap, readily available materials. The downside to this approach is that it is comparatively inefficient. Many Carnot batteries aim for around 40%-70% conversion efficiency, while pumped storage averages around 80%. A more experimental approach, dubbed molecular solar thermal energy storage (MOST) is also under development. With MOST, a specially designed molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen is irradiated with solar energy via a special dish. The isomer can then be stored at room temperature until solar energy is required—for example at night or on overcast days. When passed through a catalyst, the molecule releases the energy and reverts to its former state, ready to be irradiated again. In this way, solar energy could theoretically be stored for up to eighteen years with degradation. Hydrogen as ‘Energy Carrier’ One other promising storage solution comes from the universe's most abundant element: hydrogen. Although hydrogen is not a common fuel itself (yet), it can be used as an “energy carrier.” Surplus renewable energy can be used to power the process of pyrolysis—making hydrogen from gas—or electrolysis—making hydrogen from water. Once in the form of hydrogen, the renewable energy can be stored indefinitely. When it is needed again, the hydrogen goes through reverse electrolysis and is combined with oxygen to create water and electricity. Attempts are being made to develop hydrogen “batteries” that overcome some of the issues and dangers of storing hydrogen under high pressure. Surplus renewable energy can be used to power the process of making hydrogen from gas or from water—and once in the form of hydrogen, the renewable energy can be stored indefinitely. As the above suggests, there are numerous potential ways to store renewable energy, but none do it perfectly. Almost every solution comes with additional challenges in cost, efficiency, or construction. In addition, many systems are too expensive for small-scale, local renewable energy projects, but not efficient or cost-effective for large-scale producers. Pumped storage has quickly become the most popular method—accounting for 90% of all renewable energy storage—but logistics and construction requirements also make pumped storage difficult to scale and expand. In the short term, lithium-ion batteries are likely to become the preferred method for both small- and large-scale producers. The technology behind them is well understood and can be easily adjusted to match the size of their associated renewable power plant. Need more storage? Connect more batteries. As mentioned above, such batteries are still prohibitively expensive and come with ethical concerns, but their overall cost is dropping. It is worth noting that although a lithium-ion battery averages $132 per kWh today, in 2010 that figure was over $1,200 per kWh. *Mark Newton is a Berlin-based freelance journalist and researcher originally from the UK. After specializing in conflict and security studies, he has recently shifted his focus towards sustainability and environmental concerns.

By Mal Cole* The migration route of monarch butterflies spans southern Canada to Mexico, a distance of about 2,500 miles. In their journey across the North American continent, the monarchs must cross the broad waters of Lake Superior. In the middle of this arduous leg of the journey, the monarchs make a mysterious hard turn to the east before continuing south. We’re not sure why the monarchs do this. One theory suggests that thousands of years ago there may have been a mountain blocking their way. The monarchs have weathered obstacles before, but any change in the habitat of this stalwart traveler is likely to have devastating effects. And now the monarch butterfly is officially listed on the IUCN Red List as endangered. Ensuring the survival of threatened species has never seemed more urgent, but there is debate about how to proceed among some ecologists and conservationists. Some say efforts should be directed to reversing climate change so threatened species can naturally restore their diminished populations. Others think it’s time to intervene, to make sure species will survive. An intervention may involve physically moving plants and animal species to an area where they are more likely to thrive, a process known as assisted migration. Insects and plants are particularly sensitive to the effects of climate change and may require some human assistance to adapt quickly. For example, since 2007, the San Mateo County Parks Foundation in California has been making a concerted effort to restore populations of the San Francisco Bay checkerspot butterfly. The butterflies and their larva are moved into the conservation area and monitored by trained volunteers. For the monarchs, human intervention was needed to restore their unique winter habitat in northern Mexico. Oyamel