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A Quick Guide to Heart-Healthy Rest *By Julie Peterson Optimum sleep quality and quantity have associated health benefits.  Photo: Monstera Production Science has shown that sleep disorders—deficiencies in the quantity, timing, and quality of sleep—are risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). This is important as CVD remains the leading cause of death globally, as well as in the United States.   Sleep disorders can stem from a wide variety of factors, including air pollution, lifestyle, traumatic brain injury, or daylight savings time. In light of the connections between heart health and getting adequate, daily amounts of restorative sleep, researchers are searching for ways to help people get their best possible sleep.   Cardiovascular Disease The World Health Organization (WHO) defines CVDs as “a group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels and include coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, rheumatic heart disease and other conditions.”    The magnitude of death caused by CVD is shocking: According to the World Health Organization, an estimated 17.9 million people globally die each year from CVD. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says that, in the US, a person dies every 33 seconds from this disease. Death rates vary by sex, race, and ethnicity, but CVD is still the leading cause of death for people of most racial and ethnic groups.   Risk of CVD can be increased by one’s lifestyle choices, health conditions, environment, family history, or age—hence they are called “risk factors” for CVD. According to the CDC, major risk factors for CVD include high blood pressure, high cholesterol, obesity, and smoking.   The public has long been warned about artery-clogging junk food, smoking, obesity, and a sedentary lifestyle as risk factors for heart problems. Likewise, patients who have high blood pressure, chronic inflammation, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and certain genetic factors are routinely educated about their higher risk for developing debilitating or deadly heart or vascular problems.   Now, researchers are focusing on lack of sleep as another serious risk factor. It has become widely accepted throughout the scientific and medical community that without enough quality sleep, one’s risk of CVD increases.    Not Sleeping Well or Enough According to the CDC, people need less sleep as they age. The CDC also reminds people that sleep helps the body repair itself. But people aren’t getting what is recommended. ©Centers for Disease Control and Prevention via Wikimedia In every US state, “30% to 44% of adults … are not getting enough sleep,” Michael Twery, PhD, said in 2020 when he led the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute’s National Center on Sleep Disorders Research.   It’s not just in the US, it’s all over the world, he added. “Whether we’re talking about South Africa…Kenya, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Indonesia, India, there is a large percentage of people in every country worldwide, which are experiencing insufficiency of regular sleep.”   Dangers of Inadequate Sleep Understanding the specific effects of sleep deprivation on heart function and overall cardiovascular health is a continuing focus of researchers like Twery, who said, “The need for sleep is a non-negotiable requirement for life…Sleep gives your heart and vascular system a much-needed rest.” When the body can’t work as it should, problems arise.   American Heart Association researchers found that a lack of sleep is associated with increased calcium buildup in the heart’s arteries.   For example, American Heart Association researchers found that a lack of sleep is associated with increased calcium buildup in the heart’s arteries, which causes plaques that can put one at risk for a heart attack. In the study, sleeping one hour less each night increased the risk of arterial calcium build-up by 33%. Sleeping less than six hours per night put people at the greatest risk.   Not getting enough sleep also reduces the body’s production of certain appetite-suppressing hormones, which may lead to weight gain. Several studies have linked not getting enough sleep to an imbalance in hormones that regulate metabolism.   “Exactly how sleep influences the coronary arteries is still being studied, but we do know that not getting enough sleep is associated with risk factors for heart disease,” says cardiac surgeon A. Marc Gillinov, MD, at Cleveland Clinic.   Why is Sleep Elusive?   There are numerous and varied reasons for sleep deprivation. Most research studies to date have examined one or two factors for their contributions to inadequate sleep, yet it is likely that a person’s lack of sufficient sleep results from a combination of multiple influences. These contributing factors can be classified into categories, some of which may overlap.   1. Circumstances of Life There are personal situations and day-to-day realities a person faces, some controllable and some not, that can cause sleep loss.   Examples include shift work (especially shifts that are partly or fully during nighttime hours), alcohol misuse, intake of stimulants such as caffeine late in the day, bad sleep-related habits (staying up late or using electronics in bed), high stress, and environmental factors. Air pollution, a warm bedroom, high levels of carbon dioxide, and too much ambient noise may adversely affect the ability to get a good night’s sleep, suggests a study from researchers with the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Louisville. The study is one of the first to measure multiple environmental variables in the bedroom.   Emerging evidence has also demonstrated that environmental factors in the whole household and at the neighborhood-level can alter healthy sleep. The “social features of environments, family, social cohesion, safety, noise, and neighborhood disorder” can cause restless or sleepless nights for all ages, said a 2018 study in Current Epidemiological Reports.   Pollution is another environmental issue that can include “exposure to heavy metals, noise pollution, light pollution, second-hand smoke, and air pollutants,” said a 2020 article in Environmental Research. These all have negative consequences on sleep outcomes.   Pollution is another environmental issue that can include “exposure to heavy metal, noise pollution, light pollution, second-hand smoke, and air pollutants,” said a 2020 article in Environmental Research. These all have negative consequences on sleep outcomes, including the inability to fall asleep and stay asleep, reach the deepest levels of sleep, sleep all night without being roused, and daytime drowsiness. 2. Medical Conditions Insomnia is a common medical sleep disorder.  Pexels Mental health has a major impact on sleep and vice versa. This can set up a cycle that reinforces itself as it gets worse. An example would be depression that makes it harder to sleep, leading to sleep deprivation, which then makes one feel even more depressed. Other mental health issues that can affect sleep include anxiety, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and somniphobia (fear of sleep). Everyone has experienced a short-term illness (colds, flu) or pain (strained muscles, broken bones) that has made sleep difficult.   But there are more than 80 sleep disorder  conditions, according to the National Library of Medicine. Some stem from long-term medical problems, such as degenerative brain disorders (Alzheimer’s disease or Parkinson’s disease), concussions and traumatic brain injuries, stroke, cancer, and chronic pain. Also, medications, such as corticosteroids and stimulants, can cause insomnia, wakefulness, or change the quality of sleep. Common sleep disorders include insomnia (being unable to fall asleep and stay asleep), restless leg syndrome (a tingling or prickly sensation in the legs with a powerful urge to move them), narcolepsy, circadian rhythm issues, and parasomnia (walking, talking, eating during sleep).   A major malady is obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), a breathing disorder in which the person stops breathing dozens and even hundreds of times during sleep.   “Humans are supposed to breathe through their nose … in many people, for various reasons, there is an obstruction ... one of the most common obstructions … is where the tongue … falls into the back of the throat and blocks the airway,” said Twery. “Where we struggle to breathe, we’re not getting enough oxygen; we’re not blowing off our CO2 … [and that causes] our brain to send an alarm bell that says, ‘Hey, we’ve got a big problem!’ to wake us up. It is also causing changes in the pressure in the chest.” Twery said these changes can cause health abnormalities that eventually can lead to clinical conditions such as high blood pressure, arrhythmias, stroke, and arterial disease.            OSA is linked to issues like obesity, head and facial features, and “airway tone,” which refers to the caliber of the airway muscles. Because many people are unaware that they have OSA, it often goes untreated, which can reduce lifespan.   One source of information about OSA is the landmark Wisconsin Sleep Cohort Study, which has followed 1,500 participants for more than three decades. The study “discovered that people with sleep apnea had a 20% higher chance of dying from cardiovascular issues, particularly stroke and heart disease,” said Myohab.com, a website dedicated to helping people resolve tongue, mouth, and breathing issues.   People can become aware of sleep apnea when a spouse or family member complains of loud snoring or the snorer realizes they are always tired or have headaches during the day. A sleep study is the only way to achieve a definitive diagnosis of OSA, and this can be ordered by a sleep specialist, pulmonologist, or ENT (ear, nose, and throat) doctor.   A trip to the dentist can also identify airway obstructions according to studies. “When you consider that obstructive sleep apnea affects approximately 20% of US adults, of whom about 90% are undiagnosed, it is imperative to evaluate all our patients for the presence of any physiologic and behavioral predisposing factors,” says Claire Stagg, DDS, in an interview. Stagg is founder and owner of Health Connections Dentistry and author of Smile, It’s all Connected! She also points out that sleep apnea can sometimes be prevented with early detection of structural abnormalities in developing children. Normal (left) and obstructed (right) airflow.  ©Blueastro/iStock Tips to Improve Sleep Quality and Quantity   To prepare for a good night’s sleep, counselors first suggest making sure the bedroom is quiet, dark, and cool. People should try to follow a regular sleep schedule and avoid drinking caffeinated beverages late in the day. Sleep counselors also advise people to avoid blue and green light before bed, which means shutting off televisions and cell phones and other electronic devices.   For teens, an Australian research group found that those who established a nighttime routine and limited the use of digital devices before bed got 40 minutes more sleep a night.   For teens, an Australian research group found that those who established a nighttime routine and limited the use of digital devices before bed got 40 minutes more sleep a night.   The National Library of Medicine’s Medline Plus website offers advice on “sleep hygiene” that includes:   • Avoid nicotine. • Exercise regularly, but don't exercise too late in the day. • Avoid alcoholic drinks before bed. • Avoid large meals and beverages late at night. • Don't take a nap after 3 p.m. • Relax before bed, for example by taking a bath, reading or listening to relaxing music. • Get enough sunlight exposure during the day. • Don't lie in bed awake; if you can't sleep for 20 minutes, get up and do something relaxing. • See a doctor if you have continued trouble sleeping.     Sleep Research is Ongoing It’s impossible for any one study to account for every factor that causes sleep loss. For example, PTSD can cause sleep loss, and sleep loss can cause increased cortisol, which can lead to inflammation that can increase risk of CVD. However, PTSD alone can cause increased cortisol. So, it’s not clear that an increase in cortisol is due to lack of sleep or a concomitant condition.   In addition, there is still much to learn about sleep. For example, there are questions about how sex and age differences can impact sleep loss. Other study topics include the role of inflammation or hormonal changes on sleep.   In a 2021 clinical review published in Europe, an overview on the bidirectional relationship between cardiovascular disease and sleep was done. “While impaired sleep and bad sleep quality are often present in patients with cardiovascular diseases due to the underlying disease…, short duration of sleep and sleep fragmentation as such could increase the risk of developing coronary artery disease, arrhythmia, and heart failure,” said the article in the European Journal of Preventive Cardiology.   The clinical review points out that “a major difficulty in this field is that population-based studies are hampered by individual and inter-individual confounding factors (environment, social conditions, cultural habits). In addition, duration and quality of sleep are often self-reported and not assessed objectively, which can lead to controversial results.” Hitting the snooze button. ©iStock What About Snoozing? A common debate in many homes is whether the morning snooze button is helpful. Researchers from Stockholm University, who conducted a pair of studies, found that for some people, snoozing is beneficial.   One study found that if people “snoozed” for an extra 30 minutes, their performance on cognitive tests was normal or improved, compared with those who had “abrupt awakenings.” “Our findings show that those who snooze on average sleep slightly shorter and feel more drowsy in the morning compared to those who never snooze,” study co-author Tina Sundelin said. “But there were no negative effects of snoozing on cortisol release, morning tiredness, mood, or sleep quality throughout the night.” Studies also show that “catching up” on sleep has benefits.   Research presented in 2024 at the European Society of Cardiology Congress looked at irregular sleep schedules, as are common in teens, shift workers, and caretakers who may not get enough sleep during the week and then want to nap or sleep in on weekends.   “Sufficient compensatory sleep is linked to a lower risk of heart disease,” said study co-author Yanjun Song of the National Centre for Cardiovascular Disease in Beijing. “The association becomes even more pronounced among individuals who regularly experience inadequate sleep on weekdays.”  *Julie Peterson writes science-based articles about holistic health, environmental issues, and sustainable living from her small farm in Wisconsin.

