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Can New Desalination Techniques Help Alleviate Water Scarcity? * By Gordon Cairns The Yoruba people of Nigeria have an old saying, “Water has no enemy,” which means living in harmony with nature leads to a long and wise life. This message has been spread in and beyond Africa through the music of Nigerian superstar Fela Kuti and his 1975 song, “ Water No Get Enemy .” Unfortunately, in Nigeria the warning hasn’t been heeded. Different factions have used violence to gain access to this precious resource, adding to the number of “water wars” (or water-related conflicts) taking place across the globe. Water Wars in Africa In certain regions of Africa, people have always struggled to get their share of water, and this has only been made worse due to climate change. The World Bank  has calculated that climate change has contributed to over three-quarters of the Sahel region becoming too dry for livestock herders to settle in one place. Several years ago, when the water level of the world’s 11th largest lake— Lake Chad , situated in the Sahel region—drastically fell, the nomadic Fulani herdsmen , who used its waters and the surrounding grasslands for their livestock, had no choice but to migrate to the fertile plains of the Benue River. Unsurprisingly, the resident farmers didn’t take too kindly to the arrival of herds of cattle that are reducing their water supply, contaminating it with their waste , and eating their crops. The locals tried to drive out the unwelcome newcomers, but the herdsmen had access to automatic rifles and powerful political support. This escalated the conflict and caused death and chaos in the troubled region. For instance, in just three months  during 2022, 92 people were killed in 10 incidents. As of 2021, an estimated 357,000 people  have been displaced from their homes in Benue State due to the fight over water. While water wars  in Nigeria, defined as a violent conflict over a “threat of depletion of water resource in a region or the actual struggle over water resources,” are triggered by a fight over lack of water, in Burkina Faso , water has become a deliberate “weapon of war.” In Burkina Faso, which is also situated in the drought-stricken Sahel region, local war lords are deliberately terrorizing local populations by destroying water trucks, contaminating the supply, and sabotaging the generators needed to deliver water to the public. In 2022, it was estimated that 300,000 people had been adversely affected, while the city of Djibo has had to accommodate most of the country’s displaced people. The citizens have been forced to survive on only three liters (about 0.8 gallons) of water a day for all of their basic needs: drinking, cooking, and hygiene. This is less than half of the 7.5 liters (2 gallons) absolute minimum per day recommended by the World Health Organization  to survive in an emergency situation. The citizens have been forced to survive on only three liters (about 0.8 gallons) of water a day for all of their basic needs: drinking, cooking, and hygiene. This is less than half of the 7.5 liters (2 gallons) absolute minimum per day recommended by the World Health Organization to survive in an emergency situation. Negative Environmental Impacts of Water Wars It is not only the lives of civilians that are disrupted by water wars. These conflicts also have negative environmental impacts, ironically reducing the availability of the water they are fighting over. Water wars can deplete the number of aquifers  (the layer of rock needed to extract water from the ground), as well as reduce groundwater itself in the long term. As in the Benue River, the water at the conflict site can become polluted. Furthermore, such conflicts can contribute to biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. Water Wars in California Today, the California water war continues—in courtrooms—between policymakers, environmental groups, municipalities, and agricultural groups. The Bay-Delta Plan  (with a 6,000-page report ) is an example. Initiated in 2018, the stated goal is to conserve and protect wildlife, including trout and salmon, in the San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin River watershed by managing water flow into the Sacramento River and Lower San Joaquin River. In a May 2024 update , the goal is to have 55% (45% to 65% adaptive range) and 40% (30% to 50% for February to June) unimpaired tributary flow into the Sacramento River and Lower San Joaquin River, respectively, going into effect by early 2026. This would result in up to a 75% reduction in water  supply for Solano County—which gravely threatens local agricultural operations and local neighborhood availability of water, opponents say. A final decision on the latest Bay-Delta plan update is not expected until 2025 , according to the North Bay Business Journal . [The Bay-Delta Plan] would result in up to a 75% reduction in water supply for Solano County, threatening its agricultural operations. Potential Solutions to Water Wars Although there is no one-size-fits-all solution for each water-related conflict, the World Resources Institute (WRI) in their 2020 report  recommended solutions based on six case studies in Iraq, Iran, India, the African Sahel (spanning Senegal to Eritrea), Central American Dry Corridor (southern Mexico to Panama), and Yemen. Solutions are based on four broad categories: 1) natural resources, science, and engineering approaches; 2) political and legal tools; 3) economic and financial tools; and 4) policy and governance strategies.   Natural resources, science, and engineering approaches involve the expansion of existing infrastructure and development of new water sources. Political and legal tools include the establishment of transboundary water-sharing agreements, enactment of environmental laws, and improvement of human rights and humanitarian laws. Economic and financial tools include agricultural improvements, reducing food waste, and removing subsidies for water, food, and agriculture. Policy and governance strategies include improved governance and collaboration over water management.   WRI recommended the implementation of transboundary water-sharing agreements in Iran and Iraq, given how both countries share the Tigris-Euphrates Basin. Iran has also been facing severe droughts , thereby also warranting agricultural improvements to improve water use. Solutions for India, given its large population, were focused on improving water-use efficiency and water management. In the African Sahel, WRI indicated the need to reduce inequitable water and land rights. In the Central American Dry Corridor, facing climate-related migration , agricultural extension was recommended, while taking “aggressive measures” to curb gang violence. Finally, the WRI recommended implementing international laws of war and hardening water systems in Yemen, given the ongoing civil war .  Development of Desalination with Renewable Energy Due to technological advances, creating abundant freshwater from seawater is no longer an impossible dream. Desalination has been considered to be too energy inefficient and costly to be a viable solution to water scarcity. Now a number of innovative desalination systems  are being developed to reduce the costs needed to operate them. One such advancement has been developed by Oneka Technologies , a Canadian-based desalination company using wave energy to power their systems. Each of the company's floating buoys contains a strainer that intakes seawater, and the seawater passes through filters. The pump, powered through the oscillation of the waves, then moves the water into reverse osmosis membranes. 25% of the resulting water is desalinated, while the remaining 75% is low salinity brine (about 30% saltier than seawater) that is discharged back into the ocean. The desalinated water flows into a pipeline that goes from the buoy to the ocean floor and water storage tank. ( See video for details .) Each buoy is tethered to the bottom of the ocean to keep it in place, and it can provide enough water for as many as 3,000 people daily.  Solar power has also been used to power desalination plants. Dutch company Desolenator  has a solar thermal desalination solution that can produce 250,000 liters (about 66,000 gallons) of fresh drinking water daily. Each plant is powered by a PVT (photovoltaic-thermal) array on the top, which also heats up the cold seawater feed on the bottom. The seawater is then fed into MED (multiple-effect distillation) components in the middle, distilling it into clean water. Given this method, there are no filters, membranes, or harmful chemicals involved.  