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By Marion W. Miller* “Agriculture is the explosive topic of the 21st century.” —Delphine Darmon, Founder and CEO at Demain N’attend Pas (Tomorrow Doesn’t Wait) In the 20th century, industrial farming revolutionized food production by focusing on efficiency and maximizing yields. “Between 1960 and 2015, agricultural production more than tripled, resulting in an abundance of low-cost fare and averting global food shortages,” says the UN Environmental Programme. However, while this modern approach is successfully feeding a part of the world, it has brought unintended environmental consequences, such as disrupting soil microbial ecosystems with synthetic fertilizers and harming beneficial pollinators with pesticides. Monoculture farming has led to decreased fertility of the soil, and over-tilling leaves soil vulnerable to erosion. Permaculture: A Sustainable and Profitable Alternative Many proposed alternatives to industrial agriculture have been tried, but often these do not produce the yields needed to feed the general population. Surprisingly, permaculture, short for “permanent agriculture,” on the other hand, can provide high yields while protecting and regenerating the soil and natural ecosystems. Permaculture is not just a set of agricultural techniques but a philosophy of working with nature. It was developed in the 1970s by Australians Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, who saw the land deteriorating around them. They were inspired by the Aboriginal Tasmanian reverence for and understanding of nature. They developed permaculture by cultivating different, interdependent, food-producing plants that mimic the complexity and variety of natural ecosystems. The results are abundant harvests while creating biodiversity to regenerate the soil and build resilience against pests, diseases, and adverse weather events. This approach includes creating “food forests,” i.e., integrating productive trees and shrubs of different heights into farming systems to shelter crops, reduce flooding, and add fruits and nuts to the farm’s yield. Permaculture’s holistic approach encompasses farm design, energy efficiency, the use of renewable resources, the circular use of waste, and water conservation through capturing and storing water within the landscape. Permaculture’s holistic approach encompasses farm design, energy efficiency, the use of renewable resources, the circular use of waste—feeding animals with vegetable waste and enriching the soil with manure—and water conservation through capturing and storing water within the landscape. Its designs are based on sunlight, wind, and water patterns, and the land’s topography. Its principles can be applied in varied settings, from deserts to rainforests and even urban environments (such as community and rooftop gardens). Permaculture philosophy is both revolutionary and pragmatic: It creates abundance while regenerating soil in the process and allowing farmers to assess what does and does not work in time to devise changes accordingly. Case Study 1: La Ferme du Bec Hellouin in Normandy, France An exceptional example of the transformative powers of permaculture is La Ferme du Bec Hellouin (the Bec-Hellouin Farm), founded in 2003 by Charles Hervé-Gruyer and Perrine Bulgheroni. The farm began as a large family kitchen garden to provide fresh food for their family. Hervé-Gruyer was originally a navigator and ecology teacher on his marine boat-school (Fleur de Lampaul); Bulgheroni was an international lawyer and an advocate for the underprivileged. The couple had no experience in farming. Their discovery of permaculture in 2008 marked a shift in their farming approach, turning their humble garden into the pioneering agricultural success that has attracted media attention and meticulous study by scientists, and earned them awards, such as the Right Livelihood Award. The design for their farm blends tradition and innovation, drawing inspiration from 19th-century Parisian market gardeners, Amazonian tribespeople, and other indigenous people Hervé-Gruyer visited in his travels, and Asian Effective Microorganisms (EM) practices. Key features of the Bec-Hellouin farm include: 1. Low-till agriculture practices. This avoids erosion and preserves soil composition and the vital, microbial life within it. It has been proven that on the farm “[t]he concentrations of total OC (organic carbon) and nitrogen (N) in bulk soils were higher under permaculture practices, due to significant inputs of manure and compost, resulting in higher concentrations of the bioavailable nutrients Ca (calcium), Mg (magnesium), K (potassium), and P (phosphorus).” 2. Food Forest. Productive trees and shrubs are integrated with crops, providing a diverse habitat for wildlife and benefits such as shade, wind protection, natural composting, and nutrient cycling. According to Hervé-Gruyer (as quoted in https://www.choosenormandy.com): “[S]everal studies … show that we have lots more earthworms, wild bees, birds and more … We’ve counted some forty species of wild bees and some sixty species of birds, including rare and endangered species, that are nesting on our farm.” 3. Diverse Crop Selection. Over 380 varieties of fruits, vegetables, cereals, herbs, and medicinal plants are grown. 4. Water Management. Natural water sources are utilized efficiently, with systems in place for rainwater harvesting, storage, and irrigation. The farm's productivity has stunned researchers. Despite its small scale, it produces a ten times higher yield than mechanized organic farming. The farm operates on the principle of intensive, hand-managed, densely arranged, small-scale agriculture and uses draft animals instead of machinery. Despite its small scale, [the farm] produces a ten times higher yield than mechanized organic farming. The farm covers nearly fifty acres. Their approach allows them to cultivate a substantial variety of produce on only 0.9 acres of land and supply up to 100 vegetable boxes per week to local customers and high-end restaurants. They also graze animals, grow trees on their land, and have ponds that contribute to the beauty and magic of the site. Between 2011 and 2015, INRA (the French National Institute of Agricultural Research) and AgroParisTech conducted a research program to study the farm's methods. The study concluded that small-scale farming, conducted largely by hand, is not only sustainable but also highly productive. As a result, according to the French Ministry of Agriculture, 80% of French organic market-gardening farming projects now follow the Bec-Hellouin model. Hervé-Gruyer and Bulgheroni share their knowledge and experience via the Bec-Hellouin Farm permaculture school. They also teach seminars at the Université Domaine du Possible, a farm school which is dedicated to spreading permaculture to large farms. Hervé-Gruyer, with his daughter Lila, is now producing a series of Permaculture guidebooks called Resiliences. Bulgheroni is planning a large permaculture farm for city-dwellers who want to return to the land and for Romani people. She is also setting up an adopt-a-farm program for corporations. Their book, Living with the Earth, Volume 1: A Manual for Market Gardeners—Permaculture, Ecoculture: Inspired by Nature was just published in Great Britain and the USA. Case Study 2: The Permaculture Literacy Program in the Philippines An example of grassroots organizing to establish a permaculture educational program is Merly Barlaan's building a permaculture training center in Carmen, Bohol, a rural area in the Philippines, where she grew up. After working for fifteen years in the UN office of the non-profit NGO Women’s Federation for World Peace International (WFWPI), Barlaan saw the gap between the UN’s idealistic agenda and the lack of progress in local communities. She returned to the Philippines in 2012 to work on the grassroots level in her predominantly agricultural hometown area. Her initial venture into organic farming was met with challenges, such as high costs and low yields, which led her to research better alternatives. In 2020, during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, she discovered permaculture and found Raoul Amores, head of the Regenesis Project and an experienced permaculture practitioner, in Bohol. Creating a Permaculture Training Center In 2021, Barlaan donated a hectare (2.4 acres) of land and raised funds from private donors, including support from WFWPI, for the building of a permaculture training center in Carmen. With permaculture teacher Amores and his daughter, Yani Amores-Dutta, she established the Permaculture Literacy Program to educate and certify individuals in permaculture, teaching the skills to implement sustainable and high-yield farming practices and to become permaculture educators themselves. The training center’s inaugural cohort of forty-four young people graduated in December 2022. They have since gone on to share permaculture principles and practices with their families, communities, and local government leaders, which is significant since many young people in the Philippines tend to leave farming. Permaculture Vision Barlaan and her team, including project co-managers Christine Rose Bulayo and Dale Cyril Dejecacion, are in the process of helping transform the entire district of Bohol into a permaculture hub in the Philippines. They envision permaculture not just being a farming practice but a way of life, practiced in every backyard garden and even on balconies. Barlaan and her team are in the process of helping transform the entire district of Bohol into a permaculture hub in the Philippines. Their ambitious goal is to see permaculture principles integrated into the entire Philippine educational system, promoting sustainable living from an early age through high school, college, and even master’s degree programs. (In fact, the University of the Philippines Open University is already offering a continuing education course on Permaculture Systems Design.) Barlaan's approach to teaching permaculture combines traditional Filipino farming knowledge with modern scientific methods. It paves the way for young people to gain the knowledge and inspiration to continue working on their families’ farms, even if only part-time, thus reducing migration away from rural areas and leading to a more ecologically harmonious and prosperous rural development. Hervé-Gruyer, Bulgheroni, and Barlaan are timely role models who show that individual actions at the local level can influence politicians and policies. Permaculture reconciles human needs with the needs of the environment, creating systems that are not only productive but also regenerative. *Marion W. Miller is a French bilingual researcher, writer, and editor now residing in Northern Virginia. She has master’s degrees in Business and Economics and International Economics and Economic Development. She has also ministered for community development and world peace. As a grandmother of eight, she cares deeply about environmental stewardship and preserving natural wonders for future generations. She has traveled to many natural sites in countries around the world and now retreats to the gorgeous Shenandoah Valley National Park area whenever time allows.