Warmest Year and Highest Ocean Heat Content Since Records Began   In March, the World Meteorological Organization  released the 2025 edition of the State of the Global Climate Report  for the 2023/2024 year. The report highlights key indicators—such as atmospheric carbon dioxide, ocean heat content, and global mean sea level—pertaining to global climate. Below are some key findings from the report. By the end of 2023, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration reached about 420 parts per million or 3,276 gigatons of carbon dioxide. Meanwhile, methane concentration reached about 1,934 parts per billion and nitrous oxide concentration reached about 337 parts per billion. These are estimated to be the highest levels in the last 800,000 years. 2024 was the warmest year since records began in 1850, at about 1.55°C (2.79°F) above the 1850–1900 average. This is warmer than the 1.45°C (2.61°F) above the 1850–1900 average in 2023. Global mean temperature based on various models.  © World Meteorological Organization  ( CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ) Ocean heat content was the highest in 2024 since 1960, with an increase by about 16 ZJ (zettajoules, or 10^21 joules) from 2023. The rate of ocean warming in 2005–2024 was 11.2–12.1 ZJ per year, more than double that of 3.1–3.9 ZJ per year in 1960–2005. Ocean heat content in ZJ (zettajoules, or 10^21 joules).  © World Meteorological Organization  ( CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ) The rate of global mean sea level rise has been increasing since 1993. Sea level has been rising by about 4.7 mm (0.18 in) per year in 2015–2024, more than double that of 2.1 mm (0.08 in) per year in 1993–2002. Sea level change in millimeters.  © World Meteorological Organization  ( CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ) Global ocean surface pH has been decreasing at a rate of about 0.017 pH units per decade over 1985–2023, meaning the oceans are becoming more acidic. Ocean surface pH was about 8.045 in 2023, about 16% more acidic than the pH of about 8.11 in 1985. 2024 had the seventh lowest minimum daily extent of Arctic sea ice from 1979, at a value of 4.28 million square kilometers in September. This was about 1.17 million square kilometers below the average minimum daily extent from 1991 to 2020. Sources: https://wmo.int/publication-series/state-of-global-climate-2024 https://library.wmo.int/viewer/69455/download?file=WMO-1368-2024_en.pdf&type=pdf&navigator=1

Are Wolf and Bear Conservation Efforts Sustainable? A Eurasian wolf cub.   ©istock Europe’s natural landscapes are undergoing a significant transformation, with large carnivores like wolves and brown bears making a striking comeback. This resurgence is a result of decades of conservation efforts aimed at reversing the damage caused by habitat destruction, hunting, and human expansion. One of the most notable examples of this comeback is the wolf. Once on the brink of extinction in many parts of Europe, the population of this keystone species is now steadily increasing. According to a recent study  published in PLOS Sustainability and Transformation , European wolves have expanded their range in this century, with Germany seeing an increase from one pack in 2000 to 184 packs in 2022. Most European nations are experiencing recolonization, with the exception of microstates like Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican. Keystone animal population recovery is largely attributed to the establishment of legal protections as well as the restoration of natural habitats. The latter is due in part to abandonment  of rural areas and shifts in agricultural practices. Monument to the shooting of one of the last wolves in Lower Saxony, Germany, in 1872.   Wikimedia Resurgence Brings Challenges  In a report for the European Commission , Professor Luigi Boitani , an internationally renowned expert in carnivore ecology at the Sapienza University of Rome who was involved in the PLOS  study, and John D. C. Linnell, senior research scientist of the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, wrote that “conservation and natural recovery is leading to novel ecosystems,” with species showing up in places they have not occupied before. The resurgence of wolf populations has revived old concerns: Wolves kill  approximately 56,000 domestic animals in the EU per year, with annual damage compensation costs estimated at $18.5 million (17 million EUR). Questions about how to balance human interests and those of big carnivores have pressured policymakers to act.   An article in Reuters   reports that the European Commission (EC) proposed on March 7, 2025, to make it “easier to hunt wolves in Europe,” citing their growing numbers and the threat they pose to livestock as reasons for the policy adjustment. An EC spokesperson explained that European wolf populations had reached 20,300 in 2023, a 58% increase over the last decade, according to the PLOS study. Reuters said the proposal would alter European Union law by lowering the wolf’s protection status from “strictly protected” to “protected.”  (The European Union bans  the killing of “strictly protected” animals through its Habitats Directive). An EC spokesperson explained  that European wolf populations had reached 20,300 in 2023, a 58% increase over the last decade, according to the PLOS study. Benefits of Wolves The PLOS study identified positive socioeconomic impacts from the European wolf resurgence, such as reductions in damage to forestry from undulates (hooved mammals, such as deer), reduced vehicle-undulate collisions, and increased eco-tourism. Many of the ecological services that reintroduced wolves provide are the direct result of reduced prey populations, such as elk and beaver. Beavers, through their damming of waterways, impact the hydro-ecology of wetlands and rivers , and when their damming activities are reduced, the course of rivers can change. The dynamics of the relationship between wolves and beaver, as well as wolves and other carnivores, continue to be debated, with scientists studying  such things as the impacts of newly available prey carcasses  on a range of other carnivores, such as bears, the European lynx, wolverine, and golden jackal.  The wolf rewilding project at Yellowstone National Park in the US has been a model for similar projects. The Road Ahead As the wolf and bear populations continue to expand and re-establish themselves in Europe, continued collaboration between scientists, policymakers, and local communities will be needed to ensure long-term conservation success. “Conservation cannot succeed without the support of the people living alongside wildlife,” says  the UK’s Prince William, who launched the Earthshot Prize, a nonprofit established to reward outstanding service to the environment.  For more information on efforts to rewild Europe’s large carnivores, the full PLOS study can be read here . Sources: https://journals.plos.org/sustainabilitytransformation/article?id=10.1371/journal.pstr.0000158 https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/eu-proposes-ending-wolves-strictly-protected-status-europe-2025-03-07/

‘FishNet Alliance’ Tackles Environmental Challenges By Yasmin Prabhudas * A boat and outboard engine for fishers in the Kpeme community in Togo.  ©FishNet Alliance_HOMEF World hunger and malnutrition could be defeated with an abundant supply of protein-rich fish, which means there should be an explosion in fish farming around the globe.   But in Africa, there are many hurdles to filling nets—and bellies—with fish from the sea or farms. Instead of giving up, aquaculture alliances are arising to support and grow “sustain-able” fishing projects.   “What we do is to try to add our voices,” said Stephen Oduware, coordinator of FishNet Alliance, one of the organizations standing against environmental and industrial obstacles to producing more fish.   More Fish Dinners Needed Fish and other aquatic animals contain a high level of nutrients, such as protein, minerals, vitamins, and omega-3 fatty acids, which can help meet people’s dietary needs.   Some 3.2 billion people around the world received 20% of their per capita protein from aquatic animal food in 2021, according to a report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations .   Global seafood consumption increased from 9 kg (20 lbs) per capita in 1961 to 20.2 kg (44.5 lbs) in 2022, according to the UN FAO’s FAOSTAT data . Aquaculture production already reached 130.9 million tons in 2022, and an additional 36 million tons would be needed to maintain 20.7 kg (45.6 lbs) per capita for an estimated 9.7 billion people by 2050, according to FAO’s report .   Some 3.2 billion people around the world received 20% of their per capita protein from aquatic animal food in 2021, according to a report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.   Between 713 million and 757 million people—one out of 11 people in the world and one out of every five in Africa—suffered from hunger in 2023 according to the UN World Food Programme’s 2024 report . Meanwhile, 281.6 million people from 59 food-crisis countries/territories experienced high acute food insecurity (starvation), as indicated in a separate 2024 report  by the Food Security Information Network.   Environmental Concerns of Fish Farming In a 2024 article  by Chinese researchers, comparisons of environmental impact factors (such as carbon dioxide emissions, eutrophication, and land use) for various protein sources from multiple studies are provided. One study, for example, stated that beef production results in 47–65kg (about 103–143 lbs.) of CO2 emissions equivalent, while aquaculture and capture fisheries generate 5.6 kg (12 lbs.) and 3.6 kg (8 lbs.) of CO2 emissions equivalent, respectively.   But fish farming can also be resource-intensive—more than 70% of greenhouse gas emissions come from feed production for farmed aquaculture species, according to a 2021 study . Capture fisheries also contribute to climate change although the extent varies depending on species, the study says.   ActionAid , a UK-based charity that works for impoverished women and girls, outlines how fishing can also cause environmental degradation: the use of trawlers can lead to overfishing; certain fishing methods can increase the numbers of by-catches, like turtles and seabirds; and pesticides and antibiotics can contaminate the water.   Oil spills affect some regions of the world too. They can destroy the livelihoods of coastal and inland fishers and also harm the ocean ecosystem.   