Domestic Solutions to Water Scarcity Research conducted by the Irrigation Association and the International Center for Water Technology at California State University in Fresno suggests that up to 20 percent of water can be saved by farmers and householders using this technology in comparison with traditional irrigation methods. There are also wins that can be achieved on a much smaller scale but which can still increase the overall availability of water on Earth, reducing the need to fight over it. For example, a smart irrigation system adjusts watering schedules to deliver only what is needed by using technology to monitor weather and soil conditions and check evaporation. This can not only be used in agriculture, but also in our domestic gardens. Research conducted by the Irrigation Association  and the International Center for Water Technology at California State University in Fresno suggests that up to 20 percent of water can be saved by farmers and householders using this technology in comparison with traditional irrigation methods. Another water saving method is drip irrigation , a low pressure water system delivering hydration to the root of the plant rather than using a sprinkler system which soaks the leaves and surrounding area, potentially saving 30 to 50 percent of water usage. Forgoing a lush, green garden for a trendy arid alternative will make one’s own front yard stand out and make a positive impact on water usage. Arid gardens  grow hardy plants from dry and desert regions that can survive on very little water, such as Old-man Saltbush and Eremophila. It is not only in gardens but also in homes, where water can be conserved. Switching from a bath to a shower and reducing it to four minutes can make a big reduction in water usage, as can turning the faucet off when brushing one’s teeth. A running faucet pours away six liters of water  per minute. If left on for only two and a half minutes, this loss accumulates to the same amount needed to provide the liquid needs of a person in an emergency situation . Small changes such as these that all people can make in areas where water is plentiful can have a big impact where it is not. Bringing an abundance of water where there is scarcity or reducing our usage elsewhere in the world would surely help end this ancient source of conflict, improve the quality of life for humans whose lives are blighted by thirst, and reap all of the environmental benefits to be had by living in harmony with nature. *Gordon Cairns  is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

Iconic, Orange-Black-Winged Butterflies Rely on Milkweeds for Food and Growth     Monarch butterflies are among the most easily recognizable butterfly species in North America, with their deep orange wings with black borders and veins, along with white spots along the wings’ edges. Below are some facts on these widely known pollinators.  According to World Wildlife’s Monarch Butterfly Survey Report  for the 2023–2024 winter season, monarchs occupied only 2.2 acres during that season, which is 59% less than the 5.5 acres observed last year.  Meanwhile, monarch populations in California have been declining at about 5%  per year since 1997, when there were “low millions” in the 1980s, according to the Xerces Society.   Despite declining populations, the monarch is currently listed as “least concern” in the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) Red List of Threatened Species .  Monarch larvae only eat milkweed leaves , but adult monarchs can drink nectar from several kinds of flowers, including milkweed.  Male monarchs have two black spots  near the center of their hind wings, which females lack.  Monarchs migrate distances of more than 3,000 km  (~1860 miles) to their overwintering sites during their suspended reproduction (diapause) state.    Sources:   Monarch Life Cycle | Ask A Biologist ( asu.edu )   Monarch Butterfly | National Wildlife Federation ( nwf.org )   Danaus plexippus (Monarch) ( iucnredlist.org )   Monarch_Butterfly_Survey_Report_Feb_7_2024_.pdf ( worldwildlife.org )   The Current Status of Western Monarch Butterflies, By the Numbers | Xerces Society   Monarch (Danaus plexippus) | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service ( fws.gov )

*By David Dodge Geothermal energy has long been viewed as an ideal source of free energy from the Earth. In the Stone Age,  geothermal heating  was used for bathing in hot springs, and in ancient Rome, it was used for space heating. Now, it may be poised to revolutionize how the world heats their homes. In 1904, Prince Piero Ginori Conti  of Italy first tested a geothermal electric power generator and then built a small power plant in 1911. Decades later, in 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric built the first geothermal power plant in the US at The Geysers in California. Today, 22 operational power stations  sit on the world’s largest geothermal field with a capacity of 1,517 megawatts and an average production of about 835 megawatts of electricity . Indeed, naturally occurring heat sources have been easily tapped for geothermal power generation around the world. Iceland gets about 25% of its electricity  from its abundant thermal geysers and hot springs. Types of Geothermal Technologies For most people, the term “geothermal” simply means harvesting free heat energy from the Earth to heat a home or building. According to Bryant Jones of Geothermal Rising, a US-based industry trade organization, there are broadly three kinds of geothermal technologies. The first, he says, is the use of geothermal ground source heat pumps  to upgrade low temperatures of around 4–12 °C (39–55°F) using the shallow heat of the Earth. This is often called “geoexchange.” The second type of use is often referred to as direct use  applications in which the heat of the Earth is used in industrial processes and even in district heating systems. The third application is the use of higher-temperature resources  from geysers, hot springs, or deeper thermal reservoirs to generate electricity. Popular, In-Ground Geoexchange Systems Geoexchange is the most common type of geothermal project in the world. It involves burying loops of pipes in the ground, horizontally or vertically to harvest low temperatures of between 4°C and 12°C (39°F–55°F). A heat pump is then used to upgrade this to around 50°C (122°F), and it is then used to heat the home or building. Darren and Darcy Crichton’s accidental journey to their net-zero home in North Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, used a geoexchange system dug right in their front yard. The decision to use geoexchange came in 2021 during an intense heat wave: the in-ground heat pump system provides very energy-efficient air conditioning as well as heat. (See video: https://youtu.be/9CruVmn097w ). There are hundreds of thousands of geoexchange systems installed across North America to heat buildings and even groups of buildings through district heating systems. Geoexchange is probably the best way to heat a home. Compared to electric heaters—which are considered 100% efficient  (in that all the electrical energy is converted to heat)— heat pumps connected to geoexchange systems are up to 400% efficient for heating . (In other words, for every one unit of energy needed to run the heat pump, up to five units of free energy come out of the ground). These systems are also up to 700% efficient for cooling. With predictions of rising heat waves … super-energy efficient air conditioning is becoming more important. With predictions of rising heat waves, thanks to a climate-changing world, super-energy efficient air conditioning is becoming more important. People who have geoexchange systems often talk about their very comfortable homes and low energy bills. The hitch is that installing a geoexchange system is expensive for a single-family home, costing about $30,000 to $40,000. But the economics really look good when it’s used to heat groups of homes, multifamily buildings, or single-family homes through a district heating system. Air Source Heat Pumps Another simpler and inexpensive approach is to use an air source heat pump mounted on the outside of one’s home. It takes heat from the air, no matter what temperature the air is. These systems are much cheaper, but the efficiency goes down with the temperature of the air. Air source heat pumps must be able to deal with air temperatures ranging from -30°C to +30°C (-22°F to 86°F or higher). This means they will work extra hard when it’s very cold or very hot. Their efficiency can be as high as 300% and as low as 100%, about the same as a space heater. The big breakthrough in recent years is that air source heat pumps have improved dramatically and are now rated for temperatures as frigid as -35°C (-31°F). Air source heat pumps are very affordable and a very energy-efficient way to both heat and cool one’s home. Air source heat pumps are now used around the world. In 2022, more than 400,000 air source heat pumps were installed in the Nordic countries of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The reason is simple: Air source heat pumps are very affordable and a very energy-efficient way to both heat and cool one’s home. Geoexchange District Heating Systems While air source heat pumps seem to be dominating the single-family home market, geothermal finds its economic sweet spot in almost any buildings that house more than one family. For example, the Salvation Army has built a 175-unit supportive housing  complex in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It secured quotes to build net-zero ready using geothermal