The Sustainability Board, with support from Chapter Zero, released on November 15 its annual ESG preparedness report for 2023. The report looks at how Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) matters are integrated into the management of the world’s 100 largest publicly owned companies. Beginning with the 2023 report, additional US companies (61) were included, to bring the US representation to 100 companies and provide future trend data for the US. More than 2,400 corporate directors were surveyed about ESG engagement, ESG board policy, and involvement of female directors. The report found that: The number of global boards that have ESG or “sustainability oversight” written in their corporate documents rose from 50% in 2019 to 88% in 2023. Ninety-five percent of US companies had a written board policy on ESG. However, director “engagement” with ESG went backwards: While the number of “ESG-engaged” directors on relevant committees initially rose from 16% in 2019 to 45% in 2022, it slipped to 43% in 2023. In the US companies, this baseline measure was even lower, with 41% in 2023. Regarding director diversity, the number of global female corporate directors remained unchanged, at 32% globally. In the US, women comprised 34% of board director positions. Female directors remained enthusiastic about ESG-engagement—64% were ESG-engaged in 2023, up from 60% in 2022—but in 2023, fewer women reported sitting on relevant committees—only 13% compared with 24% in 2022. Regarding ESG qualifications in directors, 85% of directors worldwide (88% in the US) were deemed ESG-engaged because of their corporate experience in sustainability strategy. However, very few directors—7%—have formal credentials in ESG management. Both the number of global directors assigned to relevant committees and those with ESG engagement have risen. In 2019, among 1,224 directors, 232 reported being on relevant committees and 36 had ESG engagement. By 2023, among 1,256 directors, 396 reported being on relevant committees and 169 reported ESG engagement. Sources: 2023 Annual ESG Preparedness Report: https://www.boardreport.org/_files/ugd/f6724f_f07a3996b3b94437baa1545b93105855.pdf Chapter Zero: https://chapterzero.org.uk/ Forbes’s 2023 “The Global 2000”: https://www.forbes.com/lists/global2000/?sh=10e335a15ac0

How New Nonmetallic Chemical Processes Will Change Industry and Reduce Toxic Waste The following article is the second part of Prof. David MacMillan’s keynote presentation, entitled “New Catalytic Strategies for a Sustainable Future,” at the Twenty-Eighth International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences (ICUS XXVIII) in 2022. Discovery of Organocatalysis When I arrived as an assistant professor at the University of California at Berkeley in the summer of 1998, I really did not know how I would accomplish my goal of developing a general method for organocatalysis [the process of using organic, nonmetal, nontoxic catalysts to facilitate chemical reactions]. But I had faith in the stellar, devoted, and incredibly hardworking group of young graduate students who joined my lab that first year. Fortunately, my confidence in my team was well placed. In the spring of 1999, a first-year graduate student in my group, Kateri Ahrendt, found that a small organic molecule was capable of catalyzing a well-known reaction called the Diels-Alder cycloaddition. Most excitingly, as Kateri wrote in her notebook …  the organocatalyst was able to preferentially form the desired mirror image of the product. In the absence of this catalyst, the reaction generates both mirror images of the product in equal quantities. Although this preliminary result was far from publication-ready—we would ultimately need to modify the structure of the catalyst and optimize reaction conditions in order to achieve really useful levels of selectivity—Kateri’s pivotal experiment on April 3, 1999, represented the first demonstration in my lab of an asymmetric organocatalytic reaction. Following a great deal of experimentation, we ultimately hit upon a highly effective, generalizable organocatalyst scaffold: the imidazolidinones. From a sustainability standpoint, the imidazolidinones are really desirable catalysts since they can be made easily and inexpensively by combining phenylalanine, an amino acid, with acetone, a bulk chemical commonly used as a paint stripper. Imidazolidinones also have the important advantage of being highly tunable; that is, their structures can be easily modified to meet the particular needs of different types of chemical reactions. This tunability would allow us to ultimately realize the grand vision of developing a generic activation mode: a single organocatalyst scaffold that could be applied to hundreds of different chemical reactions. In fact, the emergence of organocatalysis as a major mode of asymmetric catalysis can be traced to this key catalyst design feature. Following our landmark 2000 publication, in which we reported the first asymmetric organocatalytic Diels-Alder cycloaddition, we went on to develop a series of asymmetric organocatalytic reactions using the imidazolidinone scaffold. A second-generation imidazolidinone catalyst, brilliantly engineered by graduate students Joel Austin and Chris Borths, proved even more versatile than our original scaffold, allowing us to quickly develop dozens of powerful new asymmetric organocatalytic reactions. Expansion of Organocatalysis Around this time, other academic researchers began to make important contributions to the growth of this new field, most notably Karl Anker Jørgensen and Yujiro Hayashi (see image below). Meanwhile, Ben List and Carlos Barbas were conducting elegant research in the related area of enamine-based organocatalysis. This was an incredibly exciting time, as our group and others around the world were inspired to invent a wide swath of powerful new reactions that made use of the asymmetric organocatalysis framework. This was an incredibly exciting time, as our group and others around the world were inspired to invent a wide swath of powerful new reactions that made use of the asymmetric organocatalysis framework. Of course, all transformational scientific advances are built upon the foundations of their forebears, and the field of asymmetric organocatalysis is highly indebted to the many outstanding chemists who have made fundamental contributions in adjacent areas of catalysis. Without the discoveries of these pioneers, the field of asymmetric organocatalysis simply could not exist. As the field of asymmetric organocatalysis continued to grow, we also began to branch out in exciting new directions. Of particular interest to our group, from a sustainability standpoint, was the possibility of merging multiple organocatalytic reactions together within a single reaction vessel as a way to quickly—and with minimal waste—build up a high degree of chemical complexity from simple starting materials. This general strategy, which we termed cascade catalysis, would actually emulate the way that Nature makes complex molecules. In Nature, simple building blocks are shunted through a biochemical assembly line wherein each enzyme catalyzes a distinct reaction in a controlled sequence to quickly generate complex end products. Of particular interest to our group, from a sustainability standpoint, was the possibility of merging multiple organocatalytic reactions within a single reaction vessel…This general strategy…we termed cascade catalysis. Our analogous cascade catalysis strategy, which used simple organocatalysts in place of Nature’s enzymes, proved highly effective. In a key demonstration, we accomplished a rapid total synthesis of strychnine, a naturally occurring molecule that is also commonly used as rat poison. This central complexity-building transformation was accomplished in a single reaction vessel, as a very simple starting material was fed through three consecutive organocatalytic cycles, each of which added an element of complexity to the molecule, to generate a highly elaborated end product. This product was easily converted to strychnine, allowing us to achieve a rapid synthesis of this challenging natural product in just twelve steps from commercially available starting materials. Cascade organocatalysis has since been further validated as a sustainable, waste-efficient, and highly economical strategy for building complex molecular architectures. Photocatalysis In 2007, Teresa Beeson, an outstanding third-year graduate student in my lab, developed a novel mode of asymmetric organocatalysis, which we termed SOMO catalysis. This would ultimately launch our research group into some really exciting new directions, culminating in the development of a new type of sustainable catalytic platform that combines organocatalysis with visible-light catalysis. This new area, called photoredox catalysis, was first demonstrated by an excellent postdoctoral researcher in my group, Dave Nicewicz. The ability to merge organocatalysis with visible-light catalysis represented an extremely important advance, and over the past fourteen years, photoredox catalysis has matured into an important field of research in its own right. In fact, today, the field of photoredox catalysis is as influential as the field of organocatalysis, and I feel very fortunate to have been deeply involved in the conceptualization and advancement of both of these crucial areas. Organocatalysis and Society I am proud of the ways in which asymmetric organocatalysis has influenced the field of synthetic organic chemistry over the past twenty years. The impacts of organocatalysis can also be felt beyond the confines of the academic research community. In industrial settings, where environmentally responsible practices are emerging as a major corporate priority, organocatalytic processes are particularly appealing, as they are sustainable and remove the need to employ costly, toxic, and nonrenewable metals. As such, organocatalytic solutions are increasingly applied to modern, large-scale industrial processes. In industrial settings, where environmentally responsible practices are emerging as a major corporate priority, organocatalytic processes are particularly appealing, as they are sustainable and remove the need to employ costly, toxic, and nonrenewable metals. Today, bulk-scale organocatalysis is used in the environmentally friendly synthesis of scented fragrances, particularly those manufactured by the Swiss company Firmenich. Organocatalysis has also found application in the recyclable plastics economy. For example, Prof. Bob Waymouth of Stanford University and Dr. James Hedrick of IBM have developed organocatalytic processes that break down polymers to their component monomeric building blocks. Since these monomers can then be transformed back to polymers, such organocatalytic processes have the potential to render plastics completely recyclable and sustainable. Needless to say, the widespread adoption of such technologies would have an enormous impact on our oceans and other threatened ecosystems. Perhaps not surprisingly, asymmetric organocatalysis has been heavily adopted across the pharmaceutical industry, where the need to access single-mirror-image versions of medicinal molecules is paramount. Merck’s chronic migraine drug, Telcagepant, for example, is manufactured using asymmetric organocatalysis techniques developed in our laboratory. Beyond industrial applications, organocatalysis has influenced our broader society in somewhat surprising ways. It turns out that organocatalysis has played an important role in democratizing the field of chemistry. Organocatalysts are inexpensive, and organocatalytic reactions can be carried out under atmospheric pressure without special equipment. For that reason, organocatalysts are uniquely accessible to scientists and educators around the world. Across the globe, students and researchers have the unique opportunity to gain hands-on experience in cutting-edge asymmetric organocatalysis technologies and, perhaps more importantly, to make their own innovative contributions to this field of research, regardless of the financial and instrumental resources available to them. The accessibility and ease of use of organocatalysis stands in stark contrast to many other modern synthetic methods, and the implications of this democratizing effect are exciting to consider. I would argue that the next revolutionary advances in organocatalysis will emerge not from the most well-resourced labs but from those researchers who have the best and most creative ideas. The Future of Catalysis I am often asked what the future holds for organocatalysis. I do not have an answer to that question, but I know that we must provide for our expanding global population in environmentally responsible ways. I believe that the solutions to many of our most pressing challenges will depend upon scientists’ ability to develop powerful and sustainable catalyst systems. These solutions will include organocatalysis and biocatalysis, but they will also include emergent sustainable technologies, such as photocatalysis and electrocatalysis. Prof. MacMillan is the James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor of Chemistry at Princeton University. He shares the 2021 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Dr. Benjamin List for the “development of asymmetric organocatalysis.”