Meeting the Challenges FishNet Alliance , with offices in Nigeria and South Africa, is addressing these issues. The Health of Mother Earth Foundation  (HOMEF) and the South Durban Community Environmental Alliance  created the organization in 2017. It now has more than 12,000 members, including individuals and fishers’ associations from across Africa, including Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, and Uganda. The predominantly artisanal fishers catch fish ranging from barracuda and mullet to sailfish and shrimps. Stephen Oduware.  ©FishNet Alliance_HOMEF “There was a need to create a rally point for fishers along the coast of Africa,” explains Oduware. “We carry out decentralized actions so that members in a certain country say XYZ activities are taking place on our coast, destroying our environment.”   FishNet Alliance’s Guiding Principles The alliance has established a set of principles , including a commitment to activities that work with the natural cycles of the marine system, building the capacity of fishers to improve the sustainability of the marine environment, and advocating against the use of   chemicals and explosives in fishing. “Sustainability” has become a cliché, notes Oduware. “Even the agents of destruction use the word ‘sustainability.’ But in our own context, we try to promote ‘sustain-ability.’ That is ‘sustain’ hyphen ‘ability,’” he explains. “It’s about going back to the Earth, going back to nature. It’s about going back to the ocean to see that the ocean has limits, and therefore we must fish within the ecosystem’s limits. That means we must not use chemicals to fish because it will not only destroy the surface water, but it will also affect the coming community of fish.” “It’s about going back to the Earth, going back to nature. It’s about going back to the ocean to see that the ocean has limits, and therefore we must fish within the ecosystem’s limits.”   He adds: “We must check the reproduction of fish from when the eggs are laid to when they become fries [young fish] to juveniles to adults. We must ensure that the right cycle is maintained.”   FishNet Alliance’s Campaigns “Fish Not Oil”: Tracking Oil Spills in Nigeria Fish Not Oil, a key alliance campaign, challenges the expansion of the oil industry through collaborating with Oil Watch . Nigeria’s National Oil Spill and Detection Agency (NOSDA) revealed that 822 oil spills were detected in 2020 and 2021, causing 28,000 barrels to pollute the environment ( see video by HOMEF ). This increased to 933 publicly available oil spills with just under 29,500 barrels spilled in 2024 alone based on most recent NOSDA data . Oil pollution of a stream in the Eteo community in Eleme, Nigeria.  ©FishNet Alliance_HOMEF “We use the opportunity to train ourselves […] to be able to hold these guys [oil companies] accountable, even if we have to go the legal way,” Oduware comments. “So, we’ve been able to really shine the torchlight on the activities of multinational companies.”   Nigeria has a long history of environmental devastation  caused by oil, notably in the Ogoni region in the Niger Delta, populated by 500,000 Ogoni people. In the 1990s, they fought against Shell Oil and demanded environmental protection for the people whose land and rivers had been polluted.   Protecting Fish through Reserved Areas Today, the alliance has pledged to learn from people in the Ogoni region. There, the Kono community in Khana has established the Kono Wiinua Mangrove Reserved Area , a conservation initiative designed to protect fish species and preserve resources for the future. “Fishing is done periodically according to the details of their custom,” Oduware says. “So, it’s a kind of model that we use to preach to other communities on the need to have this kind of protected area.” A community-managed marine protected area in Wiinua, Kono community in Ogoni.  ©FishNet Alliance_HOMEF Warding off Sand-Filling Projects  FishNet Alliance is also helping the Makoko communities in Lagos to ward off the sand-filling  of waterways to make way for new developments. Fishers in Lagos, Nigeria.  © Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung (CC BY-SA 2.0) Over the past two years, more than 100 people have faced eviction from their homes in the Makoko Lagoon. Many make their living by fishing in this precious wetland area. Working with others, the organization is pressuring the authorities and constituting a legal team. “The battle is not yet won, but we have made a lot of progress, and we are keeping our eyes open, our fingers crossed to ensure that the planned eviction of that people will not see the light of day,” Oduware says.   Fisher Exchanges Other initiatives include fisher exchanges. For example, when fishers from Senegal revealed that oil and gas had been found close to where they were fishing, they contacted FishNet Alliance. A small group of six fishers was invited to visit the Niger Delta to see how local people were dealing with the impact of oil and gas production on their aquatic environment. Giving Support to Meet Community Needs   In addition, the alliance responds to fishers’ needs. In Togo, for example, a society was set up to support fishers’ livelihoods. Fishing gear, including an outboard engine, was donated to communities in Doevi Kope and Kpeme. An outboard engine given to the Kpeme community in Togo.  ©FishNet Alliance_HOMEF Education  Part of the alliance’s work is to help fishers build their knowledge. It has a toolkit for oceans and human rights defenders , a policy paper  on establishing fresh water and marine protected areas in Nigeria and a guide to aquatic ecosystem monitoring, reporting, organizing and advocacy .   Although members are not required to have certification, they are asked to stand by certain principles. They must fish within the ocean’s limits to preserve the ecosystem and respect natural cycles of life, the water cycle, and the carbon cycle.   Certification Options for Fish Products Although members are not required to have certification, they are asked to stand by certain principles. They must fish within the ocean’s limits to preserve the ecosystem and respect natural cycles of life, the water cycle, and the carbon cycle.     “We are hoping that we get our fishers to the point where they'll be able to stand up for themselves while also doing the right thing and getting others to do the right things as well,” Oduware says. Certified fish products can reassure environmentally conscious consumers that the fish they are buying is sustainable. For example, Best Aquaculture Practices , offers end-to-end certification. Standards include those for hatcheries, which must conduct a risk assessment of potential human food safety risks .   The Aquaculture Stewardship Council  provides producers in 121 countries with certification. Those it certifies must ensure labor practices are responsible, diseases managed well, and the ecosystem protected. *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for non-profit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

Besides Feeding Marine Life, Tiny Algae Also Trap Carbon Gases By Alina Bradford* A phytoplankton bloom (bright blue and green swirls) off the coast of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark in 2004.  Flickr /NASA Goddard Space Flight Center ( CC BY 2.0 ) Aside from a miraculous case of how an Italian teenager survived for 42 minutes underwater  without oxygen in 2015 or Stéphane Mifsud’s static apnea (holding one’s breath without moving) underwater world record of 11 minutes and 35 seconds  in 2009, air—rather, oxygen—is something human beings can’t literally live without.  When thinking of oxygen production, lush forests and leafy green plants often come to mind. But surprisingly, most of the oxygen people breathe doesn't come from trees—it comes from the ocean. It’s estimated that phytoplankton produce over 50% of the Earth’s oxygen , making them the unsung heroes of the atmosphere. It’s estimated that phytoplankton produce over 50% of the Earth’s oxygen, making them the unsung heroes of the atmosphere. Phytoplankton. Flickr /NOAA Photo Library ( CC BY 2.0 ) Phytoplankton (or microalgae) are tiny, plant-like organisms floating near the ocean’s surface (in the euphotic zone , usually the top 200 to 300 meters or about 656 to 984 feet). These microscopic powerhouses perform photosynthesis, using sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce energy and oxygen. Though invisible to the naked eye ( ranging from  less than 1 micrometer to over 100 micrometers), phytoplankton exist in vast numbers and support the foundation of marine ecosystems. Without phytoplankton, not only would marine life collapse , but humans and all land animals would struggle to survive due to the drastic drop in atmospheric oxygen. Their ecological importance is matched only by their potential in fighting climate change, thanks to their ability to store carbon in the deep ocean. Phytoplankton’s Role in Marine Ecosystems Phytoplankton are the base of the aquatic food web . In addition to feeding zooplankton—tiny animals in the ocean—phytoplankton are eaten by larger creatures like fish, whales, and seabirds. In this way, plankton support life from the smallest shrimp to the largest blue whales. “But the important takeaway is that we are all members of this food web,” Reagan Errera , PhD, a research ecologist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, said in a 2019 Tedx Talk . “Starting with the phytoplankton, moving up through fish and shellfish, and ending potentially with humans, ‘the small’ have a big impact on our drinking water, seafood industry, and ecosystem and human health.” “Starting with the phytoplankton, moving up through fish and shellfish, and ending potentially with humans, ‘the small’ have a big impact on our drinking water, seafood industry, and ecosystem and human health.” Without phytoplankton, marine biodiversity would crash. Fish populations would dwindle, affecting both natural ecosystems and global fisheries that feed millions. Coral reefs, which depend on healthy zooplankton populations , would also struggle, affecting coastal communities and ocean tourism. Tracking Phytoplankton Populations To understand how many phytoplankton are in the ocean, scientists monitor levels of chlorophyll , the green pigment in plants that captures sunlight for photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is like a glowing marker that satellites in space can detect, with high levels indicated in dark green. A time lapse of global chlorophyll concentrations from July 2002 to January 2025.  