heating and cooling that were only slightly more costly than conventional code-built quotes. They built super energy-efficient R40 walls and installed a geothermal system for heating and cooling and expect to save $6 million on heating costs in the first 25 years of operation . In another example in Edmonton, geothermal was used to heat a 15-unit social housing complex  and a church, helping the facilities become the first net-zero complex of its kind. Geothermal has been used in district heating systems in the US starting as early as 1892. A system in Boise, Idaho, heats more than 80 buildings  for about the cost of natural gas heating. There are about 20 such systems in the US and others in Paris, Munich, and other places around the world. Geothermal district heating makes emissions-free heating affordable and reliable, and it's one of the few proven ways of decarbonizing building heating. Geothermal district heating makes emissions-free heating affordable and reliable, and it's one of the few proven ways of decarbonizing building heating. “We're starting to see companies being founded that are wanting to partner with municipalities to create those district heating systems,” says Bryant Jones of Geothermal Rising. In Europe, about a dozen countries have already or are in the process of banning fossil fuel heating systems . Air source heat pumps sales have skyrocketed, and many are looking at geothermal district heating as well. Geothermal Energy In 1911, Italian Prince Conti built the first geothermal power plant  at the massive Larderello steam field where temperatures of 202°C (396°F) were found close to the surface. The second geothermal plant followed decades later, in 1958 in New Zealand. Two years later, Pacific Gas and Electric built the first plant in the US at The Geysers in California. The Geysers development expanded to a complex of 22 operational power plants capable of producing 1,517 megawatts , making it the largest in the world today. As of December 2022, there is 14,877 megawatts  of geothermal electricity capacity around the world, which is still a nearly invisible blip in charts showing global electricity production. Most of the geothermal energy plants rely on naturally occurring geysers, hot springs, or liquid-dominated reservoirs that are relatively close to the surface in large, easy-to-find resources. Most of the geothermal energy plants rely on naturally occurring geysers, hot springs, or liquid-dominated reservoirs that are relatively close to the surface in large, easy-to-find resources such as The Geysers in California. Less commonly, deeper reservoirs are found from which brine liquid is harvested and recirculated. In recent years, enhanced geothermal systems are using hydraulic fracturing where they inject water to expand fissures in the rock to enhance the flow and improve productivity. Most of these methods require prospecting to find a viable resource, which is easier if there are geysers or hot springs (think of Iceland or California) and harder in other cases. Cracking the Geothermal Nut In recent years, companies began using closed-loop systems and the natural propensity of the Earth to warm about 30°C (86°F) for every kilometer (0.6 miles) one goes beneath the surface. The idea is to drill down 4–7 km (2.5–4.3 miles) and then horizontally another 4 km (2.5 miles) and install a dozen or more loops of pipe at this depth. This is done using horizontal drilling and magnetic ranging, a technology used to connect pipes deep under the Earth developed by the oil industry. If this sounds familiar, it should. This very closely mimics the geoexchange systems that use closed loops but at shallow depths in the Earth. EAVOR, a company out of Calgary, Alberta, thinks they have perfected the process of using closed loops deep into the Earth. After building a pilot project in Alberta that has operated for five years with very reliable production, they are now building a full-scale plant in Geretsried, Germany . EAVOR’s geothermal project will produce 64 megawatts of heat, enough to heat 120,000 homes in a district heating system. It will also produce 8 megawatts of electricity, enough to power 8,000 homes. This idea has already attracted interest on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. “We have follow-on projects in Germany that are other heat projects. We have another project in the design phase in the Netherlands. And we have a portfolio here in North America that we're working through,” says Jeanine Vany, a geoscientists at EAVOR. Geothermal Breakthrough? The big advantage of this closed-loop technology is that no one has to search for an elusive thermal reservoir; they are simply using the Earth’s natural levels of heat that occur almost everywhere on the planet. Jones believes geothermal is about to become a mainstream technology for providing a low-carbon source of baseload electricity and heat. And indeed, with record installations of solar and wind power around the world, there is a lot of demand for baseload electricity that does not produce emissions—and geothermal just might be the missing link. “Geothermal is a bipartisan technology. Republicans like it, Democrats like it, conservatives, and liberals like that geothermal is a clean renewable energy. It has the lowest environmental footprint of all energy technologies,” says Jones. *David Dodge is an environmental journalist, photojournalist, and the host and producer of GreenEnergyFutures.ca , a series of micro-documentaries on clean energy, transportation, and buildings. He’s worked for newspapers and published magazines and produced more than 350 award-winning EcoFile radio programs on sustainability for CKUA Radio. Additional Sources: Heat Pumps 101: Jean-Marie of NAIT Polytechnique explains how a heat pump works and where one can use them: https://youtu.be/IyV452N9GAQ Geothermal 101: Devon Winczura of Envirotech Geothermal explains how geoexchange systems work in northern climates and how to heat a home with 400% efficiency: https://youtu.be/5gmFk_TgLrw

Data from 2000 to 2023 Highlights Gradual Net Loss of Tree Cover Worldwide   The nonprofit Global Forest Watch  (GFW) was established by the World Resources Institute in 1997 to provide reports on forests in Cameroon, Canada, Gabon, and Indonesia. Today, it provides data on forests worldwide, with diverse funding sources such as the Earth Bezos Fund, Cargill, and the Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Environment. Below are recent data highlights.  In 2010, the world had 3.92 Gha (giga hectares) of tree cover.  From 2000 to 2020, there was 3.58 Gha of stable forests, 131 Mha (mega hectares) of tree cover gained, and 231 Mha of tree cover lost. This resulted in a net of 100 Mha of tree cover lost.  From 2002 to 2023, 76.3 Mha of humid primary forests (in the tropics) were lost globally, or 7.4% of the total.  From 2001 to 2023, there was 488 Mha of tree cover loss globally, or 12% of the tree cover globally in 2000. This released 201 Gt (gigatons) of carbon dioxide emissions.  Total tree cover losses were 13.8 Mha in 2001, rising to 28.2 Mha in 2023. This increased loss was mostly due to wildfires (from 6.92 Mha to 9.00 Mha), shifting agriculture (from 2.97 Mha to 6.60 Mha), forestry (from 4.96 Mha to 6.60 Mha), and commodity-driven deforestation (3.08 Mha to 4.46 Mha).   From 2001 to 2023, Russia had the highest relative tree cover loss of 83.7 Mha, followed by Brazil (68.9 Mha), Canada (57.5 Mha), the United States (47.9 Mha), and Indonesia (30.8 Mha).  Within that time frame, from 2000 to 2020, Russia also had the highest tree cover gain of 37.2 Mha, followed by Canada (17.0 Mha), the United States (14.0 Mha), Brazil (8.06 Mha), and China (6.69 Mha).    Source:   https://www.globalforestwatch.org/

Almost 7 Million Deaths in 2019 Attributed to Air Pollution   In its second World Heart Report  released in May ,  the World Heart Federation (WHF) highlights the effects of air pollution on cardiovascular health worldwide, with a focus on data from 2010 to 2019 by the World Health Organization (WHO).   Global average concentration levels of particulate matter (PM2.5) were at about 31.7 µg/m3 (micrograms per cubic meter) in 2019, more than six times WHO’s 2021 recommended level of 5 µg/m3. However, PM2.5 concentrations have been trending lower by about 1% annually from about 35.3 µg/m3 in 2010.  In 2019, the three countries with the highest estimated annual average PM2.5 concentrations were Kuwait (64.1 µg/m3), Egypt (63.2 µg/m3), and Afghanistan (62.5 µg/m3). Meanwhile, the three countries with the lowest concentrations were the Bahamas (5.2 µg/m3), Finland (5.5 µg/m3), and Iceland (5.8 µg/m3).  Over 2 billion people worldwide rely on polluting fuels such as coal, crop waste, and charcoal for cooking.  In 2019, ambient air pollution caused 4.2 million deaths and over 100.4 million DALYs*. Of the 4.2 million deaths, almost half (1.9 million) were from ischemic heart disease (IHD), which stems from narrowed arteries. Another 900,000 deaths were due to stroke.  Meanwhile, household air pollution (such as from gas cooking) contributed to 3.2 million deaths, with 1 million from IHD and 700,000 from stroke.  The WHF report focused on five common respiratory-related illnesses— IHD, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acute lower respiratory infections, and lung cancer.  Although the number of total deaths from these five causes increased from 2010 to 2019, the age-standardized mortality rate decreased globally from about 70.7 deaths per 100,000 people to about 59.7 deaths per 100,000 people.  To mitigate the harms of air pollution, WHF recommends nations agree to a global fossil fuel non-proliferation treaty and follow WHO guidelines to combat air pollution, such as avoiding tobacco use and indoor and outdoor smoke. It urges individuals to maintain a healthy weight and diet, exercise daily, and use helpful supplements and medications.    *Note: DALY = disability-adjusted life years. This represents the loss of the equivalent of one year of full health and is the sum of the years of life lost due to premature mortality and the years lived with a disability.    Sources:   https://world-heart-federation.org/wp-content/uploads/20240502_World-Heart-Report_240628.pdf