International Treaty Negotiators Discuss Economics While Scientists Raise Concerns About Human Health By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe* Every year, around 400 million metric tons of plastic waste ends up in landfills and oceans or strewn somewhere around the globe. Now, a new but growing body of research is finding evidence that very tiny pieces of plastics—microplastics—are finding their ways into the bodies of humans, including newborns and infants. Plastic trash breaks down into microplastic particles (smaller than 5mm in length). Scientists have now discovered these flakes and particles in breast milk, blood [See The Earth & I, Aug 2022], lung tissue, and other organs. They are even found in infant feces. With global annual plastic production expected to increase to around 590 million metric tons by 2050—an increase of over 30% compared with 2025—the United Nations put forward a legally binding agreement in 2022 to deal with the problem. Still, rather than curbing the worldwide use of plastics, much of their attention seems focused on implementing a “circular economy” in which excess or unneeded plastics are eliminated, products are kept at their optimal use for as long as possible, and nature systems, such as forests or farmland, are regenerated. A drawback of this circular economy approach, which features market caps and recycling, is that it does not appear to address concerns regarding the direct impacts of microplastics on the health of humans, especially that of the unborn, infants, and children. "Health is not even mentioned in the treaty to date," said non-profit EarthDay.org (EDO), referring to the third session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-3) held in November in Nairobi. EDO has released a new report, Babies vs. Plastics, exploring the dangers of microplastics, especially for children. EDO reviewed over 100 scientific papers to better understand the global prevalence of microplastics and the potential harm they can cause to children. “What we discovered shocked even us,” the organization stated. “[P]lastic has so many ingredients and combinations of ingredients, and it is associated with so many health issues, [that] it is hard for the public to understand the scale of the issue.” “The big takeout is that plastic has so many ingredients and combinations of ingredients, and it is associated with so many health issues, [that] it is hard for the public to understand the scale of the issue,” Aidan Charron, director of the End Plastic Pollution initiative at EDO, told The Earth & I.  “Tobacco is easy to fathom; if you smoke cigarettes, you will stand a good chance of getting lung cancer. Plastics are worse,” Charron stated. There is evidence that the public finds the issue of microplastics concerning. But this is an unexplored area—published studies on public attitudes about plastics are “extremely scarce,” said a 2019 article in Resources, Conservation and Recycling, a journal published by Elsevier. Discovering Microplastic Ingestion Scientists have found a correlation between specific exposure to plastic chemicals and microplastics in some populations, especially islanders and fishing communities. “Microplastics may act as vectors that transport toxic chemicals and bacterial pathogens into tissues and cells. Toxic chemicals added to plastics can disrupt endocrine function and increase risk for premature births, neurodevelopmental disorders, infertility, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and cancers,” said the August 2023 newsletter of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, citing one of its studies on microplastics. Along with other non-governmental organizations, EDO wants to see health concerns related to plastics to play a pivotal role in the treaty. The organization believes "the most powerful way to enact change is parent power, informing readers of the risks." In its November report, EDO sets out what scientists know about the presence of microplastics in fetuses, infants, and children. It explores the connection between microplastics—unknowingly eaten or inhaled—and multiple illnesses and issues. None of the microplastics are specifically related to one particular illness, Charron noted. "The big solution is less plastics," Charron said. "We need to stop using them in everything, and we need to make sure babies are protected from overexposure." Searching for Impacts on Human Health Since the existence of microplastics in humans has only recently been confirmed, scientists are now working to answer questions about their health impacts. Scientists are assessing hundreds of potential associations between microplastics and the onset/presence of illnesses and conditions. The human brain is the chief operating system and the most complex organ. Yet, the study of how microplastics might affect the brain is relatively new. A 2023 University of Rhode Island study published in the International Journal of Molecular Science sought to understand further how microplastics and additive chemicals impact the brain. “We found that microplastics were able to cross the blood-brain-barrier and enter into brain tissue, as well as into other peripheral tissues such as heart, liver, kidneys, and spleen, after only three weeks of exposure via drinking water.” The study focuses on the lifecycle of microplastics in healthy mice, both young and old. “We found that microplastics were able to cross the blood-brain-barrier and enter into brain tissue, as well as into other peripheral tissues such as heart, liver, kidneys, and spleen, after only three weeks of exposure via drinking water,” Dr Jaime Ross, assistant professor, George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience College of Pharmacy, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University of Rhode Island, told The Earth & I. “To our surprise, we found that the mice exposed to the microplastics also had altered behavioral patterns and displayed signs of cognitive dysfunction,” added Ross. Reports have already identified microplastics in tissues and bodily fluids from newborn humans, including placentas, breastmilk, fecal matter, brain, and many other peripheral tissues, Ross said.  “Given results from our work, I would be concerned that exposure to microplastics might have detrimental effects during development.” Elevated Risks to Babies and Children New evidence suggests that babies, perhaps more than any other demographic group, could be more susceptible to ingesting microplastics. Babies and small children, typically from the age of 6 months until a year old, spend much of their time crawling. This means coming into contact with household dust, some of which contains microplastics. "This is probably why the level of microplastics found in the feces of babies, as reported by a small study from 2021 by the NYU Grossman School of Medicine, appeared to be over ten times higher than that found in adults," says Charron. Plastic baby bottles also account for 80% of all baby bottles worldwide, most of which are made of polypropylene. A research paper published by Nature Food found using this type of plastic bottle releases microplastics directly into the liquid in the baby's bottle. Plastic baby bottles also account for 80% of all baby bottles worldwide, most of which are made of polypropylene. A research paper published by Nature Food found using this type of plastic bottle releases microplastics directly into the liquid in the baby's bottle. Scientists from Trinity College, Dublin, in Ireland, published a study in October 2020, which estimated infants could be exposed to an average of one million microplastic particles per day when fed from polypropylene baby bottles. “We don’t want to be alarmist,” the two study authors wrote. “We don’t fully understand the risks to human health through exposure to these tiny plastic particles yet, but this is an area of research that we, and other teams, are actively pursuing.” A US plastics industry trade group said baby bottles are carefully monitored. “The safety of plastics used in contact with foods, including baby bottles, is ‘very well regulated’ in the U.S. and Canada with the help of expert scientists,” the American Chemistry Council’s Plastics Division said in a statement on NBC’s Today show for their 2020 report on microplastics and plastic baby bottles. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration factors in temperature changes, such as heating the bottle, as part of its regulatory approach to food contact, the industry group added. Baby bottles aren’t the only area of concern for infants. In a study from 2023, scientists found microplastics had been released into disposable storage bags used for expressed breast milk. According to EDO, the scientists reported finding microplastics, most commonly polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate14 (PET), and nylon-6, equating to “an average daily breastmilk intake” of 0.61–0.89 mg of microplastics when the breastmilk was stored in the disposable bags. Researchers suggest that parents seeking to reduce exposure to microplastics in baby bottles are advised to switch to glass or stainless-steel feeding containers. If they want to stay with plastic bottles, they should frequently rinse the bottles, prepare the formula in a non-plastic container, and avoid using microwaves to heat or reheat the bottles. Holding Discussions with Negotiators EDO says there needs to be an independent scientific body to assess plastics and safety. “While the additive chemicals in plastics have been studied to the moon and back, the big area that needs more research is the microplastic particles and fibers themselves,” said Charron. Research in this area is only just starting. Meanwhile, “the public doesn't know that microplastics are everywhere, and they don't know we are all ingesting and inhaling them," said Charron. *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 10 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences. Sources: Interview with Sarah Davies, Director of Media and Communications at EarthDay.Org Interview with Dr Jaime Ross, Assistant Professor, George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience College of Pharmacy, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences at University of Rhode Island

By Christopher Olson* More than a century ago, Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla quarreled over the world-changing inventions of direct electric current (DC) and alternating current (AC). From man-made electricity’s mid-1800s beginnings at the Pearl Street Station in New York—and the provision of electricity during the Great Depression by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), rural cooperatives, and individually owned utilities—modern power has revolutionized civilizations around the world. By the 1950s, the United States succeeded in delivering electricity to an overwhelming majority of the population, from metropolitan population centers to rural farms, from individuals to families to businesses and schools, from coast to coast, regardless of geographic limitations. Various electric energy sources generate electricity, which is delivered to consumers over electric distribution networks (called grids). Energy sources encompass renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro power, and others), nuclear power, and the fossil fuels (natural gas, coal, and oil). Each of them has its pros and cons. Chemist Meredith Angwin, a respected author and specialist in grid oversight, suggested in a recent interview that nuclear energy generation is often overlooked in favor of renewables. To better understand the case for nuclear energy generation, an understanding of the grid is needed, and Angwin brought forward the fragility of the grid. “The general rule was that you shouldn’t have any power plant on the grid that [delivered] more than 10% of the amount that is wanted,” she said. This is because when unexpected high electricity demands occur, or power plants shut down or are having problems, the needed extra electricity must be gathered from other nearby power plants to mitigate the unexpected peak demand or shortfall. “As long as renewables are weather-dependent, we don’t control the weather, they can go off, [and] then we are stuck.” There is a constant balance of input and output on the grid, with the input being the electricity generated and the output being that used by consumers (Figure 1). The social, political, and environmental push for increased renewable energy