fir forests, which grow in mountainous terrain, have dense canopies that can retain heat from the ground and keep Monarchs warm. The trees also protect the butterflies from rain, wind and snow. Mexico has created sanctuaries, such as the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve. In 2015, a devastating, illegal logging event destroyed part of the forest, and oyamel fir seedlings have been planted again to restore the monarch habitat. Critics of assisted migration techniques cite past disasters, such as the invasive cane toad. The cane toad was brought to Queensland, Australia, as a control for agricultural pests, but with no natural predators on the island, it became a notorious ecological disaster. Critics argue that when a threatened species is moved to an area outside its original habitat, it becomes, in effect, an invasive species. But with the climate warming, many species may find themselves outside of their historical range. Saving the Three-toothed Cinquefoil Some scientists think moving plants from one location to another will increase genetic diversity among populations that may help them weather climate change. One experiment taking place in Acadia National Park, Maine, involves a rose family plant called three-toothed cinquefoil (Sibbaldiopsis tridentata). Modeling has shown that this low-growing plant with small white flowers may be particularly susceptible to temperature changes and may lose much of its original range as the climate warms. In particular, it may disappear from Mount Cadillac, one of the park’s treasures, and leave the summit susceptible to erosion. Climate change biologist Chris Nadeau is studying the plant as part of the Sustainable Summits Project, a research program in association with Acadia’s scientific research partner, the Schoodic Institute. Nadeau is measuring the performance of three-toothed cinquefoil taken from the summits of southern mountains in Massachusetts and New Hampshire and replanted in a controlled garden setting in Maine. Nadeau wants to see if plants from warmer climates have genes that will help their northern counterparts weather the warming conditions in Maine. The experiment is one of the largest and most rigorous of its kind, and it could provide valuable information about how increasing genetic diversity can help a species endure. The process of relocating a species to create genetic diversity is called assisted gene flow. "What we’re doing is moving genotypes within the distribution of species," said Nadeau, "So we’re not extending the range of three-toothed cinquefoil, we’re just moving individuals from one location to another distribution." Searching for the Best Response to Climate Change Nadeau’s experiment is controlled to prevent potential disease and invasion from plants from other states, but one of the reasons Nadeau chose three-toothed cinquefoil was because it was already being used to restore vegetation on Cadillac’s summit. Therefore, Nadeau’s research poses a very practical question: can current restoration efforts continue to provide a benefit in a warming climate? "This is phase one of trying to understand how we can restore vegetation on the degraded mountain summits throughout New England and ensure that those restorations persist into the future," said Nadeau. Nadeau’s project fits into a new framework that has been adopted by the National Park Service as a response to climate change. The Resist-Accept-Direct (RAD) framework is a departure from an earlier directive, outlined by the park’s famous Leopold Report, written by Aldo Starker Leopold in 1963, that recommended that National Parks be restored to "vignettes of primitive America." When faced with climate change-related challenges within the park, RAD is used to calculate a response. "Resisting" might involve the removal of a new invasive species, and "accepting" would mean no intervention. The Sustainable Summits Project would fall under the heading of "direct," where conservation efforts are calculated with a warming future in mind. But Nadeau believes that his project has implications beyond the parks: "We are expecting to learn a ton, not just about sustaining mountain summits, but climate change adaptation throughout the world." For the monarchs, the effort to restore their destroyed habitat in Mexico seems to be a success, but the future of the trees, like the monarchs, is not secure. As warming progresses, oyamel firs, like the three-toothed cinquefoil, may be unable to weather the heat in a place where they were once common. What conservationists and others do today—working together collectively, like the Monarchs’ migration—may help sensitive species find a more secure future. *Mal Cole is a freelance science and nature writer based in Massachusetts. Editorial Note: Sources: Nadeau, Chris, interview by author, July 29, 2022.