*By Robert Selle In the 1600s, Spanish fishermen hunting for mackerel and tuna in the cold Pacific waters off what is present-day Ecuador and Colombia noticed a surprising warming of the sea. It happened in only some years but always in the weeks near Christmas time. They named this rise in water temperature, El Niño de Navidad , literally The Little Boy of Christmas  or Christ Child . Contemporary scientists have shortened the term to El Niño .   Modern scientists know that this ocean warming  occurs when the trade winds that ordinarily blow east to west across the broad expanse of the Pacific weaken, stop, or even reverse. The winds normally drive warm surface water west, allowing cold water to upwell in the “ equatorial cold tongue ” that generally stretches in a strip along the Equator from western South America to the International Date Line. Such a warming episode has been also occurring since the spring of 2023.   The seventeenth-century Spaniards didn’t realize it at the time, but this ocean anomaly actually affects weather all around the world, like a series of dominoes falling—as does El Niño’s sister phenomenon, La Niña (literally The Little Girl ). Enter La Niña La Niña wasn’t named  till the 1980s, when climate scientists coined the term to describe the Pacific cold-water phenomenon that sometimes follows an El Niño—especially after an exceptionally strong El Niño. With La Niña, stronger-than-normal easterly trade winds blow above-normal amounts of surface water west, allowing frigid water to rise from far deeper in the ocean. This also shakes up global weather—again producing the meteorological version of dominoes falling. An El Niño usually starts  in the Northern Hemisphere’s spring and crescendos in November to February. It occurs every two to seven years through an elaborate interaction among prevailing winds, sea surface temperatures, the deep ocean, and perhaps unknown factors. It lasts nine to 12 months—and sometimes even for a year or two. When the equatorial Pacific Ocean grows unusually warm, as it does during an El Niño, rapidly rising warm air disrupts the jet stream —the fierce rivers of wind that flow several miles up at 100–275 mph in a generally eastward direction—which rejiggers patterns of high and low pressure, wet and dry, and hot and cold literally all over the world. Influence on Hurricanes Among its multitude of global weather effects, an El Niño can weaken hurricanes, which are what these giant windstorms  are called when they form in the North Atlantic or Caribbean Sea. (When they’re in the Western Pacific, they’re called typhoons , and in the Indian Ocean area, cyclones .)   A La Niña brings with it weather variations as diverse as those wrought by an El Niño, including more frequent and severe hurricanes in the Atlantic. The annual hurricane season generally lasts from April through November, with 60% of hurricanes forming in August and September.   The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the US agency that monitors global weather, is predicting a 70%–79% chance of a La Niña formation in late 2024 or early 2025.   This summer in 2024, according to the National Weather Service, an El Niño from the spring of 2023 (from a Northern Hemisphere point of view) is subsiding. It “has more or less shut off,” the agency reported , adding that a La Niña is likely to form this summer or fall, and influence the weather for the coming autumn and winter months. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the US agency that monitors global weather, is predicting a 70%–79% chance of a La Niña formation in late 2024 or early 2025.   Hurricanes Looming Speaking of hurricanes, a study in 2022 in Nature Climate Change  found that the number of these storms fell 13% from 1900–2000, decreasing by 23% after 1950. However, the intensity of hurricanes has been strengthening over the same period. Since 2000, the number of hurricanes making landfall in the US has been relatively stable  even while their intensity has been rising , according to NOAA.   The warm-water-born El Niño has a paradoxical effect on hurricanes, causing them to lose force. This is due to the upper-atmosphere wind shear that El Niño produces, shredding  the rising vortex required for a superstorm to develop.   Some scientists  expect global warming to produce stronger and more frequent El Niños, which could actually weaken hurricanes. But other observers expect the opposite to be true—that rising surface temperatures in the Atlantic will feed burgeoning hurricanes with increased quantities of warm water vapor.   NOAA administrator Rick Spinrad said in May [of 2024], “There's an 85% chance of an above-normal [hurricane] season” this year .   As one can see, climate science can be inexact and contradictory. Predictions can be highly dependent on computer models, which depend on the variables—and the assumptions and perhaps biases—that are built into them. Nonetheless, NOAA administrator Rick Spinrad said in May, “There's an 85% chance of an above-normal [hurricane] season” this year . This assessment for 2024 was seconded by forecasters at Colorado State University, who said, “We anticipate a well-above-average probability for major hurricane landfalls along the continental United States coastline and in the Caribbean.”   Atlantic Storms and the Sahara Adding a wild card to the hurricane prediction mix is the so-called Saharan Air Layer, a vast area of dry, hot, dusty air that wafts from Africa over the Atlantic. Some of the dust has even reached Florida . The hot dust plumes inhibit cloud and rain formation, and in 2024 there are “ dust levels  not seen in years across parts of the [Atlantic] basin,” according to Andrew Wulfeck of FOX Weather. Not surprisingly, he says, “Years with significant dust often experience reduced [hurricane] activity.” The upshot, then, is that it’s anyone’s guess how strong and active this year’s hurricane season will be.   While the response to [hurricane] Katrina, especially in the New Orleans area, was widely criticized, the forecasting of the storm’s intensity and path was remarkably accurate.   Despite the uncertainty, the work of storm forecasters can be lifesaving. The infamous Hurricane Katrina of 2005 is just one example. While the response to Katrina, especially in the New Orleans area, was widely criticized, the forecasting of the storm’s intensity and path was remarkably accurate. Meteorologists predicted days in advance the catastrophic potential of the hurricane, leading to mandatory evacuations for millions of people in the US Gulf Coast region. Though the evacuation process was fraught with challenges, the accurate forecasting undoubtedly saved countless lives. In the short term, weather prognostications can also help in the smart prepositioning of disaster relief resources. In the longer term, meteorological predictions on sea-level rise can help in developing coastal protection strategies. Rainfall extrapolations can help municipalities and states to make decisions on construction of dams and irrigation systems and can aid farmers in choosing what crops to plant. As climate predictions are aired in the media, people can be educated about where to live or how to better prepare for punishing weather.   The future of weather forecasting is promising; with advancements in computer modeling, atmospheric sensors, artificial intelligence, and understanding of atmospheric processes, forecasters are getting better at predicting extreme weather events. As weather scientists hone their technological ability to predict the path and intensity of storms, it will become ever more possible to shield human beings from their destruction.   Earth is always restless, never static. Its aqueous and atmospheric exterior is always on the move, boisterously and unpredictably flowing. But if technological trends continue, one day humankind might be able to live successfully with Earth’s complex meteorological patterns. *Robert R. Selle is a freelance writer and editor, based in Bowie, Maryland.