sources to generate electricity is confronted with renewables’ current limitations. Renewable energy sources are weather-dependent. “As long as renewables are weather-dependent, we don’t control the weather, they can go off, [and] then we are stuck,” Angwin stated. “We don’t have 100% renewable energy at night,” and even if there is sunlight somewhere on the Earth at any given time, there is no infrastructure to transport it. “‘It’s always sunny somewhere’ is not viable,” she said. The sensitivity of the grid was evident during the 2021 Valentine’s Day storm in Texas. “The requirements on the grid were higher than the availability of electricity on the grid,” said Angwin. Balancing the grid with its input and output demands has been key to providing electricity to the American public, regardless of the energy sources. California’s Push for Renewable Energy California’s push for renewable energy sources has prompted the creation of California Flex Alerts, where the state and local governments request citizens to turn off unnecessary energy-consuming equipment. “If you have solar for 60% of the grid, you get duck curves,” said Angwin, referring to an industry description of how normal energy grid levels can dip to unstable levels before rising again, forming the outline of a duck. “Duck curves result from an imbalance of the grid due to solar energy sources,” said Angwin. “The sun sets just at the time that many grids have their highest demand: the sunset hour. People are coming home, turning on lights and TV, and cooking dinner. Yet, many businesses are still operating. If plotted on a graph, it somewhat resembles the shape of a duck. … A whole area loses solar power all at once.” “If you have enough solar on the grid to provide 100% of the grid at noon, what are you going to do at 4 p.m. in the afternoon?” “If you have enough solar on the grid to provide 100% of the grid at noon, what are you going to do at 4 p.m. in the afternoon?” According to Angwin, 50% of solar could be provided at 4 p.m. in the afternoon, yet the remaining 50% that is still needed would have to be provided by other power plants. Solar power as a renewable energy source has some predictability. No one has control over the weather, but there is a consistency in predictive accuracy with sunlight, given the geographical location on the Earth, give or take cloud cover. In contrast, wind power has no consistent schedule, although there are locations that are consistently windier than others, providing limited predictive forecasting. For example, high wind conditions exist in offshore Ireland, corridors in California’s Altamont Pass, and states like Texas, Oklahoma, Iowa, Illinois and Kansas. Nuclear Power Provides Electric Baseload “The reason nuclear energy is so tremendously important is that we could have a very clean grid with nuclear [energy] providing baseload,” said Angwin. Baseloads are what is required every day of the year, 24 hours a day (Figure 2), and nuclear power plants can supply that baseload demand continuously without interruption. Renewables cannot compete with nuclear energy in supplying baseload, as nuclear energy is controlled, unlike the weather. “The reason nuclear energy is so tremendously important is that we could have a very clean grid with nuclear [energy] providing baseload.” In a case such as New York City, baseloads often represent nearly half of the peak daily average consumption of electricity. In “the city that never sleeps,” nighttime events and activities would be difficult to support by solar energy. In the summertime, New York also experiences high air conditioning demand in the months from June through September. New York City (NYCA Zone J) Electricity Demand Nuclear is not perfect as it does produce nuclear waste, which must be disposed of with care due to its radioactive qualities. But it is environmentally preferable to its non-renewable counterparts in energy generation for the quantity of energy being produced. According to the US Office of Nuclear Energy, nuclear energy protects air quality, has a small land footprint, and produces minimal waste. For the quantity of energy being produced, renewables need more research to determine their true footprint in land use and in waste produced. Solar panels and wind turbines have a lifespan and are already turning up in landfills. A newer generation of citizens, who seem to have little to no understanding of the grid, are fervently pushing for 100% renewable energy sources with no alternatives. Until renewables are independent of the weather and fully controllable, nuclear energy generation is the best available energy source to support our early 21st century lifestyles. *Christopher Olson is an environmental engineer, working on his Ph.D. in numerical modeling. Source: Interview with Meredith Angwin, a specialist in grid oversight and governance, instructor at Osher at Dartmouth (formerly ILEAD) and the owner of Carnot Communications. See also "Promises and Pitfalls: The Future of Nuclear Energy, " The Earth & I, August/September 2022, and "UK and France Promise Nuclear Energy Resurgence," The Earth & I, December/January 2021-2022.

Dr. Eric Larson* The following article is the first part of Prof. Eric Larson’s presentation, entitled “Negative Emission Technologies in U.S. Decarbonization Pathways,” at the Twenty-Eighth International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences (ICUS XXVIII) in 2022. I would like to speak today about negative emissions technologies, and in particular, the role that these might play in the decarbonization of the United States economy. I will begin by explaining why negative emissions are needed and then describe different negative emissions technologies (or NETs).  Finally, I will discuss possible roles of NETs in technological pathways for the United States to reach net-zero emissions by 2050. Cumulative CO2 Emissions Determine Warming Remaining Emissions “Budget” for 1.5-2 °C Is Shrinking I will start by reviewing the science that we understand about the relationship between global warming and the emissions of greenhouse gases, especially CO2. Figure 1 shows a graph from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C. (I will not go into all the details here.) This graph tells us that the warming that we can anticipate for the world is a function directly related to the cumulative emissions of carbon dioxide that we have put into the atmosphere since the preindustrial period, starting with the mid-1800s. With this understanding of the relationship, we can estimate the remaining amount of carbon budget that we can emit before we hit certain thresholds of temperature increase. As of December 2018, when this study came out, there was a 50% probability that we could stay below 2 °C warming globally if we emit no more than 1500 Gt of CO2 cumulatively from that point forward. To stay within a 1.5 °C carbon budget, it would be, of course, much lower—closer to 600 Gt. If we want to stay within 1.5 °C of warming, we have about ten years left of emissions at the current global emissions rate before we hit that threshold. Since that estimate was made, we have, as a world, already emitted an additional 150 Gt [as of 2022]. We have spent some of our budget already, which means you can estimate that if we want to stay within 1.5 °C of warming, we have about ten years left of emissions at the current global emissions rate before we hit that threshold, and we have a bit more time if we are satisfied with staying below 2 °C. When we look at a graph like in Figure 2, it shows the trajectory of global CO2 emissions to stay below the 2 °C threshold. This graph was made a few years back, and scientists at the time started their modeled emissions trajectory with the year 2005. As we know now, emissions from 2005 to 2015 continued to increase beyond the modeled level. Global Emissions Trajectory for a Carbon Budget Corresponding to a Warming of 20C The pathway is not precise here, but it is reflective of the kind of change that the world needs to see to stay below 2 °C of warming: the world would need to reach zero emissions by about 2070; in other words, the world would have used up its carbon emissions budget by that date. This budget can essentially be extended if we allow for the possibility of negative emissions. In this case, we are on the pathway shown in Figure 3. Again, these are modeling results, and this pathway results in higher emissions than following the budget to 2 °C, but we compensate for that by negative emissions, beginning as early as 2030 and growing considerably beyond that. This then allows us to stay on a net-zero emissions trajectory for 2 °C. Cumulative Emissions Can Be Reduced Using Negative Emissions Technology (NETs) Essentially, negative emissions allow us to increase our budget of positive emissions and to still stay below our temperature targets. There are a variety of negative emissions technologies, and we understand many of these quite well, such as those in Figure 4. Essentially, negative emissions allow us to increase our budget of positive emissions and to still stay below our temperature targets. For example, through restoration and management of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, we can absorb CO2 out of the atmosphere. We can do the same by changing agricultural practices—so-called carbon farming. We can increase the carbon content in soils, which takes CO2 out of the atmosphere. These are largely biological measures (left side of Figure 4). As we move to the right in Figure 4, we move toward more engineered measures, starting with bioenergy with CO2 capture and storage. This is based on plant matter that has absorbed CO2 from the atmosphere as it has grown.  The plant matter is then converted into a convenient form of energy, for example, electricity, and the by-product CO2 of the conversion process is captured and stored underground. Negative Emissions Technology (NETs) More fully engineered negative emissions systems include direct air capture (DAC), where we are taking the CO2 directly out of the air by a chemical process and then storing the CO2 below ground. There is also enhanced mineral weathering, which is basically creating carbonate rocks using CO2 and natural rocks that combine to make carbonate rocks and thereby store CO2. Biological processes tend to be less costly per ton of CO2 that is removed. They are closer to deployment in part because they are less costly and because we know how to do these quite well. Biological processes tend to be less costly per ton of CO2 that is removed. They are closer to deployment in part because they are less costly and because we know how to do these quite well. On the other hand, they are more vulnerable to reversal—that is, soil carbon can be rereleased to the atmosphere if the methods are not properly managed. On the other hand, there are environmental co-benefits with carbon and soil that often increase the productivity of the soil, which is a positive result of that system. As we move toward the more engineered systems, we see that they are generally more costly and often need more research and development and certainly more complicated deployment and demonstration of commercial capability. On a positive note, they are less vulnerable to reversal. Potential co-benefits would be technology leadership for countries or companies that are at the forefront in developing these potentially new employment opportunities. Among the various negative emissions technologies, two are generally considered to be the most prospective in terms of the role that they can play in net-negative emissions overall: bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and DAC with CO2 storage. Figure 5 shows the carbon flows for a BECCS system. The widths of the arrows in this picture are roughly equivalent to the magnitude of the carbon flows. There are emissions at various points along this process, from tractors that might be used in the cultivation and harvesting of biomass, from unavoidable emissions at the conversion plant, and if a hydrocarbon fuel is being made, some carbon will return to the atmosphere when the fuel is used. However, a large amount of the by-product CO2 in the conversion process is captured and put underground for storage. This carbon had been removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis as the biomass grew. Looking at the net balance across all arrows, there is a net flow of carbon from the atmosphere to the subsurface on an annual basis. Carbon Flows for Bioenergy with CO2 Capture