NASA Earth Observatory  (Public Domain) According to NASA , satellite images can track the global distribution of phytoplankton. These colorful maps help scientists understand how ocean health changes with the seasons, pollution, and climate patterns like El Niño. The data also help predict events like algal blooms—when phytoplankton grow out of control. Phytoplankton and ‘Dead Zones’ While most phytoplankton are beneficial, under certain conditions, they can become dangerous. When oceans or lakes get too many nutrients, especially from agricultural runoff or sewage, phytoplankton can grow too fast. These events are called harmful algal blooms  (HABs). Some species produce toxins that can kill fish, poison shellfish, and even harm people who swim in contaminated water. A harmful algal bloom (in green) in Lake Erie in 2017.   Flickr /NOAA Great Lakes (Public Domain) “ Dead zones ” are areas in the ocean with little to no oxygen; they can form when large phytoplankton blooms die and sink. As bacteria break the blooms down, they use up the surrounding oxygen. Marine animals flee or die, and ecosystems can take years to recover. Powerful Carbon Sequestration On the positive side, phytoplankton offer a natural solution to climate change.   During their daily photosynthesis, they absorb over 100 million tons of carbon dioxide  (CO2)—the gas most responsible for climate change. Some of the carbon gets stored in the phytoplankton’s bodies. When they die, some sink to the bottom of the ocean, taking the carbon with them. This process, known as the biological carbon pump , helps reduce the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Coccolithophores have round plates of calcium carbonate.  © Flickr /ZEISS Microscopy ( CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 ) “Once [coccolithophores (a type of phytoplankton)] bloom, once they die, not only do they take the sugar carbon they produce, they also take the calcium carbonate—the inorganic chalky material—to the bottom of the ocean,” said Ivona Cetinić , PhD, senior research scientist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center’s Ocean Ecology Laboratory in a 2023 video . “So, they’re really good for exporting carbon—removing it from this contact with the atmosphere.” “So, [coccolithophores are] really good for exporting carbon—removing it from this contact with the atmosphere.” However, the 7th Copernicus Ocean State Report  in 2023 by the Copernicus Marine Service, a program of the European Union, indicated that climate change itself is a concern for phytoplankton: “Climate-induced changes causing temperature rise, ocean acidification and ocean deoxygenation stress the ocean’s contemporary biogeochemical cycles and ecosystems, thereby impacting the phytoplankton communities,” it said. Despite this concern, the report indicated that “most phytoplankton functional types remained stable over the period 2002–2021, except for prokaryotes [plankton without a nucleus ], which slightly declined over this period,” based on a study  in the report.  Some scientists are exploring artificial ocean fertilization , where nutrients are added to stimulate phytoplankton growth to store more carbon. However, this approach remains controversial due to unknown side effects. Cultivating Phytoplankton at Home Cultivating phytoplankton can be a great way to feed one’s aquarium tank and support healthy ecosystems. Many reef tank owners also use home-grown phytoplankton to feed corals, clams, and filter feeders. Here’s a basic guide to growing phytoplankton  at home: Start with a culture . Purchase a starter culture of live phytoplankton from a trusted supplier. Get the right equipment . Clear containers (like 2-liter bottles), an air pump, airline tubing, and a light source. Maintaining clean equipment and consistent conditions is key to preventing contamination. Add nutrients . Use a special phytoplankton fertilizer mix, often sold as "Guillards F/2" or similar. Provide light and air . Keep the culture under a bright light for at least 16 hours a day and constantly aerate the water to keep the culture mixed and oxygenated. Harvest regularly . After 7–10 days, the culture should be dark green and ready to harvest. Filter it through a fine mesh, store it in the fridge, and feed it to your tank in small doses. Appreciation for Phytoplankton Despite their tiny size, phytoplankton are among the most important organisms on Earth. They provide the majority of the oxygen people breathe, feed marine life, and even help fight climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide. Whether a scientist, a student, or an aquarium hobbyist, understanding and appreciating these microscopic wonders can deepen respect for the planet's delicate balance. Next time when taking a breath, remember—there are the phytoplankton to thank. *Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert who has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com .

By Gordon Cairns* Bicycles parked on King’s Square, Copenhagen, Denmark.  Photo: Ioannis Koutroubakis It is early evening in Copenhagen. At the intersection where traffic crossing the Queen Louise Bridge meets Frederiksborggade Street, special traffic lights for the bike lane have just turned green, and a constant stream of bikes safely navigates the junction. Some bike riders are dressed for going out in party dresses and cowboy boots, while others are returning from the office in business suits, their dress shoes pushing down on the pedals. Delivery bikes transport parcels, furniture, and musical instruments while parents cycle their kids home from school. There is not a private car in sight. But it is not just the enormous number of bikes running through Denmark’s capital city that surprises the visitor—it’s the fresh, clean air and just how healthy everyone looks. 187,000 cyclists aged 20 to 93 found that cycling for 100 minutes per week was associated with a 17% lower mortality rate. And it's not just that these cyclists appear healthy; they are statistically more likely to be healthier than those who don’t ride a bike. In a comprehensive review of the literature, a study  (“Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Reduction in All-Cause Mortality from Walking And Cycling”) involving 187,000 cyclists aged 20 to 93 found that cycling for 100 minutes per week was associated with a 17% lower rate of mortality after accounting for all other factors. 187,000 cyclists aged 20 to 93 found that cycling for 100 minutes per week was associated with a 17% lower rate of mortality after accounting for all other factors. Cycling’s Multiple Health Benefits This 2013 study found that cycling significantly reduced the risk of coronary heart disease. Unlike other forms of cardiovascular exercise, such as walking or running, riding a bike places less stress on the joints and has been used in physical therapy to help patients regain joint mobility. Cycling is a great way to meet the recommended 150 minutes of physical activity per week to maintain weight  because it is easy to incorporate into daily life. Increasing riding intensity by incorporating inclines, hills, higher speeds, and longer durations can lead to weight loss. Another large-scale study  among middle-aged and older Danish cyclists found that if they adopted the cycling habit—even later in life—they reduced their risk of developing type 2 diabetes by 20%. An additional benefit was that the regular bike riders had smaller waistlines than those who used other means of transportation. Biking helps increase quadriceps muscle strength and other leg muscles, which in turn supports balance and enhances performance in various physical activities. Older adults  can maintain their muscle mass with regular cycling. And it’s not just physical benefits; research has shown that cycling can also help improve mental health. A study published last year by the University of Edinburgh  found that people who cycled to work regularly were found to be 15% less likely to be prescribed medication for anxiety or depression compared with non-cyclists. Commuting by bike resulted in greater reductions in mental health prescriptions among women than men. Commuting by bike results in greater reductions in mental health prescriptions among women than among men.  @Kr-Tr/iStock Bike Safety on Roads In the 1970s, when the Dutch capital Amsterdam began creating bike lanes for its citizens, it wasn’t primarily due to the health benefits. City Hall was stirred into action after a campaign by parents worried about the lives of their cycling children being knocked down by cars. Over the intervening half-century, the city has seen a rise in cycling. Traffic in the city moves faster, and there has been a 40,000-ton reduction in CO2 pollution in the atmosphere. London now has one of the largest pay-to-enter zones in the world, with many former car drivers now opting to cycle in central London. In London, in an attempt to reduce car pollution in the city and encourage people to use alternative forms of transport, authorities introduced congestion charges in 2003. As a result, London now has one of the largest pay-to-enter zones in the world, with many former car drivers now opting to cycle in central London. In the last 26 years, since 1999, the number of motorists has decreased by over 60% , and the number of cyclists has increased by more than 380%.  Across the Channel in Paris, France, €400 million has been invested in building cycling lanes over the past decade. Now, 11% of journeys are made by bike, almost three times the amount taken by car. Even in the USA, a country known for its love of cars, Portland, Oregon, has added 400 miles of bike lanes  while Minnesota has now at least 321 miles of paved bike trails  and is well known for its bike-friendly atmosphere. A Shift in Transportation Behavior As a cycling commuter with over two decades of experience in another great European city, Glasgow, UK, the author has witnessed a significant shift in transportation behavior, perhaps the biggest change since Henry Ford’s motorcars began to replace horses and carriages on city streets. Over the last two decades, bike riders have experienced a shift from being occasionally pushed to the side of the road by speeding car drivers to riding along specially cordoned-off sections of the road. Cyclists riding together in the same direction makes them more visible and means that car drivers are more aware of them, giving them more space.  ©William 87/iStock Instead of being a lonely bike rider on an early morning commute, many bikers now ride together in the same direction, which makes them more visible and means that car drivers are more aware of them, giving them more space. More and more bikes are being parked side by side in the workplace bike shelter. One of the individuals who has helped create change in Glasgow is Iain Morrison, the technical director of landscape and planning for Ironside Farrar, a company hired to implement the changes planned by the city. One of the barriers to cycling is safety, and the challenge lies in how cycle lane planners are addressing this issue. Morrison explained that when designing a route, it has to be considered safe enough for an unaccompanied 12-year-old child to ride. The goal is to achieve 0% fatalities—a feat accomplished by Oslo in Norway first in 2019, another city transforming itself into a cycling hub.   When designing a [bicycle] route, it has to be considered safe enough for an unaccompanied 12-year-old child to ride. By achieving lower traffic speeds with clear routes and segregation for bikes and cars, it becomes a safer environment for riding. “The main interface with road traffic is at a junction,” Morrison adds. “The clear strategy is to reduce traffic speed at junctions, prioritizing pedestrians and cyclists.” Of course, bikes will have to cross paths with cars at some point. Morrison explains: “The routes are like a bike chain—they are only as safe as their weakest link. If they aren’t safe in places, such as a big roundabout, people simply won’t use them.” “The other thing that simply makes cycling safer is the more people who are cycling, the safer it becomes as it increases driver awareness. This has been proven throughout the world.”   Creating a Cycling Culture Morrison also emphasizes that it is not enough to put in bike lanes and hope that bike riders will come; cycling culture has to be encouraged. “We are not just designing the route; we also have to target how our route is going to be used—who is going to use it and how can we make it easier for them to use it. That involves working with schools and youth groups to create behavioral change,” he says. Individuals, too, can promote behavioral change—they can ride their bikes wherever it is safe to do so. The more people who bike in large urban conglomerates, the more space bikes will need. City planners will need to adjust road layouts to share available space and provide dedicated pathways for bike riders. When driving cars, people can be more aware of bikes on the road, giving more space when passing them and considering whether a car is really necessary for the journey ahead. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

Extraordinary Health Benefits of Sprouts Can Also Be Homegrown *By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe Sprouting chlorophyll-rich microgreens at home is increasingly popular with consumers.  ©IURII BUKHTA/ iStock Sprouting—the process of germinating seeds, grains, or legumes—has been associated with several health benefits, mostly due to the biochemical changes that occur during germination.   While sprouting can be done at home in any season, it is an excellent way to get nutrients in winter months. “It literally takes 48 hours to sprout beans even in cold Canadian weather,” says vegetarian food blogger Bhavna , who writes her “food journey” from Ontario, Canada.   Today, the demand for sprouting is growing, thanks to health-conscious consumers, the regenerative agriculture movement, and the rise of personalized nutrition.   The growing adoption of plant-based diets is boosting interest in sprouting. “ Currently, sprouting is gaining prominence because of its potential health benefits and is therefore being considered as a promising strategy for improving the nutritional value of foods," Elena Penas and Cristina Martinez-Villaluenga wrote in Foods in 2020.     A small but perennial concern with sprouting is foodborne illness. In recent decades, there have been outbreaks of E. c oli  and Salmonella , especially with commercial clover, alfalfa, and bean sprouts. Some events   have  had fatalities as well as thousands of sicknesses. Other challenges  include regulatory oversight and supply chain consistency. However, public health agencies  and proponents of sprouting are tackling all these issues —particularly those involving food safety—to ensure sprouts can remain a trusted, tasty, nutritional part of a plant-rich diet. The global market value of packaged sprouts is about $1.3 billion. This is projected to almost double to $2 billion by 2033, according to Fact.MR , a market research firm  in Maryland.     An Ancient Food Source Sprouting has been practiced for centuries, with historical use in Eastern medicine, traditional food systems, and Indigenous diets. The benefits of sprouted foods have been confirmed by research , which is leading to increased mainstream acceptance. Microgreens are a nutritious topping for sashimi.  Photo: Valeria Boltneva/ pexels “In recent decades, it has seen a resurgence, particularly with the rise of raw and whole-food movements,” says Martin Caunce, director of Brow Farm  in Lancashire, UK, which specializes in organic growing and sells produce, seeds, flours, sprouting supplies, and products like buckwheat-filled pillows. Public interest in “super foods” is popular in 2025 , as well as so-called functional foods ­ or foods that may help the body beyond their core nutritional values. Sprouting plays into these interests, especially since sprouted grains, pulses, and seeds can be integrated into a wide range of foods, from baked goods  to plant-based protein products. Health Benefits of Sprouting A 2021 research study  reveals that “tremendous advances have been made…describing [sprouts’] nutritional and medicinal properties.” Though the researchers call for more studies of the relationship between sprouts and gut health, they state that sprouting is an effective method that allows seed phytochemical manipulation to improve health benefits for all.   Sprouts, says the American Heart Association (AHA), are tiny providers of “big nutrition.” Many choices, many benefits. Photo: Mikhail Nilov/pexels Sprouts, says the   American Heart Association  (AHA) , are tiny providers of “big nutrition.” That’s because germination can strengthen the presence of specific vitamins and minerals.   Harvard Health  states that sprouted grains, for instance, have higher “folate, iron, vitamin C, zinc, magnesium, and protein” levels than mature grains. Sprouting also works to break down and reduce antinutrients like phytates—which can inhibit the absorption of minerals such as zinc, iron, and magnesium—thus increasing the bioavailability of these essential nutrients.                                                                               Sprouting is also associated with better digestion. The AHA says that sprouts                                     can improve digestion of carbohydrates and proteins. A   2024 research study   found that sprouts enhance gut microbial richness and diversity.   Research further suggests  that sprouted grains and seeds are high in antioxidants , which help lower the risk of chronic diseases and fight inflammation.   Moreover, a 2021 research review  published in Nutrients says sprouted foods are often linked with various biologically active constituents, including saponins, flavonoids, and phenolic acids, which have been connected to anticancer, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities.   Finally, sprouting is linked to blood sugar regulation. Sprouted grains and legumes have a lower glycemic index , making them beneficial for blood sugar management. Optimal Sprouting Conditions In recent years, studies on sprouting point to key factors that affect its success rates. Research shows  that sprout composition largely depends on genotype, environmental conditions associated with the mother plant, and germination conditions, such as lighting and air temperature. Equipped with this knowledge, farmers and growers gain more insights into how to develop optimal sprouting conditions.   The process of sprouting involves soaking seeds, grains, or legumes in water, allowing them to germinate, and then rinsing them periodically to encourage growth. This biochemical transformation activates enzymes that break down antinutrients, such as phytic acid , and increase the bioavailability of vitamins, minerals, and amino acids.   In commercial settings, sprouting conditions are controlled and monitored to reduce microbial risks while maximizing nutrient density. In commercial settings, sprouting conditions are controlled and monitored to reduce microbial risks while maximizing nutrient density. “Advances in biotechnology are exploring ways to enhance sprouting benefits further, including prebiotic and probiotic synergies,” notes Caunce of Brow Farms.   While sprouting can enhance seeds, grains, and legumes’ nutritional profiles, the process also creates a warm, moist environment conducive to bacterial growth. Therefore, it’s vital that farmers and growers properly handle sprouts to minimize the risk of foodborne illness.   How to Sprout at Home     Select quality seeds: Choose seeds specifically labeled for sprouting to ensure they are free from harmful bacteria. Soak: Place the seeds in a jar, cover them with water, and soak them for the recommended time. This is typically between six and 12 hours, depending on the seed type. Rinse and drain: After soaking, drain the water and rinse the seeds thoroughly. Drain again to prevent excess moisture. Sprout: Leave the jar at room temperature, away from direct sunlight. Rinse and drain the seeds two or three times daily. Harvest: After a few days, when the sprouts are about ¼ inch long, they are ready to eat. Storage: Store the sprouts in the refrigerator and consume them within a few days. Sprouting in jars.  ©aetb/ iStock Sprouting for Livestock   Sprouting is also gaining traction  in regenerative and sustainable farming practices.   At Brow Farm, the team uses sprouted grains as part of its feed for its free-range pigs.   “Sprouted grains and legumes are increasingly being used as high-nutrient, digestible feed for livestock, particularly for free-range and pasture-raised animals,” says Caunce. A fodder-sprouting factory.  Photo: Kchittock0511/CC BY-SA 3.0 Sprouting grains like wheat, barley, and oats improve their digestibility and increase their protein and vitamin content, providing a more nutrient-dense feed while reducing reliance on conventional feed sources, he adds.   The process aligns with the farm’s regenerative farming principles by enhancing soil health and utilizing whole-grain feeds to benefit both the livestock and the land. *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe   is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 10 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences. Source : Interview with Martin Caunce, Director of Brow Farm.