Over One Million Homes Were Lost After Catastrophic Flooding *By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe Designing safe, sustainable dwellings for those without means or access is beginning to have its day. One determined Pakistani architect is at the forefront of this response. The 'Barefoot Architect' After a storied career as a pioneering Pakistani architect, Yasmeen Lari pivoted away from designing glitzy modern architecture—with its high carbon footprint and other drawbacks—to address the plight of Pakistan’s disaster-plagued poor. Lari has turned her focus to designing environmentally friendly disaster-relief dwellings for a populace that faces periodic earthquakes and flooding. Known today as the “barefoot architect” for the “poorest of the poor,” Lari repurposed her professional career—she calls her former self a “starchitect”—and set up Barefoot Social Architecture (BASA), which, according to Dezeen magazine, works to “uplift impoverished communities without impacting the planet.” Descended from a compassionate, public-minded father who sheltered Muslim refugees at the time of Partition, Lari has long been committed to the preservation of her heritage, having set up the Heritage Foundation of Pakistan in 1980 with her historian husband. With the same determination that led young Lari to study architecture and succeed as the first woman to register as an architect in Pakistan, Lari’s foundation set about preserving historically important architectural treasures, such as those of the once-prosperous Sethi family in Peshawar, among many others. The foundation’s urgent work to address disaster relief housing for the poor followed later—with a particular concern for women and children whose lives in Pakistan have traditionally revolved around the home. Empowering people to create their own safe, affordable, nature-based housing and communal structures—carrying “the sweat and pride” of the community—eventually became more important to Lari than designing prestigious commercial structures. Since her career pivot, considerable attention has been paid to her work. In 2023, at the age of 82, she was awarded the Royal Gold Medal, considered one of the world’s most prestigious architectural accolades. Sustainability In Service to Women and Children Yasmeen Lari’s designs prioritize using locally sourced, renewable materials and incorporating traditional techniques and vernacular architectural styles. In an interview with BBC Urdu in 2020, she described her design motto as “low-to-no cost, zero carbon, and zero waste.” (See video) Her approach is highly regarded by architects, environmentalists, and humanitarian organizations. With many women and children in Pakistan spending much of their lives near the home, designing disaster-resistant homes with natural, nontoxic materials is a necessity. Disaster mortality rates are generally higher for women and children. [See The Earth & I, April, 2021]. Feminist architect Nourhan Bassam, founder of the think-tank GamingX, spoke with The Earth & I about the importance of Lari’s work in addressing this need. “By acknowledging the distinct impact of these disasters on women, we understand that ‘disasters are a feminist issue’,” Bassam said. “Through her foundation, Lari has not only influenced architectural practice but also inspired a broader conversation on intersectionality and cross-cutting topics of sustainability, feminism, and disaster resilience in the field of architecture,” said Bassam. Strong Collaboration Required Providing adequate safe housing for a population as large as Pakistan’s is not easy. “Designing disaster-resistant, affordable housing from local and sustainable materials is a complex process that requires a holistic approach,” Maulik Patel, managing partner at UniquesCadd, an architecture firm focusing on disaster-resilient architecture, told The Earth & I. Various stakeholders need to be involved. “Addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary collaboration, community engagement, and innovative approaches to design and construction,” Patel added. Dezeen reported that from 2012 to 2014, [Lari’s] foundation provided 40,000 new shelters that housed about 300,000 people following severe flooding in Sindh Province. Lari’s track record suggests that her foundation is uniquely qualified to help address the disaster housing challenges of Pakistan’s poorest populations. Dezeen reported that from 2012 to 2014, her foundation provided 40,000 new shelters that housed about 300,000 people following severe flooding in Sindh Province. Addressing Pakistan’s Floods Lari’s foundation was severely tested when heavy rains led to catastrophic floods in Pakistan in 2022. A third of the country was submerged and 33 million people were forced from their homes or otherwise impacted. (See video here). According to UNICEF, half of those affected were children. A total of 1.4 million homes were destroyed in what the World Economic Forum (WEF) described as a “climate-fuelled catastrophe” that claimed at least 1,700 lives. In the aftermath of the devastating floods, Yasmeen Lari and the Heritage Foundation of Pakistan launched a plan to build a million flood-resistant homes throughout the country by 2024. The initiative also aims to ensure that every affected household has essential resources. While Lari’s plan addresses the urgent need to focus on disaster relief, it also emphasizes the need for disaster preparedness—such as safety shelters for communities. Video on shelter assembly. ©2024 Heritage Foundation of Pakistan The shelter project draws heavily on Lari’s expertise and experience working closely with local communities and utilizing indigenous, renewable materials—such as lime, mud, and bamboo—to create durable, yet easily replaceable structures. In a 2023 interview with RIBAJ, Lari said the know-how to complete one of her shelters was already freely available through a YouTube channel that had over 5,000 subscribers at the time. Through the channel, anyone can learn to build one of the foundation’s houses via detailed step-by-step instructions. Lari envisions positioning shelters on elevated roads that normally are not submerged during flooding. These structures can be relocated to permanent foundations for long-term use. Durable, sustainable, personalized—Heritage Foundation shelters. ©2024 Heritage Foundation of Pakistan Lari said it is possible to construct 25 shelters a day wherever the foundation has people “on the ground.” In the RIBAJ interview, Lari said it is possible to construct 25 shelters a day wherever the foundation has people “on the ground” to facilitate skill-sharing among villages. The WEF reported that about 1,000 homes had been completed in heavily stricken Sindh province as of September 2023. In addition to providing basic shelter, Lari also aims to provide water, toilets, and Lari’s “eco-alternative” Pakistan Chulah Cookstoves, which are self-built from local mud and CO2-absorbing lime plaster. The stoves, which are fueled by agricultural waste, cut wood use by 50% to 70%, Lari told Dezeen magazine. The result was a healthier cooking environment compared with the traditional Pakistani wood-burning chulah. According to Dezeen, the health benefits of replacing open fires with Lari’s cookstoves include reduced air pollution, skin burns, and likely lowered rates of respiratory or heart diseases. The reduced need for firewood also impacts deforestation rates and time spent searching for firewood. Resting on a solid raised platform, they are also less likely to be swept away during a flood. Traditional indoor (left) and outdoor (right) wood-burning chulah cookstoves. Progress and Frustration The WEF reported that Lari’s foundation had, as of November 2023, helped 2022 flood victims build approximately 4,500 homes with the goal of doing so for “at least 350,000 households.” According to the WEF report, Lari has been frustrated by the UN’s humanitarian system “and institutions like the World Bank” for handing out aid “without building the capacity of the people,” and for constructing concrete structures in Pakistan following disasters. The WEF report included responses from a World Bank representative and the Sindh People’s Housing Foundation (SPHF), set up by the Sindh government to address the province’s flood disaster housing needs. Mariam Altaf of the World Bank of Pakistan told WEF the bank preferred permanent “brick and mortar” houses, which she said “are more resilient housing options than mud-based ones.” The SPHF told WEF they were aware of Lari’s work, but preferred “burnt brick and cement” structures over mud-based, which they said had been the majority of those washed away during prior flooding. *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 10 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences. Editorial notes Sources: Interview with Nourhan Bassam, architect, feminist urbanist and founder of GamingX, a think-tank focusing on community development and empowerment. Interview with Maulik Patel, managing partner at UniquesCadd.