and Storage (BECCS) Technologies for the biomass conversion process are rather well understood. My group has analyzed many of these. There are other researchers around the world who also have been looking at these technologies. The challenge has been primarily over their cost because most of these processes are not economical under today’s conditions. Therefore, although we have a quite good understanding of how these technologies work from an engineering perspective, they are not widely deployed commercially today. Direct air capture (DAC) concepts are also well understood, but the technologies themselves are at a relatively early stage of development. Direct air capture (DAC) concepts are also well understood, but the technologies themselves are at a relatively early stage of development. Two of the leading concepts are shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7. One involves passing air over a dry sorbent that then selectively pulls the CO2 molecules out of the air. The sorbent is then regenerated through some means, typically by heat addition to drive off the CO2. That CO2 is collected and compressed for transportation through a pipeline to an underground storage site. The scheme in Figure 6 uses such a dry sorbent. One company has now built a 4000 t CO2/year capture facility in Iceland. That is a relatively small facility by comparison to the levels of CO2 capture that we want in order to address the 2 °C or even the 1.5 °C challenge, but it is a start. Process flow diagram for dry-sorbent DAC Figure 6 Green lines represent gaseous flows, and blue lines represent liquid flows. The dashed green line from the contactor to the vacuum pump represents the initial phase of desorption where residual air is removed from the contactor to prevent dilution of the produced CO2 after evolution from the sorbent. (McQueen, et. al. “A review of direct air capture (DAC),” Progress in Energy, 3, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1088/2516-1083/1bf1ce) Process flow diagram for the liquid-solvent DAC process Figure 7 Green lines represent gaseous flows, blue lines liquid flows, and brown lines solid flows. The H20 streams undergo temperature changes not represented in this diagram. (McQueen, et. al. “A review of direct air capture (DAC),” Progress in Energy, 3, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1088/2516-1083/1bf1ce) The other concept (Figure 7) is centered around a liquid solvent—potassium hydroxide—that captures the CO2 and then goes through a process to separate the CO2 from the solvent so that the solvent can be recycled and used again. The captured CO2 is then compressed and stored. A different company is developing this concept and has plans to have a 1 million t CO2/year facility starting up in 2024. This begins to get to the commercial scale that will be needed in the longer term. With both BECCS and DAC, plus storage, there is a requirement for underground storage resources. Fortunately, around the world, there are many geological formations that have the capacity to store CO2. However, the distribution of these resources varies from country to country. The United States is particularly well endowed with CO2 storage geology. On the order of 40 million t CO2/year is currently being captured and stored across the world, not just in the US, via a number of demonstration projects. We understand the CO2 storage process rather well. The challenge is characterizing the subsurface sufficiently so that one can have confidence that the storage is secure. *Eric Larson has a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and is the Senior Research Engineer at the Andlinger Center for Energy and the Environment, Princeton University, USA.

How Tribology is Aiding the Fight Against Climate Change By Rick Laezman* As pressure mounts to enlist all resources in the fight against global warming, energy efficiency is taking on an expanding role. One particular field of study is taking the concept of efficiency to another level, literally. Efficiency on an Atomic Level Tribology is the study of kinetic properties, or properties related to motion, that have a direct impact on efficiency. Specifically, it examines three related phenomena: friction, wear, and lubrication. The study of these elements of physical resistance often takes place at an atomic or slightly larger nanoscale. The Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE) defines the specialty in relatively mundane terms. It describes the practice simply as the “study of surfaces moving relative to one another.” A closer look at the three areas of focus provides more detail. Friction is defined as the resistance to motion between two contacting objects or materials. Wear is the loss of mass or material as the result of friction. Finally, lubrication is the use of solutions or solids to help reduce the incidence of friction and wear. The three areas of study encompass various fields. As a result, tribologists draw their expertise from many different specialties, including mechanical engineering, materials science and engineering, chemistry and chemical engineering, and others. Tribology also has relevance to many different industries and devices because friction and wear occur in so many different processes, and the reduction of both is important to all. Manufacturing, healthcare, sports, and music are a few of the many fields where tribology is applied. For example, tribology can improve the performance of automobile tires. Friction is essential to a secure grip between the tire and the road. This aids acceleration and safety. On the other hand, all consumers want to minimize wear so their tires will last longer. Tribology, Energy Efficiency, and Global Warming Speaking of cars, tribology is proving to be extremely valuable to the broad field of energy efficiency. Because so much energy is lost to friction in mechanical components, reducing this waste is one of the most effective ways to cut down on energy use. Reducing the energy intake and carbon output of vehicles, buildings, appliances, and any energy-consuming process becomes just as important in the fight against global warming as the use of renewable fuels like solar and wind power. “[F]inding ways to minimize friction and wear through new technologies in tribology is critical to a greener and more sustainable world.“ As noted by the STLE, “finding ways to minimize friction and wear through new technologies in tribology is critical to a greener and more sustainable world.“ Advances in tribology that improve energy efficiency are mostly occurring in one of three sectors: energy, transportation, and manufacturing. Not coincidentally, these are also some of the biggest energy consumers. In the field of energy and power, tribology can increase efficiency in many ways. There are numerous opportunities to reduce energy loss throughout the industry, from the initial phase of primary resource production through the generation of electricity, distribution of power, and energy consumption. For example, lubricants can increase the efficiency of steam and gas turbines used to generate electricity. Similarly, materials applied to bearings and gearboxes increase the efficiency of wind turbines. Changes to the materials used in the inner workings of cooling and heating systems, as well as other appliances, can improve the energy efficiency of buildings. In the field of transportation, tribology improves the efficiency of all sorts of moving vehicles. It impacts efficiency through improvements to the inner workings of power trains, including gearboxes, engines, transmissions, driveshafts, axles, bearings, and brakes. It also improves traction and reduces the wear of tires and wheels on cars, trucks, and trains. These improvements can be achieved in many ways. This includes the development of new lubricants and super small, nano composites that reduce friction and wear of gears and bearings. It even extends to innovative engineering of coatings for turbine blades and road surfaces that help reduce friction. Finally, tribology aids the manufacturing and industrial sectors by increasing the efficiency of machinery and equipment. When tribology methods are applied to transportation and energy production, they can reduce temperatures, increase the lifespan of implements and equipment, improve efficiency, and lower energy consumption in the manufacturing and delivery of products and materials. Tribology in the Real World With all these possibilities, tribologists are hard at work exploring new ways to increase efficiency through the reduction of friction and wear and the innovative use of lubricants. Scholarly articles in peer-reviewed journals describe various research topics where experts are pursuing advances in the field. Some of these advances are pushing the boundaries of imagination. As science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described, “any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.” Tribology may not qualify as magic, but it is taking innovation to levels that the human eye cannot see. Some researchers have achieved superlubricity using different materials, both solid and liquid, including graphite flakes, graphene, polymers, and even water. Take, for example, the concept of superlubricity. This occurs when friction has been nearly eliminated. Much of the work in this field has been theoretical. However, the topic has gained increased attention in recent years. Some researchers have achieved superlubricity using different materials, both solid and liquid, including graphite flakes, graphene, polymers, and even water. Achieving superlubricity in a practical application on a wide scale is still a long way away, but researchers are zeroing in. The benefits could be remarkable. Friction is believed to account for about 30% of the world's total energy consumption. If tribologists could develop methods to achieve superlubricity in practical applications like manufacturing or transportation, the savings would be incredible. Earlier this year, scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) announced they invented a “superlubricity coating” that could dramatically reduce friction in common load-bearing systems with moving parts. The coating reduces the friction of steel rubbing on steel at least a hundredfold. The invention could be a significant breakthrough because it would make superlubricity accessible to a wide variety of common applications, including vehicle drivetrains as well as wind and hydroelectric turbines. According to Jun Qu, leader of ORNL’s Surface Engineering and Tribology group, “the main achievement is making superlubricity feasible for the most common applications.” [The] U.S. economy loses more than $1 trillion (about $3,100 per person in the US) to friction and wear every year. According to ORNL, the novel coating could be a boon to the U.S. economy, which it says loses more than $1 trillion (about $3,100 per person in the US) to friction and wear every year. Another sub-specialty—high-temperature tribology—has attracted increased attention in recent years. When solid surfaces interact in moving situations, like machinery or engine parts, they create intense pressure and heat. This can dramatically impact the surfaces, creating wear and impacting the efficiency of the process. Much of the research in this area has focused on the automobile manufacturing industry. Vehicles require lightweight materials that must be formed at high temperatures. Advances in tribology can support the production of lightweight materials, improve the efficiency of the process, and increase the longevity of the implements and machinery that are used. Consuming Energy without Waste In his 1938 book, Nine Chains to the Moon, architect and futurist R. Buckminster Fuller coined the phrase “ephemeralization.” It refers to the ability of technological advancement to do “more and more with less and less until eventually you can do everything with nothing.” Advances in energy efficiency are a long way off from allowing humanity to do “everything with nothing,” but research and development are certainly finding new ways to do more while consuming and wasting less. If society is to win the war against carbon emissions and global warming, efficiency may prove to be one of its most important resources, and in that regard, tribology will play a part. *Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California, US. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has covered renewable power and other related subjects for over ten years.