Beavers are nature's ecosystem engineers By Mal Cole* For thousands of years, a giant species of beaver, Castor californicus, was a feature of the North American landscape. These 200-pound beavers feasted on aquatic vegetation and wallowed in streams and ponds. But early beavers relied exclusively on wetlands for habitat, and, during the last ice age, a drying climate likely led to their extinction. Now North America knows only one species of beaver, the relatively diminutive Castor canadensis. Beavers’ remarkable ability to transform their environments makes them a keystone species or an organism that holds together an ecosystem. They change habitats not just for themselves but for other wildlife, and those new habitats become essential for the survival of other species, especially bird life, including great blue herons. Beaver populations benefit human beings, too, as their famous dam-building activities can help mitigate many of the negative effects of climate change. Beaver dam structures filter water, and beaver ponds create surface water that can counter drought, flooding, and wildfires. To build a dam, beavers begin by building a foundation with a layer of stones and then intricately weave in fallen trees, branches, and limbs that they have harvested themselves. They use their extremely sharp teeth to eat the green sugary layer of tree limbs that lies just below the bark. This behavior not only provides nourishment but also building materials. The dams are reinforced with pond plants and mud—and are astonishingly sturdy: In 2005, a group of scientists found what they believed to be the fossilized remains of a beaver dam that could be 125,000 years old. When beavers move into an area, they can swiftly transform an ecosystem—their newly dammed areas generate open water, wetlands, and meadows. Beavers can even convert a desert creek into a lush oasis. For example, beaver activity in the Nevada desert helped revive the Susie Creek watershed after other restoration efforts attracted the furry rodents to the site. Their return also rejuvenated the creek’s riparian habitat—the new healthy vegetation on the banks provides shelter for wildlife and water for agriculture in the area. Human Opposition Despite such dramatic results, beavers still run up against opposition from their chief competitor for habitat, human beings. Humans, who also like to live in valleys near water sources, can react poorly if a beaver family moves in and turns a little stream into a big pond. The Beaver Institute, based in Southampton, Massachusetts, provides education about how landowners can coexist with beavers. “Beavers have been around for millions of years, and they’re second only to us in changing their environment to suit their own needs,” said Michael Callahan president and founder of the Beaver Institute. “Beavers get a bad rap because the only times they get in the news are when they’re causing problems for people … but if we want a healthy landscape with streams, rivers, and clean water, we need beavers,” he said. Callahan became interested in helping beavers in 1996 when Massachusetts legislators passed a law banning specific kinds of traps for hunting and property management. This prompted some residents to warn that the state will soon be overrun with beavers. This is a common concern, but because beavers have a territorial nature and because each beaver pair only has a few kits a year, there’s little chance of being overwhelmed. Conversely, if beaver activity is flooding roads or interfering with agriculture, it can become necessary to curtail them. There are often simple solutions for handling animals who have become a nuisance: Trees can be fenced so that beavers won’t cut them down, or a drainage device can lower water levels if a beaver pond has caused flooding. “Trapping is only a short-term answer,” said Callahan, “because if you remove the beavers, the habitat is still there, and young beavers will move in.” Ultimately, learning to live alongside beavers will have benefits far beyond the welfare of the animals themselves, he explained. “By coexisting with beavers, we’re helping not just beavers, but the planet. With climate change, it seems like there’s so little that individuals can do. But it’s very empowering to know that if we keep beavers in the landscape, it will have a lot of benefits.” Beavers Helping Conservationists Some conservationists who see those benefits are trying to use these industrious mammals to reinvigorate landscapes and other natural resources. One way to attract beavers is to place sturdy posts and other building materials that can be used as a base for a dam in key waterways. Another way to attract beaver families is to make a false dam with similar materials. These structures, called beaver dam analogs (BDAs), are part of the current efforts to restore habitat in Oregon, also known as “The Beaver State.” BDAS and beaver families are being used in the Upper Klamath Basin, where toxic algae have caused fish that were