*By Rick Laezman Wildfires threatening beaches along the Pacific Palisades, January 8, 2025.  Photo: CALFIRE  CC BY-NC 2.0 Well before Los Angeles firefighters had even a modicum of control over the devastating fires in January 2025, the search for answers had begun. The relationship between humans and the natural environment is complex. Climate change is real, but it is not a simple explanation for the catastrophic effects of every weather-related event that happens. More realistically, climate change contributes to society's continuing and increasing difficulty in living in harmony with its natural environment. In a recent analysis ,  a group of UCLA climate scientists concluded that global warming was not the sole or leading cause of the Los Angeles fires: “[C]limate change may be linked to roughly a quarter of the extreme fuel moisture deficit when the fires began” but “the fires would still have been extreme without climate change, but probably somewhat smaller and less intense.” Common Factors in the 2025 Wildfires On Tuesday, January 7, 2025, two different fires erupted in the greater metropolitan Los Angeles area. In the morning, a brush fire started on the slopes of coastal sage scrub just north of Santa Monica in an area known as the Pacific Palisades. Later that evening, another brush fire erupted in a chaparral (a type of scrubland vegetation) canyon north of Pasadena in the community of Altadena. Both fires escalated quickly, soon turning deadly and massively destructive. Although they were separated by nearly 50 miles and never connected, the two fires shared some striking similarities. First, both fires started in the dry brush of the foothills surrounding Los Angeles. Southern California often suffers from long periods of drought and has a relatively mild, arid climate. In the last two rainy seasons, however, the region experienced higher-than-normal rainfall, leading to the generous growth of shrubs and weedy grasses. The summer of 2024 was dry and extremely hot and had no significant rainfall since the previous spring. This caused the extra growth from the two previous winters to dry out.   The Santa Ana winds in January 2025 were different. … Gusts were recorded up to 100 miles an hour, equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane. Second, against this backdrop of excessive amounts of dry fuel came the notorious Santa Ana winds. While Southern California winds often blow easterly from the Pacific Ocean, bringing cool, moist air inland, the Santa Anas blow in the opposite direction. They usually originate in the fall in the high desert mountains, carrying dry, warm air toward the ocean, and down and west into the lowlands. The Santa Ana winds in January 2025 were different. They came much later than normal and blew with a force rarely seen before. They surged out of the east but swirled in all different directions. Gusts were recorded up to 100 miles an hour , equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane. These circumstances set the stage for the disaster that ensued. Regardless of what may have caused the fires initially, the area was poised to burn and burn quickly once the fires began. The Palisades Fire grew to over 200 acres in less than two hours. Similarly, the Eaton Fire expanded five times in size in just four hours.   California’s Fire-Prone Landscape Wildfires, brush and grass fires are a naturally occurring part of the ecology in California and other areas. According to the conservation organization Theodore Payne Foundation , fire has been part of the California landscape for millions of years and has played an important role in shaping the area's habitats and plant communities. Firefighters containing a brushfire during the Eaton Fire in Los Angeles County, January 9, 2025.  Video: CALFIRE  CC BY-NC 2.0   The Foundation notes that Northern California’s forested landscapes have historically experienced naturally occurring fires every 20 to 30 years, while in Southern California fires occur every 30 to 130 years. As humans have settled in the West over the last couple of centuries, they have increasingly encountered and, at the same time, exacerbated the naturally occurring process of fire. The Western Fire Chiefs Association  notes that the earliest known wildfire in California history was the Santiago Canyon Fire of 1889. It burned around 300,000 acres in parts of Orange County, San Diego County, and Riverside County. The Fire Chiefs at that time used surprisingly familiar-sounding language to describe the fire’s origins, saying it “was preceded by a severe drought coupled with high-speed winds that further dried out the land.” They add that “the conditions were just right for an intense and destructive fire,” an eerie similarity to the January 7 events. “[M]any of the most dangerous and destructive fires in California have happened within the last several years due to climate change.” The Western Fire Chiefs Association maintains several lists on its website s that indicate “many of the most dangerous and destructive fires in California have happened within the last several years due to climate change.” For example, of the 20 largest fires in California history, based on acreage burned, four out of the top five happened in the last five years, and all but two were in the last 25 years. Only the list of the 20 deadliest (loss of life) fires is somewhat more evenly distributed over the last century. Although fires have become more frequent and intense, California can take some consolation in knowing that an increase in deaths has nevertheless been avoided. However, the trend of fires is intensifying, and it is also not limited to California. According to the Insurance Information Institute,  the Golden State is first on its top 10 lists, but other states come close. For example, in 2023, California had the highest number of wildfires (7,364), but Texas had almost as many, with 7,102. Similarly, for the area burned in that year, California saw the highest loss of 332,722 acres, followed closely by Alaska (314,276 acres), New Mexico (212,378 acres), Texas (210,264 acres), and Oregon (202,035 acres). Progress of the Palisades and surrounding area fires. Images acquired from January 6 to 14 by satellite (Operational Land Imager-2 on Landsat 9) show the area affected by the fire. The false-color images combine shortwave infrared, near-infrared, and visible components (OLI bands 6-5-3) of the electromagnetic spectrum making it easier to identify unburned vegetation (green) and recently burned landscape (light to dark brown).  VIDEO: NASA/JPL Global Warming and Other Factors   It is logical to blame climate change for the worsening trend. As weather patterns change, specific dynamics become exaggerated. Organizations and agencies dedicated to studying global climate change, such as the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions , assert that “climate change has been a key factor in increasing the risk and extent of wildfires in the Western United States.” Fire events have become more frequent and extreme in California, other states, and other parts of the world; hot weather, drought, dry conditions, and intense winds all contribute to the increasing intensity and occurrence of fires. The Center points to studies  that show that climate change has “doubled the forest fire area between 1984 and 2015” in the western side of the nation. There is no disputing that fire events have become more frequent  and extreme in California, other states, and other parts of the world; hot weather, drought, dry conditions, and intense winds all contribute to the increasing intensity and occurrence of fires. However, it is essential to note that other factors also contribute to this pattern, creating the opportunity for global warming to make things worse. David Demeritt , College of Arts & Sciences Professor of Earth and Environment at Boston University, cautions that “focusing on climate change leads to a certain kind of paralysis because it suggests that unless we get the entire planet on board to reduce emissions to minimize climate change, there is nothing we can do.” Understanding the causes of the Los Angeles fires requires an examination of “the immediate proximate cause (such as high ‘Santa Ana winds’ and drought)” combined with “longer-term trends in ecology, fire suppression, and land use.” Living in High-Risk Fire Zones Consider, for example, that many California residents choose to live in high-fire-risk zones. For over a century, housing developments have encroached onto geographic areas—forests, mountains, grasslands, chaparral, and sage scrub—where fire is part of the ecology. According to the Insurance Information Institute , in 2024, California had over a million housing units in areas at risk for extreme wildfires. Colorado is the next closest state on that list, with a little over 300,000 units. These figures show rapid growth over the last 30 years. According to research  led by Volker Radeloff, a professor of forest ecology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the number of homes in fire-prone parts of California grew by 40% between 1990 and 2020. Wildfire approaching a Pacific Palisades neighborhood on January 8, 2025.  Photo: CALFIRE  CC BY-NC 2.0 In addition to residential building patterns, for more than a century, policies have aimed to suppress naturally occurring fires. More than a century ago, conservationist and commercial timber interests convinced the federal government to adopt policies to suppress all naturally occurring forest fires. In 1935, the U.S. Forest Service  established a “10 a.m. policy,” which decreed that all fires should be completely extinguished by 10 a.m. the day following when they were first reported. Even though ranchers, farmers, timbermen, Native Americans, and others had long recognized the value of controlled burning in forested areas to keep them healthy and had incorporated the practice into the management of their own lands, the Forest Services' policies of complete fire suppression remained in effect for decades. It was not until the 1960s that the value of natural and controlled burns was reintroduced into forest management practice. It was not until the 1960s that the value of natural and controlled burns was reintroduced into forest management practice. By then, decades of accumulated forest fire fuel posed a new challenge. Now, when fires ignite, and eventually they do, the excessive fuel makes the burning much more intense. Another contributing factor is invasive plant species. Specifically, European settlers drastically altered the ecology with their introduction of non-native grasses  in the 1700s to feed their livestock. The weedy grasses have taken over the landscape, filling gaps in the shrubs, and introducing a highly flammable fuel. Before the introduction of these species, fire was part of the ecology, but it was much less frequent and intense. A Way Forward Addressing climate change is a formidable challenge that will take years and tremendous political will. Waiting for that kind of change will not be sufficient to mitigate the pattern of increasingly deadly wildfires. But there are steps to take today. Jack Cohen and Stephen Pyne have studied the history and behavior of wildfires: “We don’t have to solve climate change in order to solve our community wildfire risk problem,” they said in an interview with the Los Angeles Times . Instead, they argue for a change in society’s understanding and relationship to fire: “[A] thousand things that tweak the environment” will help prevent these eruptions. *Rick Laezman   is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has been covering renewable power and other related subjects for more than ten years.