Science and Faith Groups Collaborate to Kick-Start Environmental Services Movement By Robert R. Selle* On a sunny day in November 2023, representatives of ten environmentally conscious organizations settled behind tables beneath a large tent on the grounds of a Maryland church. Their goal was to kick-start what they hope will be the first of many events that promote science and faith collaboration and raise humanity’s consciousness toward the natural environment. Eco Fair 2023 was co-hosted by the Mid-Atlantic Community Church (MACC) Garden Ministry in Davidsonville, Maryland. The ministry takes its cue from Genesis 2:15, which says, “The Lord God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it” (emphasis added). The other co-host of the event was the Hyo Jeong International Foundation for the Unity of the Sciences (HJIFUS), a nonprofit organization based in Washington, D.C. HJIFUS, which publishes the bimonthly online environmental magazine The Earth & I, devoted to researching and implementing strategies to mitigate global environmental challenges. Its focus is to spotlight and promote emerging eco-friendly science and technology, as well as to educate the public on how and why to take care of the natural world. Garden Ministry The MACC Garden Ministry was started by Gregg Jones, who is HJIFUS projects coordinator. Jones’ major partner in this ministry is Elmer Dengler, a MACC member who worked as an agroecologist with the US Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources Conservation Service for 31 years. Dengler worked throughout the US, caring for millions of acres of private land and encouraging farmers to adopt more sustainable practices. He now works nearby in Bowie, Maryland, undertaking projects to restore degraded public land. “Working the land also means giving to others.” MACC devotes a small portion of 55 acres to an organic “hoop” garden with raised beds that produces turnips, onions, sweet potatoes, kale, tomatoes, and other crops. “Working the land,” said Dengler, “also means giving to others.” In this spirit, the ministry has donated 1,200 pounds of its produce to two local food banks. As a part of the Eco Fair, HJIFUS hosted a service project at the MACC garden for fifteen young adults. Members of the Garden Ministry team guided them to harvest sweet potatoes, construct a raised garden bed and fill it with soil, and spread wheelbarrow-loads of wood chips along the pathways and access road. “When we work in the garden with our hands in the outdoors,” Jones commented, “the Spirit of God can come in and penetrate each individual.” Meanwhile, visitors at the tent were able to meet and network with each of the participating exhibitors: The Master Gardeners of Anne Arundel County, an offshoot of the University of Maryland Extension agency. “We are trained to guide the community and educate them with sustainable practices, particularly in our area of Maryland that’s on the water,” said Clare Trainor. GreenVest, a land-based developer of green infrastructure. “We see a lot of value in working with the community and talking with landowners and individuals who might have degraded environmental resources on their properties that GreenVest could evaluate and develop a solution for improving the ecological function of these natural resources,” said ecosystem restoration specialist Jack Turner. Maryland Therapeutic Riding, of Crownsville Maryland, was represented by Jenny Ewald. She talked about the group’s mission to improve the quality of life of people with special needs by connecting humans and horses in a healing natural environment. Crofton Village Garden Club. Jane McClanahan, one of the club members, noted, “We’re here to promote the understanding of our garden club, which is to promote beauty in Crofton [a nearby community] and to make the town more accessible to the beauty there. We plant cherry trees to shade the sidewalk and provide us with beauty that promotes well-being.” Bowie Green Team, and its Pollinator Gardens Project. This is an effort started by Dengler, who also volunteers with the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center’s “Bee Lab.” Choosing plant species that attract honeybees and other pollinating insects, Dengler grows native plants from seed and then installs pollinator gardens around the area. The Great Coffee Project. CEO Neil Kittleson said, “We’re here today to celebrate the sustainability of the Earth. The Great Coffee Project is founded on three principles: (1) sustainability, so none of our coffee has ever been touched by chemicals, (2) ethical sourcing, which means that all of our farmers are paid fairly, and (3) support of community organizations—20% of all online sales go back to the charity of your choice. So, we came out today to meet some people and serve some great coffee!” New Hope Academy, a private pre-K-12 school in Landover Hills, Maryland. English teacher Stephen Gabb explained that New Hope Academy “is in the process of becoming a Green School and possibly putting up some solar panels. We have pioneered a garden project, very similar to the one here [at MACC], with raised beds in which we’ve grown radishes and snap peas. As a school, we want to be involved in the larger community.” The Green School program was founded in 1999 by the Maryland Association for Environment and Outdoor Education. An interfaith group called the American Clergy Leadership Conference. Asked why an interfaith clergy organization would man a table at an environmental gathering, Rev. Susan Fefferman, the group’s Maryland director, said, “Because everybody needs to do their part to save the environment. We’ve been misusing Mother Earth—the creation that God gave us. And as responsible stewards of the Earth, we should support the Eco Fair.” [M]any seminaries [are] inaugurating garden ministries, where they encourage clergy to have big gardens and send the overflow to feed the needy in local neighborhoods. She said she has heard of many seminaries inaugurating garden ministries, where they encourage clergy to have big gardens and send the overflow to feed the needy in local neighborhoods. Moreover, she said, “It’s healthy for young people as they grow up to learn a culture of taking care of the Earth.” Many of her group’s member churches have large vegetable gardens themselves. She cited the example of Bishop Vandy Kennedy of the Walker Mill Baptist Church in Capitol Heights, Maryland, who launched a huge garden project that got his whole congregation involved in gardening to feed disadvantaged community members. “So,” she said, “sustainable gardening is a natural outgrowth of being a child of God and being a good steward of what God has given us.” Gardens and God—Three Pillars for Environmental Service Jones remarked that one of the purposes of Eco Fair 2023 was to begin to uplift the consciousness of the faith community in this area of Maryland and ultimately the entirety of America—concerning the role of all citizens in stewarding the Earth. “As people who have a faith in God,” he said, “we know that only through God can we solve our issues. It’s critical that we bring our faith in God into how we interact with the environment, and thus how we can solve environmental crises.” Environmental service is a vehicle for both honoring God and bringing abundance to fellow human beings. Specifically, he said, HJIFUS is interested in uplifting three principles, or “pillars” as he called them, in all of its activities: interdependence (exemplified in Eco Fair’s bringing together multiple organizations that resonate with similar issues), mutual prosperity (represented in sharing produce from the MACC Garden Ministry with the neighborhood), and universal values (exemplified in the Eco Fair’s emphasis on humanity’s mandate to care for the natural world around them). Only a fundamental and radical spiritual transformation among human beings resulting in “environmental peace, where nature and humans live together in symbiosis and harmony,” can shift the world to a more hopeful trajectory. This latter “pillar,” of universal values, was a major theme of the keynote talk by HJIFUS’s Executive Director Dr. Sun Jin Moon, who spoke to the Eco Fair participants in a MACC church assembly hall. She called everyone’s attention to the multiple environmental crises afflicting the Earth at this time: pollution of the air, water, and soil; loss of biodiversity; depletion of natural resources; degradation of ecosystems; and climate change—with the latter causing superstorms and floods, atmospheric rivers, severe droughts, deadly wildfires, heat waves, and melting of polar ice caps. She noted that governmental policies and regulations are having only a limited, halting effect on these major problems, and efforts to date by governments, businesses, and civil society organizations are just Band-Aids. She said only a fundamental and radical spiritual transformation among human beings, resulting in “environmental peace, where nature and humans live together in symbiosis and harmony, and the internal wounds are healed and restored back to our Creator’s dream of peace,” can shift the world to a more hopeful trajectory. Green at the Grassroots It is very common for grassroots environmental groups to run into barriers that discourage cooperation on projects of mutual interest at the local, county, state, and national levels. Eco Fair 2023 broke down those silos in a small way by bringing various groups together, literally under one tent. Understanding that it’s good to feed the body and delight the spirit, Eco Fair organizers invited everyone to gather in the MACC assembly hall for lunch. After the speakers had addressed the participants, the fair ended with a synchronized dance performance by a faith-based dance teen group from Washington DC. It was evident that participants were delighted in body, mind, and spirit by all that had transpired during the day. *Robert R. Selle is a freelance writer and editor, based in Bowie, Maryland.