once a plentiful food source for the Klamath Tribes to become a rarity. The positive effects on climate change that beavers provide inspired filmmaker Sarah Koenigsberg to create an award-winning 2018 documentary, “The Beaver Believers,” which follows several activists as they work to multiply beaver populations in the American West. “I was looking for a story that could frame climate change as something tangible we could relate to, and I wanted to stay away from a doom-and-gloom apocalyptic narrative,” said Koenigsberg. “Beavers can ameliorate nearly every negative climate impact that we feel here in the inland West from too much water to not enough, from habitat loss to crazy out-of-control wildfires,” she said. Koenigsberg also believes that humans play an essential role in partnership with beavers, that “there are ways human cultures have participated productively and in peace with the natural world since time immemorial, and there are ways that we can try to do better.” She has furthered this goal of bringing people and beavers together as a founding member of a new nonprofit called The Beaver Coalition. The organization’s mission is “to empower humans to partner with beavers through education, science, advocacy and process-based restoration.” For instance, when a landowner becomes alarmed by the appearance of a new beaver pond, education can help resolve the issue, Koenigsberg said. “You can just share with folks that this is actually a really good thing for biodiversity, for fish habitat, and all the things good thing beavers do. Sometimes it’s a very quick turnaround,” she said. But sadly, in most states, there are few, if any, restrictions on trapping and killing beavers. Although they are not considered a threatened species, North American beaver populations have not recovered from the fur trade that reduced their numbers from as many as 200 million to less than 100,000. Today’s beaver population has recovered to only 15 million, and ecosystems are still suffering from their absence. Koenigsberg and Callahan are working to spread information about the broad environmental value of beavers. “Like a keystone in an arch, if you pull it out, the whole arch collapses. If you take beavers out of the landscape, then their whole ecosystem collapses, and all these other species suffer,” he said. Koenigsberg put it this way: “The fact is that beavers are a key missing piece, they have to be allowed to come back because they engineered these [eco]systems, and these [eco]systems will forever be impoverished without them.” *Mal Cole is a freelance science and nature writer based in Massachusetts. Editorial Note: Mal Cole interviewed Michael Callahan of Beaver Institute; and Sarah Koenigsberg of The Beaver Coalition. Further Reading: “Ancient Beavers Leave Traces of Dam in Yukon | CBC News.” CBCnews. CBC/Radio Canada, November 19, 2005. “Beavers, Water, and Fire-a New Formula for Success • The National Wildlife Federation Blog.” The National Wildlife Federation Blog, October 30, 2018. Feinstein, Kelly. “A Brief History of the Beaver Trade.” History Department UC Santa Cruz. Accessed September 29, 2022. l. Osborne, Jari, and Paul Freer. “Nature/Leave It to Beavers.” Episode. Nature 32, no. 17. PBS, May 13, 2014.

Veggies for the Pot, Bounty for the Birds By Mal Cole* There is no more satisfying time for a gardener than harvest time. Bringing in homegrown pumpkins, squash, apples, and leafy greens are all part of what makes autumn such a delectable season. For many gardeners, all the fun stops when the first frosts start flattening summer plants and turning them into wizened stalks. Luckily, there are a few strategies that gardeners can use to extend the season through the dark and snowy months. Winter Vegetable Gardening Winter vegetable gardening in a northern climate can be tricky, but, with a little creativity, it is still possible to grow some plants right through the winter. Many vegetables can be coaxed into a few extra weeks of life with a little intervention. Kale, cabbage and other greens in the brassica family can be preserved with row cover. This is a light, reusable fabric (available at most garden shops) that is loosely placed over crops to protect them from frost and keep them fresh until ready for harvest. Gardeners can also use row cover hoops to float the row cover over taller crops, like kale and leeks, or protect root crops, like carrots and turnips, from snow. As fall turns to winter, the low light and cold temperatures cause many plants to stop or slow their growth. A cold frame will help extend the growing season for some plants. (There are many online resources for building a cold frame with recycled materials.) A cold frame with solid sides and clear glass or plastic top can create a little haven of spring when placed in a sunny location. Many herbs and salad greens, including arugula, spinach, and some lettuces, thrive when grown in a cold frame. Just a few parsley or chive plants protected from cold and snow by a cold frame—or