*By Kelcie Ottoes Tap water is fluoridated in most US community water systems.  Photo: Margaret Barse/ Flickr  (Public domain) For decades, fluoride has been added to community water supplies to help prevent cavities. But since fluoride is also present in toothpaste and food, questions are emerging about its overexposure and potential health risks. Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., the Trump administration’s new secretary of health and human services, has long called for an end to fluoridation in public water systems, citing health concerns. In response, many medical health associations , including the American Dental Association, have decried Kennedy’s views and reminded policymakers that fluoridating public water is considered “ one of the 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century.” Meanwhile, new research is emerging to help policymakers decide whether fluoridation should remain a public health standard. For the public, understanding fluoride’s benefits and risks can help people make their own decisions about it. How Does Fluoride Protect Teeth? Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral found in soil, water, and certain foods like dairy, meat, and seafood. It plays a key role in oral health by strengthening tooth enamel, attracting calcium and phosphate  to rebuild weakened areas, and creating a more acid-resistant surface that helps prevent cavities. Fluoride can strengthen teeth through toothpaste and dental treatments. Children absorb it more than adults, making early intake especially impactful. However, naturally occurring “fluorine” in water was once an alarming dental concern. At high levels, the mineral permanently turned children’s and adult’s teeth brown, even to the point of being “the color of chocolate candy,” the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research said in an article  on the US history of fluoridation. By the 1940s, researchers figured out how to avoid both “fluorosis” and stained teeth. But they also saw there were fewer cavities in populations when there was a very low level of fluoride in the drinking water. In 1945, Grand Rapids, Michigan, became the first city to add fluoride —at tiny levels—to the public drinking water. For 80 years, fluoride has been added in controlled amounts to many public water supplies through a process called water fluoridation. Compounds like sodium fluoride, fluorosilicic acid , or sodium fluorosilicate  dissolve into the water supply, maintaining steady fluoride levels to help protect against tooth decay. Many countries, including the US, UK, and Australia , continue this practice due to its proven effectiveness in combatting tooth decay. A 2023 Environmental Research  review of Australian studies from 1960 to 2022 indicated that fluoridated water reduces cavities by 26% to 44% across all age groups. Black tea is a natural source of fluoride.  ©freefoodphotos.com  ( CC BY 3.0 ) Beyond water and dental care, fluoride is also present in certain processed foods (such as brewed black tea ), beverages made with fluoridated water, and dietary supplements designed for areas without fluoridated water supplies. A 2023 Environmental Research review of Australian studies from 1960 to 2022 indicated that fluoridated water reduces cavities by 26% to 44% across all age groups. As of 2020, 72.7%  of the U.S. population receives fluoridated water through community water systems. Regulatory Responses on Fluoride A boy with skeletal fluorosis of the legs.  © Flickr /India Water Portal ( CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 ) While water fluoridation is a major source, toothpaste ( especially when ingested ) and certain foods may contribute significantly to overall fluoride intake, particularly in areas where people drink less tap water. This can lead people to worry that they may be consuming more fluoride than necessary. Besides dental fluorosis , which causes brown-stained teeth (a cosmetic issue), overexposure has been linked to a rare condition called skeletal fluorosis , in which bone structure changes to become more brittle and less elastic , potentially leading to joint pain and bone damage. There are also studies  pointing to lower IQs and other cognitive harms in children who ingest too much fluoride. The US federal government‘s National Toxicology Program  began studying published research on fluoride in 2015. In January 2025, it concluded, “ with moderate confidence, that higher levels of fluoride exposure, such as drinking water containing more than 1.5 milligrams of fluoride per liter, are associated with lower IQ in children.” Its research was published on January 6, 2025, in JAMA Pediatrics . In response to these concerns, health and environmental agencies have introduced guidelines and limits to help regulate fluoride exposure while trying to maintain its dental benefits. Regulatory Action and Recommendations 1986 : The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)  set a legal fluoride limit of 4 mg/L in drinking water to prevent bone disease and dental fluorosis. 2011 : The EPA and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services proposed lowering fluoride concentration to 0.7 mg/L to balance cavity prevention with the risk of fluorosis. 2013 : The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)  recommended a daily intake limit of 0.05 mg/kg body weight per day for children and adults. 2015 : The US Public Health Service (PHS)  lowered its recommended level from 1.2 mg/L to 0.7 mg/L due to increased fluoride exposure from multiple sources. The 0.7 mg/L recommendation was finalized  but remains optional for states. September 2024: A federal judge ordered the EPA  to reevaluate fluoride regulations in drinking water due to concerns about its effects on children's intellectual development. As research continues, policymakers are re-examining fluoride standards to ensure public health safety. Policy Shifts to Balance Benefits and Risks While major health organizations continue to support fluoridation, some countries and US regions are reconsidering their approach. Countries like Germany, Sweden, and Switzerland  have discontinued water fluoridation but still promote fluoride use through fortified salt and targeted dental programs. Meanwhile, several US cities and states, including Lebanon, Oregon , and Arkansas , have moved toward reducing or eliminating fluoridation. Florida’s State Surgeon General has also questioned the necessity of fluoridated water , citing the need for further evaluation of its long-term effects. “The difference in dental health outcomes between non-fluoridated and fluoridated waters in an urban setting with access to dental care and a community where folks actively visit dentists for preventative care would be minuscule.” “The difference in dental health outcomes between non-fluoridated and fluoridated waters in an urban setting with access to dental care and a community where folks actively visit dentists for preventative care would be minuscule,” says Rohini Agarwal, a dentist at Smilecloud Family Dental in Dallas, Texas, “The more pronounced impact is in areas where families are not actively invested in oral health.” So, families regularly visiting the dentist and prioritizing tooth health may want to find ways to reduce their fluoride exposure. Toothpaste and mouthwash typically contain fluoride unless specified otherwise.  ©geckophotos/ iStock How to Reduce Fluoride Exposure Those who are worried about fluoride intake can limit exposure while keeping their teeth healthy: Use a water filtration system that uses reverse osmosis and activated alumina filters. Choose fluoride-free bottled or filtered water. Limit tea, seafood, and processed foods made with fluoridated water. Use fluoride-free toothpaste and mouthwash. Brush and floss twice a day and reduce sugar intake to prevent cavities. Consider hydroxyapatite toothpaste  as a natural alternative to help remineralize enamel. According to Kevin Gast, CEO and Co-Founder of VVater , a water technology company, “The risk lies in overexposure, and the combination of fluoride in water, fluoride in your toothpaste, mouthwash, and other sources of fluoride is the high-risk factor. It is strongly advised to be selective in your products to minimize your risk of ‘overdosing’ on fluoride. Using the latest water treatment technologies to remove fluoride from your water makes a big difference, but also using fluoride-free toothpaste, mouthwash, and avoiding various processed foods and drinks that contain fluoride.” “The risk lies in overexposure, and the combination of fluoride in water, fluoride in your toothpaste, mouthwash, and other sources of fluoride is the high-risk factor. It is strongly advised to be selective in … products to minimize [the] risk of ‘overdosing’ on fluoride.” By examining how much fluoride one is exposed to, one can manage the amount and maintain good oral health. Making an Informed Choice The debate over fluoride isn’t settled. While it’s been used for decades to help prevent cavities, research continues to uncover the long-term effects and impact of overexposure. If concerned about fluoride, start by checking the local water report, asking the dentist about one’s fluoride intake, and looking into fluoride-free alternatives. Whether people support fluoridation for its benefits or prefer to avoid it, staying informed helps one make the best choice for their health. *Kelcie Ottoes is a copywriter for sustainable businesses. She specializes in long form content with a call to action and has worked with brands like Farm Journal, Pela, ZeroHero, and more.