Research Says Being in Nature Counters Perceptions of ‘Not Enough Time’ *By Julie Peterson “There isn’t enough time in a day.” “I ran out of time.” “Who has time for that?” Does this messaging sound familiar? In today’s stress-fueled world, a shortage of time is part of life for most people. But new research says simple relief may be available for humanity’s disordered sense of time. The solution could be as simple as stepping into the sunlight. Time in Nature is Different A recent article published in the British Ecological Society’s journal, People and Nature, proposes at least two ways nature affects people's sense of time: altered perception and altered perspective. Author Ricardo Correia examines and contributes to a considerable body of scientific evidence regarding the mental and physical health benefits associated with nature immersion and being away from the hustle and bustle of urban settings. Correia, an assistant professor of the Biodiversity Unit at the University of Turku in Finland, says the concept of “time scarcity” is diminished when people do things in a natural setting—and this contributes to one’s overall well-being. Altered Perception Most people have experienced an altered sense of time while immersed in an activity they love; the phrase “Time flies when you’re having fun” is more than a cliché. In contrast, when someone is anxious, bored, in pain, or otherwise uncomfortable, time seems to drag. Of course, measured clock time is moving at the same rate in all instances, but human perception of time changes based on what a person is doing. Correia explains, “Time perception is shaped by various contextual factors, including the contents of the time period and the cognitive, emotional, and bodily characteristics of the experiencer.” In other words, a person’s perception of time is subjective, depending on how and where they are—both inside and out. “People who spend time in nature tend to overestimate the duration of that experience and show a more positive outlook of the past, present, and future.” The reasons behind the phenomenon of an altered sense of time while in nature are not completely understood, but it has been shown that “people who spend time in nature tend to overestimate the duration of that experience and show a more positive outlook of the past, present, and future, with less focus on a single time perspective,” writes Correia. In a 2015 study of 45 college students who were asked to complete certain tasks while exposed to images of natural or urban settings, those who were exposed to natural settings estimated the duration of the session to be longer. The authors suggested that the differences may be due to shifts in attention or arousal between urban and natural places. A similar study published in the Journal of Environmental Psychology in 2017 asked participants to walk in an urban setting and in a natural setting. The perceived duration of a walk in an urban setting was mostly accurate, while the length of the nature walk was overestimated. The authors similarly proposed that shifts in attention and mood explained observed differences. Different Perceptions of time.  ©pexels Taking into account other comparable studies, Correia sees an indication “that time is experienced differently and is perceived as longer in nature compared to urban environments.” Altered Perspective Besides altering a person’s perception of time duration, being in nature also affects their time perspective. A 2015 study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences compared participants who took a 90-minute walk in nature with those who took a similar walk in a city. The participants were then asked about their feelings of rumination (focusing on negativity from the past). Those who walked in nature reported decreased rumination. Brain scans of the nature-walk participants also showed reduced neural activity in the part of the brain linked to risk for mental illness as opposed to those who walked through an urban setting. Mental and Physical Health A United Nations report has projected that up to 70% of all people will be urban dwellers by 2050. While city life has its advantages, it corresponds to less time spent in nature. The results of urbanization have been associated with increased levels of anxiety disorders and depression. On the other hand, there are numerous studies showing measurable health benefits after time spent in nature, which may be one of the most significant findings of these types of studies. The results of urbanization have been associated with increased levels of anxiety disorders and depression. The mental health benefits of time in nature include superior attention, memory, and impulse inhibition, along with increased feelings of subjective well-being. Researchers have also characterized the ways in which images and sounds from nature can lead to decreased stress and negative emotions after being exposed to stressful stimuli. There is ample scientific evidence to support what people who camp, hike, garden, forest bathe, and seek green spaces for relaxation already know—time in nature bestows psychological benefits. Time spent in nature offers psychological and physical benefits.  ©pexels The therapeutic benefits of time in nature also extend to our physical bodies. An article from UC Davis Health points out that being in nature can reduce cortisol levels, muscle tension, heart rate, and blood pressure, and can increase vitamin D levels that boost blood cells, bones, and the immune system. Park Prescriptions Thanks in part to the evidence such studies have provided, medical doctors are even giving out “park prescriptions“ to encourage patients with frenetic lives and myriad ailments to soak up some of nature’s benefits. But how much time does the prescription take from an already hectic schedule where “time deficit” is one of the ailments? It turns out that the benefits of natural spaces come with small doses. Dr. Brent Bauer, a general internal medicine physician at Mayo Clinic, suggests two hours each week. In a 2021 article published in Prevention, Dr. Rachel Hopman-Droste, a neuroscientist at Northeastern University, was interviewed about her “20-5-3 rule” for spending time outside to reduce stress and be healthier. She recommends 20 minutes outside three days a week (with no cell phone); 5 hours in semi-wild nature every month; and 3 days off the grid each year. Green Spaces Most people spend the majority of their time in buildings or vehicles and it may not feel convenient to carve out time and get out into green spaces. The hope is that enjoying the benefits of nature in small chunks will help make it a way of life. This may be achieved by walking down the tree-lined side of the street or putting those toes in the grass. Taking time to sit outside and listen to birds sing or watch clouds could help alter a mood. What about popping outside during a break from work or taking lunch outside under a tree? Find a grassy, tree-filled park for the family to play in and explore (a pond or stream is a plus). Find nearby hiking trails, botanical gardens, and nature conservancies. Go camping. No matter how one gets out there, it’s important to exhale deeply and connect with surroundings through all the senses. Be mindful. As relaxation and rejuvenation kick in, see if there’s a sense within of slowing down, almost as if time grows on trees. While researchers continue to investigate what it is that links time in nature to wellness and a person’s sense of time, there is enough evidence to inform city planning and infrastructure design. More green spaces and easily accessible natural experiences are needed to ensure whole health for an increasingly urban society. Oneness It is essential to unplug from technology and envision bridging the gap between one’s hurried self and the rhythm of the natural world. Not just for the boost to mental and physical health, but for a higher understanding of human consciousness and connectedness to all things. Professor Chris Laszlo at Case Western Reserve University pointed out in a 2022 article that quantum physics suggests that “at the most infinitesimal level of the universe, there is a connected and coherent unified field, a field of energy and information that connects everything. … Along with these fields of energy, vibrational fields of energy connect everything, not just metaphorically—but actually.” One hypothesis of Laszlo’s research is that people who experience a greater sense of connection to nature are more likely to care for others and future generations. They might gain stronger pro-social and pro-environmental behaviors. If this is true, it has much deeper implications for the need to get outdoors—it not only changes a person’s health in this lifetime, but the wellness of everyone around them, those that will come after them, and Earth. *Julie Peterson writes science-based articles about holistic health, environmental issues, and sustainable living from her organic farm in Wisconsin.