CONTENTS NEWS SECTION Searching for Ways to Save Giant Sequoias from Wildfires The Earth & I Editorial Team Japan Releases Treated Fukushima Daichi Wastewater into Pacific Ocean The Earth & I Editorial Team Scientists: Microbial Biodiversity Ten Times Higher Than Previous Estimates The Earth & I Editorial Team DATA SECTION Africa Food Report: Fertilizer Prices Up 78% Since 2021 The Earth & I Editorial Team Pew Research: Young Adults Most Enthusiastic About Renewable Energy The Earth & I Editorial Team US Congressional Report Analyzes Two Decades of Wildfire Data The Earth & I Editorial Team “Landscape Fire” Air Pollution Hits African Nations Hardest The Earth & I Editorial Team FAO Food Price Index Reveals Declines in Food Prices The Earth & I Editorial Team The Patient is Showing Improvement, But… The Earth & I Editorial Team ECOSYSTEMS Gifted with Unitive Awareness—Why Gen Z May Have the Mindset to Save the Planet Dr. Lisa Miller How Catalysis is Poised to Rock Our World Prof. David MacMillan FOOD Power to the Pumpkin: Nourish Body and Soul with the ‘People's Squash’ Julie Peterson How Safe Is Adding Nanoparticles to Foods and Packaging? Mark Smith HUMAN HEALTH The Healing Powers of Sunlight—Stronger Bones, Brighter Moods, Better Health Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe ‘An Herbalist in Every Home’—Pioneering a Path for Better Health David Christopher CLIMATE CHANGE Climate Ambition Summit 2023: SDG Programs are Lagging The Earth & I Editorial Team Long-lasting Infrastructures Combat Climate Change Dhanada K Mishra NATURAL DISASTERS Lahaina's Coral Reef Restoration—Dealing with Unknowns Gordon Cairns ENERGY AI and Robotics Power the Renewable Energy Transition Rick Laezman A ‘Green Grid’—Key for the World’s Energy Transition Angelica Sirotin WATER QUALITY Big Goals, Big Heart: “DigDeep” Wants Every American Home to Have Clean Water Yasmin Prabhudas Exclusion Zone (EZ) Water: Potential for Filtration and Electric Power Gerald H. Pollack WASTE MANAGEMENT Trashed Seas—The Race to Prevent and Remove Marine Litter Cassie Journigan ECONOMICS & POLICY A Tale of Two Companies Embracing ESG Practices Marion W. Miller EDUCATION Why Baltimore Has One of the US’s Most Diverse Urban Tree Canopies Ted Martello

Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe* Pivoting from “harmful” to “healthy,” the public health rhetoric on sunlight and its healing properties has transformed in recent years, largely due to the benefits of vitamin D exposure. For more than a century, public health messages focused on the adverse effects of sunlight on our health. Overexposure to sunlight is linked to negative consequences, such as skin-damaging sunburns, raising the risks for skin cancer, and even cataracts. However, the public health narrative has now evolved due to the availability of new sunscreens, supplements, and light therapies, not to mention scientific findings highlighting the multiple health benefits associated with sunlight. Sunlight has been linked to boosting serotonin, helping improve mental health, building strong bones, contributing to cancer prevention, and healing skin conditions. Studies also indicate preliminary evidence for sunlight as a potential treatment for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and thyroiditis. Harm from the sun remains a crucial consideration, however. People can protect their skin from too much sun by applying sunscreen with at least a sun protective factor (SPF) 50, avoiding direct sunlight and subsequent sunburn, and wearing sun-protective clothing and UVR-filtered sunglasses. Risks of Too Little Sun A 2020 research study suggests that “insufficient sun exposure is a significant public health problem” and cited previous research linking it to an estimated 340,000 deaths in the US and 480,000 in Europe per year. Further, a lack of exposure to sunlight may increase the prevalence of various conditions, including breast and colorectal cancers, cardiovascular disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, autism, and asthma. A 2020 research study suggests that “insufficient sun exposure is a significant public health problem.” Exposure to the sun’s rays causes the skin to produce vitamin D, which has long been considered the primary benefit of sunlight. The sun’s rays contain ultraviolet-B radiation, which makes the vitamin. “Vitamin D plays a critical role in immune function,” Dr. Michael Holick, professor of pharmacology, physiology, biophysics and molecular medicine, and director of the Ehlers-Danlos Clinical Research Programme at Boston University School of Medicine, told The Earth & I. Calls to rethink sun exposure policy or to promote vitamin D supplementation in higher-risk populations were prominent fifteen years ago, with one particular study highlighting this need. However, since then, results indicate that while likely to be more beneficial than not, researchers have not convincingly shown that vitamin D oral supplementation helps to prevent these conditions. In a 2022 webinar, Dr. Roger Seheult, an associate professor at the University of California Riverside School of Medicine, spoke on several topics, such as sunlight's positive role on cell health by interacting with melatonin, humans’ widespread deficiency in sunlight exposure, and its overall health impact. Sunlight and the Covid-19 Pandemic In February 2022, Dr. Holick published an editorial paper in the journal Nutrients on the prominence of vitamin D deficiency in the COVID-19 era. The paper, entitled The CO-VID D-Lemma: A Call for Action, cited previous research suggesting that people with ample amounts of vitamin D had lower risks for respiratory infections and clinical complications, such as those connected to COVID-19. The COVID-19 pandemic reduced sunlight exposure due to widespread stay-at-home policies, resulting in difficulty in “active and healthy aging,” 2021 research found. The review study also found that phototherapy with full-spectrum light is a potential alternative to sunlight exposure. The researchers recommended future studies focus on screening optimal phototherapy conditions, such as light strength, effective wavelength, and exposure duration. Through previous findings, researchers knew that activated macrophages produce 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D, which interacts with both T and B lymphocyte cells. These cells are responsible for making antibodies and cytokines. Scientists also know that during COVID-19, one of the significant complications of infection was the cytokine storm. “So, vitamin D, playing a critical role in both adaptive and innate immunity, would reduce the risk of developing infection, morbidity and mortality,” Dr. Holick adds. During COVID-19, one of the significant complications of infection was the cytokine storm. “So, vitamin D, playing a critical role in both adaptive and innate immunity, would reduce the risk of developing infection, morbidity and mortality.” Researchers conducted various studies to prove this. The first published study Dr. Holick undertook evaluated 191,000 COVID-19-positive patients throughout the US for their vitamin D status. They found that patients with a circulating concentration of 25 hydroxy vitamin D of at least 34 nanograms per ml had a 54% reduced risk of COVID infection. Another study showed that if COVID-19 patients went into a hospital with adequate vitamin D status, they had less risk for complications or death. Mirroring the recommendation over a century ago during the Spanish flu pandemic, researchers advised sensible sun exposure during the COVID-19 pandemic and a healthy vitamin D status with dietary and supplemental vitamin D. Today, as the world population edges away from the COVID-19 pandemic, vitamin D sufficiency is no less critical, as it offers multiple health benefits that are difficult to replicate artificially. Is Vitamin D All About the Sun? “Herein lies the problem,” Dr. Holick responds when asked if vitamin D is solely associated with sunlight or if other factors are present. “It’s well-recognized that vitamin D deficiency is probably the most common medical condition worldwide—at least a billion people in the world are vitamin deficient,” Dr. Holick adds. The reason is simple, however. Research indicates that people living in Calgary, Canada, or the UK, or at similar northern latitudes cannot make any vitamin D in their skin for six months, from approximately October until mid-April. People naturally turn to other vitamin D sources, though these are limited as there are very few dietary sources. “Oily fish, and mushrooms exposed to sunlight, and cod liver oil are your only dietary sources of vitamin D,” says Dr. Holick. Wild-caught salmon contains 500 to 1,000 units in a serving, while farmed salmon has only about 10% to 20% of that amount. In addition, the public has been taught to avoid the sun by going outside only in early mornings and late afternoons. That kind of schedule largely defeats the idea of getting vitamin D. “It turns out you make none” at those times, says Dr. Holick, adding that people only make vitamin D from about 10:00 a.m. until 2:00 p.m., regardless of whether one lives at the equator, in Panama, or in Boston. Circadian Rhythms and the Sun Circadian rhythm refers to human physical, mental, and behavioral changes in a 24-hour cycle. Astronauts’ cycles increase by over an hour because they no longer have the typical circadian rhythms humans are born with. Alertness in the morning is due to the adrenal corticotropin hormone from the pituitary gland, which wakes people up. It sends a signal to the adrenal glands to make cortisol so that cortisol levels at 7:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. are high and robust to help people wake up. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) [See The Earth & I, Dec 2022], thought to impact approximately 10 million Americans, comes from the body’s inability to recognize winter sunlight, Dr. Holick says. “There has been an evolution in our thinking about sun exposure,” says Dr. Holick. After recognizing that the time of day, season, and latitude create skin pigmentation, all of which influence the ability to make vitamin D, Dr. Holick developed an app called dminder. The app is designed to tell the user when they can begin making vitamin D and how much is made, and it warns them to get out of the sun so they do not get sunburned. The app cannot customize the results based on each person’s condition; however, it does consider health factors that can affect vitamin D, such as skin type, obesity, or a granuloma disorder. Bright Light Therapy: A Solution for Autumn and Winter? Without access to sunlight and with the prominence of SAD, vitamin D sources are limited, prompting potential deficiency. Vitamin D supplementation is advised throughout the year to support sufficiency. “I recommend that everyone take the supplement every day, spring, summer, fall, and winter, because your blood level excursion [fluctuation] of vitamin D is very little,” says Dr. Holick. Without access to sunlight …, vitamin D sources are limited, prompting potential deficiency. Vitamin D supplementation is advised throughout the year to support sufficiency. Artificial sources can also provide a solution, particularly in autumn and winter. “Bright light therapy is the most effective way of helping people with seasonal affective disorder,” says Dr. Holick. The recommendation is to use at least a lamp with 10,000 LuxS. Turning the indirect light on in the morning while preparing breakfast or reading a newspaper helps suppress melatonin. Technology developers are creating artificial sources of red light designed to provide some of the beneficial infrared wavelengths of the sun’s light without going outside. Companies such as Mito Red Light produce light therapy products to help people access artificial sunlight. Presenting their “tentative evidence,” researchers in a 2020 study on sunlight and health showed that red and near-infrared light, both present in sunlight, could explain the associations between sunlight exposure and better health status. *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 10 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences. Source: Interview with Dr. Michael Holick, Professor of pharmacology, physiology, biophysics and molecular medicine, and director of the Ehlers-Danlos Clinical Research Program at Boston University School of Medicine.