miniature, bell-shaped cold frames called “cloches”—will brighten up a winter soup or plate of pasta. For best results, growers should make sure they keep the top of the cold frame free of snow, so plenty of light can get to the winter garden. When it’s time to enjoy winter vegetables, wait until the temperature inside the cold frame is well above freezing before harvesting. Winter Gardening For Wildlife The end of summer—and its abundant bounty of flowering plants—can feel like the end of the season for bees and other pollinators. But there are still many ways gardeners can help pollinators through the dormant months. As tempting as it is to keep yards and gardens tidy and free of leaf litter, a pile of freshly fallen leaves is a haven for many beneficial insects. Instead of removing the leaves from a garden or yard, it’s good to find a corner where the leaves can stay undisturbed for the winter or mulched into bare areas to protect the soil. Pollinators will also appreciate undisturbed piles of logs. Butterflies and moths will snuggle themselves under tiny crevices in loose bark. Many species of bees will either create or use preexisting holes in old wood for shelter in the winter. Native bees also appreciate the straw-like hollow stems of plants. It’s easy to create more bee habitat— simply clip off the heads of plants with hollow stems and leave their stalks to winter over. Many perennial plants have hollow stems, including Bee balm (monarda). Leaving the garden a little untidy is one of the best ways to create winter habitat for bees, butterflies, birds, and small mammals. But if one’s goal is to both add some color to the coming spring display and help pollinators, one of the nicest ways to extend the season is to plant some early flowering bulbs. Crocuses can start blooming in late winter and can be planted in flower beds, pots, or in the lawn. To plant crocuses in a lawn, cut the grass short, and then toss a few crocus bulbs at random in the planting area to create a natural display. Use a bulb planter (an old apple corer will work in a pinch) to make small holes to plant the bulbs wherever they land. Cover the holes with displaced turf, and in the spring, check the distinctive, colorful flowers for bees rollicking in the yellow pollen. Let the grass grow long before mowing in the spring, and crocuses will make a repeat seasonal appearance. Overwintering birds can also benefit from a little careful planning and planting. Many birds—including eastern bluebirds and robins—that have an insect-based diet in the summertime need to sustain themselves with fruits and berries in winter. Many species of crabapple will hold on to their bountiful fruit through the winter, providing food for birds. Then, in the spring, these lovely trees reward the gardener with a stunning display of apple blossoms (a good early source of food for pollinators). Planting different kinds of berry-bearing trees and shrubs can add wonderful winter interest to a garden, and also be a lifesaver for hungry birds. Shrubs in the genus ilex, which includes holly and winterberry, provide both food and shelter to wildlife, as well as give a cheery glow to a winter landscape. Many garden centers get fresh stock of these plants in late fall around the holidays. If a new shrub can’t be planted before the ground freezes, consider using it in a winter container display with wintergreen and other hardy berry-bearing plants. One’s container garden will look wonderful right through to spring with minimal care. There are many ways to add beauty and bounty to a winter garden. It’s always worth keeping that good feeling of fostering growth and providing habitat through the cold days until the soil warms and buds begin to break again. With just a few additions and a little planning, both gardeners and their gardens’ residents can more easily weather the colder months. *Mal Cole is a freelance science and nature writer based in Massachusetts.

By Mal Cole* The first months of the year can seem bleak, but even if snow still covers the ground, seeing a glossy seed catalog poking out of the mailbox can offer a welcome escape from cabin fever. While hundreds of thousands of gardeners send away for seeds for future vegetables and flowers, more than a few savvy planters enjoy an ancient tradition: seed saving. Seed Saving for Future Generations Seed saving is as old as agriculture, which began around 12,000 years ago. The first plants to be saved for seed included wheat, barley, and peas. Grain was often found in ancient Egyptian tombs, which led to a popular hoax in 18th century England. It was believed that this ‘Mummy Wheat’ could germinate and grow into full size plants, but modern experiments proved that the temperature inside a tomb would not be consistent enough to keep the grain seed viable. This is not to say that some ancient seeds have not grown anew. Some date seeds have shown they can weather any variables that might come along in two millennia. In 2005, a 2,000-year-old date sprouted into a small tree that scientists named “Methuselah.” Now several date trees have been grown from seeds at ancient sites and, as of 2020, have grown fruit. Some seed saving is aimed at preserving the world’s food supply, using modern innovations. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway holds over a million crop seed samples from every country in the world. The vault is situated in a far north location—that is still accessible by air travel—to ensure that the precious contents can be kept at a consistent temperature of –18°C (–0.4°F). But modern seed savers don’t need high-tech solutions to save their own seeds for the garden, year to year. All that is needed is a dark, cool, dry place. Tips on Saving Seed Gardeners with plots of any size can benefit from seed saving. But what to save can depend on garden size, the types of crops grown, and how much time gardeners want to spend harvesting and saving seed. The easiest seeds to save are the ones that mature readily and linger in the garden as the seasons change. Flowers like columbine, agastache, monarda, and even some types of clematis, such as “sweet autumn,” will readily and quickly create seed after pollination. (Sweet autumn can be toxic to humans, cats, horses, and dogs). Poppies make seed saving an easy task. The distinctive green poppy pods will eventually turn brown and dry. The poppy seeds are ready to harvest when they can be heard rattling around inside the dried pod. For those who intend to save flower, fruit, or vegetable seed from a garden, it’s worth noting that only heirloom varieties will yield plants similar to the parent. And, if multiple varieties of the same crop are grown, the fruit from seed may turn out to have the genetics of two different varieties. The same is true of seed saved from produce at the farm stand or supermarket. This can be a wonderful surprise—or a bit of a disappointment—depending on one’s gardening goals. Part of the fun of seed saving is experimentation, but a little bit of research before saving seed will help ensure a good harvest. Seeds saved from apples, for example, will not produce apples that are the same as the parent plant. After a gardener waits years for an apple tree to reach maturity, the fruit may not even be suitable for fresh eating. In some crops, steps can be taken to ensure that only pollen from the same varieties is used to create fruit, although most home gardeners won’t find it worth the bother. Discouraging cross pollination will also require strictures that will not allow local pollinators to fully enjoy nutrients from flowering crops. Saving Tomato Seed For many plants, this tendency to hybridize can result in some happy accidents. Tomato seed is very satisfying to save, and any genetic intermingling will still probably have tasty results. To save seed from a tomato, choose one of the biggest and most beautiful tomatoes from the most vigorous plant. (These desirable characteristics may carry over into the next generation.) Allow the fruit to grow on the vine until it is slightly overripe to ensure that the seed is fully mature. Cut the fruit in half and notice how each seed is encased by a gelatin-like coating; this coating must be removed via a short fermentation process before the seed can be dried and stored. Place the fresh tomato seeds in a glass jar and cover the seeds with water. To keep out insects and curious pets, cover the top of the jar with a paper towel or cheese cloth and secure with a rubber band. Check the seeds daily to observe the fermentation process. Unpleasant smells and even molds may occur, but once most of the seeds have sunk to the bottom of the jar, they are ready for drying. Save only the seeds that sank to the bottom of the jar, and rinse them thoroughly using a tight mesh colander or sieve. Let the seeds dry completely in a cool, dark place on a clean unlined baking sheet or pie plate. Turning the seeds frequently will help them dry evenly. After saved seeds have dried, they are ready to be stored in an airtight container in a dark place that isn’t too humid. And remember to label tomato and all dried seeds—memories may fade long before spring. Keeping Track of Saved Seeds It may be helpful to create a seed inventory in the notes app of a phone or in a notebook kept in a seed saving box. (Low-tech or high-tech, it’s nice to have seed inventory ready to hand.) Be sure to write down the year that the seeds were saved. When planting seed, note how many germinated successfully. This will be good information to have for successive plantings. When it’s time to plant, always plant a few extra seeds to be sure not to end up short. And, if there’s an abundance of plants, fellow gardeners can benefit from the windfall. For those who end up with extra saved seed, they can consider sharing the bounty by seeking out a local seed library or seed exchange. Community helps the gardener grow as well as the garden. *Mal Cole is a freelance science and nature writer based in Massachusetts.