Scientists Tell Conference How Everyone Can Help Revive Soil, Build Ecosystems By The Earth & I Editorial Team Two of humanity’s most pressing environmental crises—soil degradation and biodiversity loss—can be resolved with bold actions and by nurturing universal “environmental stewardship,” two eminent scholars told a conference held recently in a suburb of Washington, D.C. The Earth’s environment is “everybody’s responsibility,” and there is no other choice but to work together, said Dr. Rattan Lal, a renowned soil scientist and 2020 World Food Prize Laureate, and Dr. Douglas Tallamy, a leading expert on species invasion and entomology at the University of Delaware. The scholars gave their remarks at a June 15 conference in Gambrills, Maryland, with the theme, “Rejuvenating Our Ecosystems,” held in honor of UN World Environment Day (June 5) and sponsored by the Hyo Jeong International Foundation for Environmental Peace (HJIFEP), publisher of The Earth & I.* Partnering organizations for the event included the Universal Peace Federation (UK and USA), the Interfaith Partnership for the Chesapeake, University of Maryland Extension Anne Arundel County Master Gardeners, The Anne Arundel County Watershed Stewards Academy, and the Women’s Federation for World Peace (USA). The Threat of Soil Degradation “About 40% of global soils are degraded,” which impact “about 50% of the world’s population,” said Dr. Lal, founder and director of The Ohio State University’s Rattan Lal Center for Carbon Management and Sequestration. (See The Earth & I, August 2021.) Soil is Earth’s “negative emissions entity,” and if humanity continues to take more from soil than it puts into it, environmental degradation will only worsen, he said. Soil degradation results in biodiversity loss and reduced agronomic production, which affects economic prosperity and people's health. Soil degradation also reduces access to clean water, worsens drought, and, of course, aggravates food insecurity,” Dr. Lal added. The professor reviewed the many ways soil can be degraded, such as “compaction; erosion; runoff; drought; and chemical degradation, which includes acidification, salinization, elemental imbalance, and nutrient mining.” Biological degradation includes “depletion of soil organic matter content and increase in pathogens.” There are also types of land misuse like excessive tillage, overgrazing, residue removal or burning, excessive water use, and war and political instability. The Biodiversity Crisis In addition to soil degradation, there are also global challenges with biodiversity, especially insect loss, said conference co-presenter Dr. Tallamy, author of  Bringing Nature Home: How You Can Sustain Wildlife with Native Plants. “We're going to have to save functioning ecosystems on at least half of the planet, or they will disappear everywhere.” “We're going to have to save functioning ecosystems on at least half of the planet, or they will disappear everywhere,” Dr. Tallamy said, referencing Edward O. Wilson’s book, Half-Earth: Our Planet's Fight for Life, which calls for half the planet to be dedicated to nature. Functional ecosystems are “built from a series of very specialized interactions, largely between animals and plants,” said Dr. Tallamy. But today, many of these ecosystems are in trouble as the result of what is called “human-dominated landscapes” or places where nature “hangs on by a thread.” Human development has even led to an “insect apocalypse,” or massive loss of insects due to human activities to remove the weeds that insects and pollinators need to thrive. “It turns out pollen specialization is very common in our native bees,” Dr. Tallamy explained. “We've got between 3,600 and 4,000 species of native bees, and over a third of them can only reproduce on the pollen of particular plants.” Moreover, insect loss is deadly to bird populations, since they feed their young with insects, Dr. Tallamy said. The US and Canada alone have lost a total of “3 billion breeding birds in the last 50 years” or one third of the North American bird population. Bold Solutions One bold solution is to become serious about building public and private landscapes that embrace the whole picture in ecosystems—including the needs of insects, plants, and birds—with each part contributing toward the life of the whole, Dr. Tallamy said. “We need a new approach to conservation here in the US," Dr. Tallamy said. “We have to go beyond conservation into restoration. We have to rebuild the nature that we have destroyed.” “It's going to take an army of private citizens to do it, but we have an army of private citizens to do it,” he added. “I think the solution is to start to practice conservation outside of parks and preserves—on [privately held] landscapes.” “Where should we start?” Dr. Tallamy asked the audience. Since large swaths of land are in private hands, “I think the solution is to start to practice conservation outside of parks and preserves—on [privately held] landscapes,” he said. “Seventy-eight percent of the lower 48 states is privately owned, and 85.6% of the land east of the Mississippi is privately owned. If we don't practice conservation on private property, we're going to fail, and failure is not an option.” To those who think what they do on their property is no one else’s business, Tallamy responded, “What happens in our yards does not stay in our yards. And this is where people who think they have the right to do whatever they want on their property are wrong. Does my neighbor have the right to kill [or] destroy my watershed? Does my neighbor have the right to destroy the pollinator communities that I need for the plants on my property? To destroy my food web? [Or] to not sequester carbon?” He added that having incentives may be more effective than penalties for changing people’s minds: “If we change the tax incentives, you actually get a tax break for having less lawn or having keystone plants, [for example]; that changes minds ... quickly.” Plant Choice Matters The “building blocks” of these new ecosystems must be their most important contributors, Dr. Tallamy cautioned, noting that not all species contribute equally. Flowering plants are essential as are the pollinators that allow those plants to reproduce. Laying out his plan, Dr. Tallamy said: “So now we have the food that animals need tied up in [these] plant tissues,” mostly in leaves where photosynthesis takes place. Animals are needed to disperse seeds, pollinate, and provide pest control. But to complete the picture, plants that attract the right insects must be present because most invertebrates don’t eat plants—they eat other invertebrates that eat the plants. Caterpillars Are Key Dr. Tallamy knows the right insects for the job. “Caterpillars turn out to be enormously important in transferring energy from plants to animals. Caterpillars are transferring more energy from plants to other organisms than any other type of plant eater,” he said. Citing his own experience feeding seed to Carolina chickadees in his backyard, Dr. Tallamy said only about 50% of their diet is seeds, even in winter, with the other 50% being insects and spiders. And, he noted, “when [the birds] reproduce, their babies can't eat seeds at all.” In a healthy environment, Dr. Tallamy said, “96% of our terrestrial birds rear their young on insects, and most of those insects are caterpillars.” So, how many caterpillars does it take to raise a nest of chickadees? “It takes 6,000 to 9,000 caterpillars to get one clutch of chickadees to the point where they leave the nest.” Responding to a question from the audience, “What is the best way to count and identify the number of caterpillar species on my oak tree?” Tallamy said, “You have to look at the right time of year. Looking at night with a flashlight is the best way [since] the caterpillars are hiding during the day [and] the birds are very good at finding them.” He added that the birds have “eaten just about everything that’s out there” during their reproduction phase, so that the end of July, early August [Mid-Atlantic region, USA] is “a very good time to look for caterpillars.” But there is a drawback. Most plants do not support many caterpillars. “So, we have to be fussy about which plants we’re landscaping with,” said Dr. Tallamy. He cautions that one can try to landscape to attract monarch butterflies, for instance, “but they only like one of the milkweeds.” “We are not going to rebuild functional ecosystems if you don't have functional food webs within those ecosystems, and that's not going to happen if we don't choose the right plants.” “We are not going to rebuild functional ecosystems if you don't have functional food webs within those ecosystems, and that's not going to happen if we don't choose the right plants,” he emphasized. Balancing Give and Take in Nature Circling back to solutions for soil degradation, Dr. Lal unveiled a simple principle that guides his work with soil: “Soil organic matter is the heart of soil health.” This is why it is so important, he repeated, to not take more from soil than is put into it. Otherwise, the soil becomes degraded, and the only carbon negative entity (soil) and industry (farming) on the planet is thrown