Nonprofit Implements Clean Water Solutions for Navajo, Appalachia, and Colonias Communities By Yasmin Prabhudas* An astonishing number of people in the US do not have complete modern plumbing in their homes, according to a 2019 report called Closing the Water Access Gap in the United States. It found that about two million people, including Native Americans, Alaska Natives, people who live in rural or remote areas, and homeless people, lack running water, sinks, tubs, and showers. In response, the nonprofit organization DigDeep is doing all it can to tackle the problem. It has a simple mission: “Working taps and toilets for every person in the United States.” Founding Philosophy Founded in 2011 by George McGraw, DigDeep was originally set up to solve the water crises in South Sudan and Cameroon, but the focus soon shifted. Kimberly Lemme, executive director of DigDeep Labs, who has a wealth of experience in developing water access programs, explains how a donor offered the organization $50 to solve water problems in the Navajo Nation. “That was the trigger to our founder going to visit that location within the US and understanding the context, and from there conversations were had with the board,” she says. In 2014, the board decided to operate exclusively in the US. “We’re not necessarily focusing on communities that have access but need better access, because those numbers are much higher […],” she says. “And while we work in partnership with organizations that are addressing that, we are really laser focused on the communities and populations that don’t have any [plumbing] access.” The 2019 report on water access in the US, compiled by the US Water Alliance and DigDeep, highlights the extent of the problem, including how Native American households are 19 times more likely than white households to lack indoor plumbing. In rural areas, 17% of people have problems obtaining safe drinking water and 12% have issues with their sewage system. In rural areas [in the US], 17% of people have problems obtaining safe drinking water and 12% have issues with their sewage system. Lemme states that six hotspots were identified, “catching a big portion of the populations that are lacking access.” Projects and Processes The organization has three projects targeting those hotspot areas: The Navajo Water Project serves the Navajo Nation of almost 400,000 people in New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. An estimated 30% of Navajo families have no running water, and some drive for miles to get water for drinking, cooking, cleaning, and bathing. Providing a water system involves meeting the family in their home to plan the installation; burying a 1,200-gallon water tank to keep it from freezing; plumbing in a sink, water heater, filter, and drain line; connecting solar power and lights; and filling the tanks with clean water. Once the taps have been turned on, the homeowner learns how to make simple repairs. Today, 250 septic tanks have been restored through DigDeep’s sanitation pilot program and 300 Navajo families now have access to a water system. An estimated 1.54 million gallons of water have been delivered. The Appalachia Water Project in rural West Virginia provides water services to those living in terrain blighted by failing old water pipes and contamination from local mines. DigDeep workers build partnerships with the county so that a system can be channeled into more than 400 homes from the main line. Old plumbing is replaced with new sinks and toilets. Since the project began in 2020, seventy-four households are ready to be connected to a sewer across the two counties of Wyoming and McDowell in West Virginia, and ninety families have received access to piped water. The Colonias Water Project operates around the Texas-Mexico border, where more than 500,000 people lack basic utility provision. According to the federal Department of Housing and Urban Development, colonias refers to scattered homesteads, modular homes, and trailer homes that have little or no modern plumbing. Families have had to buy water in stores or travel a long way to obtain it. As part of the project, DigDeep workers have held public meetings and developed links with the community to find out what is required before clean running water and access to other utilities are provided. DigDeep has offered seventy-two neighborhood lots running water for the first time in Cochran, near El Paso. Lemme explains: “We go and meet with local community leaders. We try to understand the context better from the community lens and from the perspective of those on the ground.” Going Local Wherever possible, DigDeep uses local expertise, including engineering or construction firms and the local government’s preferred local providers. The organization does not have a maintenance arm, but its local DigDeep offices are often the first port of call when something goes wrong. According to Lemme, they are “staffed by folks who have grown up and lived in that region, if not their whole life, then most of their life.” Local providers usually carry out any repairs. DigDeep also works closely with local regulators to make sure the water is as clean as possible and that if an issue arises, it is reported promptly, so it can be addressed systematically. Assessing Environmental Impact At the forefront of DigDeep’s work is making sure projects are climate resilient. Lemme says: “We can drill a bore hole and have a community tap stand, but if that groundwater dries up, it’s not really a good infrastructure investment […]. So [we’re] making sure there is an environmental lens on everything we’re doing.” “We can drill a bore hole and have a community tap stand, but if that groundwater dries up, it’s not really a good infrastructure investment […] . So [we’re] making sure there is an environmental lens on everything we’re doing.” It’s important, she adds, to not exploit an already over-tapped resource and to make sure that the water isn’t wasted whenever there’s a water point where there might be runoff. Using materials that are compatible with the soil and working as locally as possible are other vital steps. But it’s not always easy. Lemme explains: “We do run into challenges now and again, and we have to make sure that we’re documenting those and learning from those. So, as we move forward, we can flow the infrastructure as locally and as sustainably as possible. Sometimes those materials look like whatever is the best quality of the day. And that technology tends to evolve over time, and we try to keep up with that.” Informing its Work In May 2023, the organization launched DigDeep Labs, a repository for research, innovation, and data to inform services and policymaking. It was established to build on existing research reports, such as Draining: The Economic Impact of America’s Hidden Water Crisis, which quantify the problem. “There are lots of gaps in the knowledge, so we’re working with partners around the sector to also do that type of data collection. Then the innovation is really how do we get people to work together more effectively, what are the little things that are flying under the radar that might be helping us to close the water access gap,” says Lemme. Federal Government Responsibility Apart from working in partnership with local government in project areas, DigDeep also contacts aides on Capitol Hill in Washington, DC, to raise awareness among members of Congress. “The government has a lot of responsibility, not only to keep water flowing in homes that already have it like mine, but also to […] get us to the finish line and make sure that everyone across the country has access,” Lemme concludes. *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for non-profit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

Africa Food Systems Forum (AGRF) released its 2023 status report in September, “Empowering Africa Food Systems for the Future.” It provides “a comprehensive outlook into the opportunities and challenges that lie ahead” for creating sustainable food systems on the continent. The report cites youth empowerment and advances in technology and infrastructure as key components in overcoming significant challenges to the continent’s food security. According to the AGRF report, “Africa is at a critical juncture” in providing food security for its people with its youth population projected to reach 200 million by 2030. More than 20% percent of Africa’s population (about 257 million people) is undernourished (FAO, 2022). More than 20 million people and at least 10 million children “faced severe food shortages in Africa due to crop failure and four consecutive dry seasons” (UNICEF, 2022) The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) predicts annual food imports will increase from $15 billion in 2018 to $110 billion by 2025. Fertilizer prices have increased by about 78% compared with the average prices in 2021 (Hebebrand & Glauber, 2023). According to the AGRF report, “Poor infrastructure shaves up to 2% off Africa’s average per capita growth rates.” By adopting “appropriate technology, it is estimated that an additional 96 million hectares in sub-Saharan Africa can be irrigated by smallholders.” This could benefit nearly 369 million people. The report blames “dominance of starchy staples, alongside lower animal-sourced foods and fruits and vegetable supply” for deficiencies in the continent’s consumption of micronutrients (vitamin A, iron, zinc, folate, B vitamins, and calcium). Source: https://agra.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/AASR-2023.pdf