Connecting with Nature Promotes Environmental Stewardship   *By Julie Peterson ©pedphoto36pm/ iStock Today, there is awakening awareness  that enlightened humans will be better stewards of nature. This awareness includes boosting one’s bond with nature—a delightful activity—and becoming conscientious about not harming nature through pollution or abuse of natural resources.   There is concern about the future that lies ahead if people don’t change, but it’s not too late .   Here are some tips for boosting one’s bond with nature and marveling at the difference it makes to humans and the rest of life on Earth.   Living in Harmony Being in nature can provide valuable life lessons. A stroll through the woods shows that species in nature live in harmony and that the survival of all life depends on relationships.   Symbiotic relationships are the rule in the forest. Diversity is what makes an ecosystem strong. For instance, a patch of woods has different types of trees growing together, trunks and branches entwined with short shrubs and groundcover plants below. Symbiotic relationships are the rule in the forest.   Diversity is what makes an ecosystem strong. Compare this to a city where people of different ethnicities, nationalities, and beliefs live together without friction. What might be learned by comparing these two places?    Diversity.  Photo: pexels Diversity.   Photo: pexels In a forest ecosystem, rabbits, squirrels, birds, deer, and other animals find food and shelter—whether it be in the groundcover plants such as violets, sedges, ferns, or baneberry; the understory shrubs and trees such as staghorn sumac, dogwood, witch hazel, viburnum, or elderberry; or the tree canopy of maple, hickory, oak, locust, cedar, pine, and so on. (For help in identifying trees and other plants when in the woods, try downloading  LeafSnap  or  Seek .)   In a healthy deciduous forest, every vertical level is occupied, and plant and animal diversities are great. A squirrel in the understory of a forest.  Photo: pexels Interconnected Lives Professor Chris Laszlo , of the Case Western Reserve University Fowler Center for Sustainable Value in Ohio, is a researcher on sustainability and systems thinking as it relates to the human connection with nature. He emphasizes that understanding the interconnectedness of all life forms and ecosystems is crucial to re-establishing a strong bond with nature.   After all, it was not that long ago, on Earth’s timeline, that humans were part of the wild and nothing was domesticated. Regaining this connection to the wilderness has repeatedly been shown to be beneficial to human health  and well-being  via improved breathing, better sleep, and reduced symptoms of depression.   Laszlo points out that the health of the natural environment also benefits from human beings recognizing the interconnectedness of all life . He believes that through learning about ecosystems, the roles of different species, and how humans and the environment interact, humans will recognize that they are an integral part of the natural world and see themselves as stewards rather than exploiters of nature.     “Looking at how individual flourishing, based on what we’re terming spiritual experience—through a greater sense of connectedness that people have to their own purpose, to community, and to the larger environment—is helping them to make decisions that support sustainability in everything they do,” says Laszlo . Conscious Living Though people may take walks next to a river or through the woods, if they aren’t paying attention, does it matter? Laszlo believes that reconnecting with nature means fostering a deep, mindful awareness of the natural world. Intentionally appreciating the beauty and complexity of the environment are ways for people to awaken their connection to the Earth.   Thus, instead of talking on a cell phone while walking a trail, it’s important to focus on nature and attune to the rhythms and beauty of the environment. Laszlo emphasizes the importance of being fully present in the moment and engaging all the senses when in nature.   By paying attention to the sights, sounds, smells, and textures of nature, individuals can develop a deeper appreciation and cultivate a more intimate relationship with the natural world.   Conscious living is not always easy for busy minds. It requires practice, and before that, learning. A few important steps toward conscious living  are:   Being mindful of thoughts and focusing on surroundings Seeing things through a wider lens, without ego and beliefs passing judgment Disconnecting from technology   “Don’t immerse yourself in your smartphone,” says Remez Sasson, author and creator of SuccessConsciousness , a personal growth and conscious-living website. “There is real life around you. Don’t forget the world. Where your awareness is, that’s where you are.”   Mindful awareness of our relationship with the wild can be encouraged by practicing gratitude, which also helps to cultivate a deeper emotional connection.   Mindful awareness of our relationship with the wild can be encouraged by practicing gratitude, which also helps to cultivate a deeper emotional connection, according to Laszlo.   This could be done by tracking one’s relationship with nature through journaling: “Today I walked the path along the lake. I saw a family of ducks. The lapping of the waves sounded soothing, but I saw the ducklings struggled to swim through these waves. Perhaps this is a lesson in how I can move through my own obstacles.” Journaling in nature.  ©mussi87/ IStock Photo journaling with captions could be equally effective (share it on social media or not; this is a personal relationship): “Interesting tree still growing even though it is broken.” “Beautiful rocks left behind by a glacier—a magnitude of force that puts my life in perspective.” “The sun was dappling through the trees, and I noticed the bees on the dandelions.” Laszlo says that gratitude fosters a mindset of respect and reverence, which can lead to more mindful actions toward the planet.   Humans are empowered by going inside themselves and observing what’s happening there. When meditating on the environment, some people come up with feelings of helplessness  about making a difference. But are those thoughts logical, since people are empowered with limitless imagination and an abundance of free will? Can people further evolve to consciously improve their relationship with the natural world?   The biophilia hypothesis says they can. It refers to one's innate or inborn focus or emotion toward life forms. Researchers say people were biologically driven  to interact with plants and animals as an evolutionary adaptation, especially crucial for humanity's survival in nature during ancient times. However, in the modern era, biophilia has shifted toward an “affiliation with Nature” that deepened and expressed itself through pro-environmental behavior.   Nurture the Connection There are myriad activities that will strengthen one’s connection with nature. Some come with a payback in the form of increased energy  and improved physical  health outcomes, such as a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease or diabetes. Mental health  benefits may include decreased distress, attention restoration, and a sense of fulfilment . A sense of fulfilment. Istock Without realizing it, someone’s preferred activities may actually be a calling to connect with nature, such as an urge to plant a garden, fill the house with plants, care for pets, or place bird feeders outside the windows. Some might prefer swimming in a lake over swimming in a pool or relaxing under a tree instead of in a living room recliner.   Connecting with nature can take the form of small or large acts that help heal the environment. Picking up trash on a walk, composting, carrying a reusable shopping bag, volunteering to remove invasive plants, helping to build a community garden, or donating money to help endangered sea turtles are all activities that demonstrate an intrinsic connection with nature. Even reading a book to learn about local wildlife can create a greater sense of wonder and connection to the natural world.   Children in Nature A 2020 paper  published in the International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education  by researchers at the Children and Nature Network points out that children experience nature differently than adults: “Quality time in nature [for children] includes opportunities for self-directed exploration, multisensory engagement with nature places, the presence of animals, and the supportive influence of peers and adults.” Joy.  Photo: pexels Given the differences in how children perceive the world, the researchers agree on the need for more studies that focus on 2- to 5-year-olds in nature to better understand immediate and long-term effects. For example, they use their bodies as their pathway for relating to nature and may not be able to accurately vocalize or self-assess feelings like empathy and curiosity. These are the feelings that “enrich life in the moment, with the capacity to motivate children to continue to seek out nature as they grow. Through early experiences in nature, children may begin to feel part of the natural world,” the researchers say.   A child who develops a strong Connection to Nature (C2N) grows into a person who is more likely to engage in pro-environmental behaviors. Many researchers  over the last 30 years have agreed that a child who develops a strong Connection to Nature (C2N) grows into a person who is more likely to engage in pro-environmental behaviors.                                      During the last 20 years, studies  exploring the impact of children's nature-relationship have increased in number and focus. Studying C2N is now a scientific discipline that goes beyond the well-being of children and delves further into the long-term effects of children who develop a C2N at an early age.   One C2N study is ongoing in preschool populations in Sweden , and smaller studies are taking place across the United States and Canada. With time, these will inform parents, teachers, developers of urban areas, and designers of homes and schools when and how to introduce children to the idea of their bond with nature.     Research to improve human understanding of nature must continue, as the world faces critical socio-ecological challenges , such as biodiversity loss and climate change. Laszlo says by viewing the planet as a complex, interdependent system, individuals and organizations can develop strategies that promote sustainability and good health for both humans and the environment. *Julie Peterson   writes science-based articles about holistic health, environmental issues, and sustainable living from her small farm in Wisconsin.

Over 25% of Adults and Close to 20% of Children Have Seasonal Allergies in the US It’s that time of year when flowers bloom and pollen fills the air, causing many to suffer from hay fever (allergic rhinitis). Below are some facts on hay fever and pollen—microscopic egg-shaped male cells  of plants—in preparation for traversing the great outdoors. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , 25.7% of adults and 18.9% of children in the US had seasonal allergies in 2021. According to a 2022 study  by researchers at the University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines in France, the median prevalence of allergic rhinitis in adults worldwide was 18.1%. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences provides a list of pollen-releasing plants . These include ragweeds, trees, and grasses, such as the Bermuda and Kentucky varieties. People with tree pollen allergies are urged to avoid elm, oak, pecan and walnut trees, among others. Hay fever  can also be caused by dust mites, pet hair/dander, cockroaches, or mold. Some recommendations to reduce exposure to allergens include using air conditioning and keeping windows closed while indoors, wearing glasses or sunglasses while outside, and not hanging clothes outside to dry. Irritants , such as wood smoke, tobacco smoke, and aerosol sprays, can worsen hay fever symptoms. For those in the US, pollen.com  provides a pollen forecast for select cities across the country. Along with an index for pollen amounts, the forecast shows the top allergen sources on that day.   Sources: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/allergies.htm https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/clt2.12130 https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/allergens/pollen https://acaai.org/allergies/allergic-conditions/hay-fever/ https://www.healthline.com/health/hay-fever-symptoms   https://www.pollen.com/map

Research Finds 70 Potentially Habitable Exoplanets We only have one planet—Earth—called home, though it’s easy to take for granted the alignment of factors that make sustaining life here possible. As the search for extrasolar planets (exoplanets) advances, below are some facts of potentially habitable exoplanets and how they compare with Earth. According to NASA , over 5,000 exoplanets have been discovered since the discovery of the first one in the 1990s. The Planetary Habitability Laboratory of the University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo has a Habitable Worlds Catalog  (HWC) with 70 potentially habitable worlds. Of these, 29 are “more likely to be rock planets capable of surface liquid water” and 41 “might include water worlds or mini-Neptunes with a lower likelihood of habitable conditions.” Out of the 29 promising exoplanets, Proxima Centauri b  is the closest, at 4.2 light-years away from Earth. Its orbital period (around its host star) is 11.2 days, and it is frigid, with an estimated low surface temperature of 261 K (-12°C or 10.4°F). Despite it being in the habitable zone, it can suffer from powerful UV radiation—up to 10,000 times as much  as that experienced by Earth—from its host star, leading to atmosphere loss. Teegarden’s Star b has the closest Earth Similarity Index (ESI)—compared to how much radiation Earth emits—of 0.97 in the HWC. Its orbital period is 4.91 days, and it has an estimated surface temperature of 293 K (20°C or 68°F), which is much closer to that of Earth. However, a 2024 study  reevaluated this exoplanet’s habitability, dropping its ESI to 0.90 and a colder equilibrium temperature of 277 K (4°C or 39.2°F). Out of the “optimistic” sample of 41 exoplanets, Wolf 1061c is the closest, at 14 light-years away from Earth. Its orbital period is 17.9 days, and it has a higher estimated surface temperature of 306 K (33°C or 91.4°F). However, excessive tidal heating  (flexing or bending of a planet or moon in orbit through gravity) “might adversely affect the habitability”  of Wolf 1061c.   Sources: https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/science/science-behind-the-discoveries/hubble-exoplanets/ https://phl.upr.edu/hwc   https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/proxima-centauri-b/ https://www.nasa.gov/science-research/heliophysics/an-earth-like-atmosphere-may-not-survive-proxima-bs-orbit/ https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/04/aa48033-23/aa48033-23.html https://www.universetoday.com/articles/astronomy-jargon-101-tidal-heating https://www.drewexmachina.com/2017/03/25/habitable-planet-reality-check-wolf-1061c-revisited/