Saving the Planet in Backyards and Unused Spaces By Mal Cole* Caring for a piece of land is one of life’s great pleasures, and a homegrown harvest is a tantalizing proposition. But what about the time and maintenance that it takes to grow a traditional vegetable garden? What if the garden is expected to benefit the ecological community as well as the gardener? A food forest might be the answer. A food forest is an edible garden that mimics a forest ecosystem and is designed to integrate a variety of plant species. In a food forest, the principles of permaculture are used to create a self-sustaining ecosystem that also provides food for humans. Permaculture makes use of perennial plants that will return year after year and annual plants that will go to seed and self-propagate. The trees and plants that make up a food forest are arranged into guilds, or groups of plants that will benefit each other. A food forest is generally made up of several guilds but could be as small as just one. Starting a Food Forest Acres of land are not required to start a food forest. In fact, food forests are popping up in urban areas all over the United States, including Seattle, Boston, and Atlanta. People who are thinking of planting a food forest might try visiting a nearby community forest garden to see how a new food forest might contribute to a wider community network. When deciding to start planning a food forest, it’s easy to be overwhelmed by the possibilities, especially if starting with a clean slate. Food forests don’t happen all at once. It takes time for fruit trees to mature and plants to fully establish in a new ecosystem. When assessing a potential site, take time—even a year—to get to know where the light hits during the day. Take stock of all the plants and trees. Observe where soils are wet or dry and make note of any seasonal changes. A soil test will also help determine which plants and trees are suited to thrive once planting is ready to begin. The Seven Layers Like a wedding cake, food forests come in layers. Most forest gardeners recognize seven layers in a food forest—canopy trees, low trees, vertical plants (vines), shrubs, herbaceous plants, rhizosphere (root vegetables), and ground covers. Some gardeners are now making a case for an eighth layer to include the role of the fungal/mycelial soil layer in forest garden health. Knowing the layers will help create the plant guilds that will make up a food forest. Canopy or Overstory From a bird’s eye view, the canopy is the first layer of a food forest to greet the eye. The canopy’s size and composition will depend primarily on how much space is available. There may already be a large tree on hand. Native oak trees thrive in many parts of the US, and although an acorn might not be the first nut that comes to mind for a tasty snack, they will provide a lot of food for small mammals and birds in the new ecosystem. (And, with a little preparation, humans can also cook and eat acorns.) Look closely at what fruiting trees grow in the area. Also consider that trees like a walnut or hickory require a great deal of space, not to mention time to grow. For example, it can take up to fifteen years for a black walnut to bear fruit. Understory An understory tree can grow below and in between canopy trees; however, if the plot of land is small, an understory tree might make up the top (canopy) layer. Many familiar orchard fruits are understory trees, including apples which grow in all fifty US states. And, if there isn’t room for a full-sized tree, many fruit trees come in dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties. Vines The canopy and understory layers will serve as support for the third layer of the food forest, vines. Grapes are a great choice, but be sure to seek out a variety that thrives in the area. Also consider flowering vines such as clematis to attract pollinators. Shrubs Small fruit like blackberries, raspberries, and blueberries will be a tasty addition to the shrub layer of the food forest. Be sure to match the fruit with the soil composition and moisture levels in the garden. An elderberry will appreciate a damper spot, and a blueberry bush requires acidic soil. Herbaceous The herbaceous layer will consist of perennial plants that die back seasonally and return in the spring. This layer also includes plants that live for only a season but seed vigorously and self-propagate. Many garden herbs such as mint and chives fall into this category as well as perennial vegetables like asparagus. Groundcover The groundcover layer consists of low growing plants that will spread laterally across the forest floor. Edible plants in the category include strawberries and sorrels, but consider nitrogen-fixing plants like clover, beans, and peas. Rhizosphere The rhizosphere will contain perennial root crops like wild carrot, chicory, and dandelion. What you grow will depend on how much light reaches the forest floor. Many root crops require a lot of sunlight. In the early stages of a food forest there may be many root crops that are gradually shaded out as the canopy grows. Mycelial The mycelial layer is the fungal layer that grows beneath the forest floor. The threads of fungus throughout the soil will create the fruiting bodies of mushrooms. Whether you add mycelium to your soil, or just encourage it by adding lots of organic matter, a healthy amount of beneficial fungus will help support your forest ecosystem by engaging with plant roots to provide them with better nutrient and water absorption. Why Food Forests? There are many things to learn and consider when designing a food forest. Luckily, several excellent guides to forest gardening exist, including: Gaia’s Garden (2009) by Toby Hemenway; Integrated Forest Gardening (2014) by Wayne Weiseman, Daniel Halsey, and Bryce Ruddock, and The Food Forest Handbook (2017) by Darrell Frey and Michelle Czolba. Enjoy this early part of the process, get to know the plot intimately, and then consider all the possibilities. Growing a food forest is having a front row seat to the creation of an ecosystem. In time, the forest garden will be a welcome sanctuary for the gardener and others. Food forests reduce fossil fuels and harmful inputs associated with large-scale farming and create habitats for animals, including pollinators. But they also offer people the opportunity to see themselves as an intimate part of nature, allowing themselves to nourish and be nourished by the Earth. *Mal Cole is a freelance science and nature writer based in Massachusetts.