out of balance. And far worse, he said, “you are degrading all forms of life.” Dr. Lal said this thinking comes from the “One Health” concept, rooted in Vedic literature, which recognizes the five elements of “soil, water, air, energy, and space” that constitute the human body. This is why “the health of soil, plants, animals, people, the environment, and the planet is one and indivisible.” Dr. Lal emphasized the need for policy innovations, such as establishing a Soil Health Act (SHA) to protect the sustainable management of soil. Why, he asked, is there a Clean Air Act and a Clean Water Act but no such act for soil? “We must also promote education on soil and the environment and the law of return that I mentioned,” he advised. “The law of return states that any substance we take from nature must be returned to the place from which it was taken.” Self-Sustaining Solutions Also vital to Dr. Lal’s plan is rewarding farmers for ecosystem services. “The word is not subsidy. You're not providing a handout, a donation, no! You are providing farmers with additional income to promote essential ecosystem services. That's a big difference,” he explained. Humanity must focus on the re-carbonization of the terrestrial biosphere, he urged. Why re-carbonization? “We lost carbon from [wild] vegetation and soil when we converted to agriculture,” he said. “We must put it back.” This, he said, is the “bedrock” of sustainable development for which there are many practices. “We have a moral duty to increase economic productivity from existing land, restore degraded land, and convert some agricultural land back to nature,” Dr. Lal added. By 2100, Dr. Lal’s goal is to return half of all crop land, which is 750 million hectares (1.85 billion acres) back to nature, as well as 3,700 million hectares (9.14 billion acres) of all grazing land. Why do we keep on emphasizing greater food production when there is so much food waste? The world produces enough food to feed 10 billion people.” “Why do we keep on emphasizing greater food production when there is so much food waste?” he asked the audience. “The world produces enough food to feed 10 billion people.” Food and nutritional security must be achieved, he said, but not necessarily by producing more commodities. A promising avenue is to cut back food waste, which is conservatively estimated to be 30%, including in the US. “Food,” Dr. Lal said, “should be considered as God's gift.” He added, “To a hungry man, God can appear only in the form of a loaf of bread, and that made from grains grown from a healthy soil. And therefore, wastage of that gift from God, which is essential to maintaining the good health of everybody concerned, is not acceptable.” Dr. Lal also pleaded to stop using food as a weapon. “We increase access to food by addressing poverty, inequality, and war, especially war,” he said. Therefore, governments and organizations should improve food distribution and increase consumption of pulses [lentils, chickpeas, beans, and the like] and plant-based dishes while moderating consumption of meat. Both scholars pointed to the necessity of people around the world collaborating to resolve these challenges. Restoring the environment is “everyone’s responsibility,” said Dr. Tallamy. “Therefore, we must all work together,” Dr. Lal said. “Each of us is a victim and a culprit, so we all have a moral responsibility” to protect the environment. *HJIFEP, publisher of The Earth & I, is a non-profit environmental service organization that sponsors environmental science conferences, including the ICUS and ICSG conference series. HJIFEP conferences feature presentations from eminent scientists on pressing global environmental issues and solutions. HJIFEP’s mission is to build a world of peace in which all people live in harmony with the Creator, with one another, and with the natural environment. HJIFEP serves under the motto, “Loving Nature, Healing the Earth.” Attendees of the "Rejuvenating Our Ecosystems" conference joined the event in-person and virtually from over 10 nations, including the UK, South Korea, Japan, The Netherlands, and Australia and included concerned citizens and environmental scientists alike, as attendance was open to all. The conference featured a vigorous global Q&A session with each of the scientists.

With Millions More Batteries in Production, Diverting Them From Landfills is a Priority *By Robin Whitlock The global electric vehicle (EV) industry boomed last year, spurring demand for more than 750 gigawatt hours (GWh) of battery output, with EVs accounting for 95% of that growth. This has led to more mining of lithium, cobalt, nickel, and other minerals to feed the battery production sector. Global demand for batteries is expected to grow 30% annually, reaching 4,500 GWh a year by 2030, according to global management consulting firm McKinsey & Co. However, the fate of the lithium-ion batteries (LIB) that currently power the EV industry remains a compelling topic. The batteries are estimated to last eight years or 100,000 miles and then die, after which they are most often destined for landfills or incineration. Recycling LIBs has not yet caught on—in 2019, only 5% of LIBs were recycled, according to Chemical & Engineering News. As a result, “[b]illions of dead lithium-ion batteries, including many from electric vehicles, are accumulating because there is no cost-effective process to revive them,” said a writer from Princeton University’s Andlinger Center for Energy and the Environment in 2022. Helping consumers recycle these devices is an environmental priority. “Recycling used lithium-ion batteries (and the devices that contain them) will help address emerging issues associated with the clean energy transition and prevent problems caused by inappropriate battery disposal,” said the US Environmental Protection Agency. Earlier this year, the Biden Administration announced $62 million to support 17 projects “to increase consumer participation in consumer electronics battery recycling and improve the economics of battery recycling.” “Capturing the full battery supply chain—from sourcing critical materials to manufacturing to recycling—puts the U.S. in the driver’s seat as we build our clean energy economy,” U.S. Secretary of Energy Jennifer M. Granholm said as part of the White House’s announcement in March. Among the advantages of LIBs are their usable cycle life, extended cycle life, fast charging speed, and high energy efficiency. These make them suitable for a wide range of consumer electronic applications such as EVs, energy storage, laptop computers, mobile devices, medical devices, smart watches, and drones. Fire Risk Although EVs are significantly less likely to catch fire than gasoline-powered vehicles, there are alarming reports, especially via social media, about sudden and spontaneous combustion of EVs. At the heart of this phenomenon is something called “thermal runaway”—a chain of exothermic (heat-releasing) reactions, increase in reaction rate, and increased heat for more exothermic reactions, forming a positive feedback loop. If LIBs are damaged or overcharged, they may overheat and catch fire via thermal runaway. These fires can also generate emissions of toxic fluoride gases, particularly hydrogen fluoride (a hazardous gas) and phosphoryl fluoride. To enhance safety, LIB manufacturers incorporate at least two safety devices into the batteries—a current interrupt device (CID) and a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) device. The electric resistance of the PTC device rises sharply when the temperature rises. This increased resistance reduces the rate of current flowing through the battery. A 2021 study in the Journal of Energy Chemistry said enhancements in cooling and cell balance were among the many strategies to improve LIB safety. Production Issues There are various concerns around the production of LIBs, including sourcing of lithium from salt flats in South America, energy intensive production in China and Australia, and cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The US was the largest miner of lithium in the 1990s, but it was overtaken by Chile in 2010, making Chile one of the current top three global extractors of lithium alongside China and Australia. There are various concerns around the production of LIBs, including sourcing of lithium from salt flats in South America, energy intensive production in China and Australia, and cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Lithium extraction poses additional problems: It requires excessive water consumption in arid areas. It can be fatal to marine life when it becomes a source of water pollution, and byproducts of lithium extraction can include large amounts of magnesium and lime waste. Another core EV battery component—cobalt—may even be turned into a so-called conflict mineral. “Although cobalt has so far not been included in supply chain legislation among the raw materials defined as ‘conflict minerals,’ such as tin, tantalum, tungsten and gold, it has attracted attention,” Prof. Jana Hönke and Lisa Skender said in a 2022 blog post reprinted by Infraglob website. “Due to the surging global demand for cobalt, there are increasing reports of poor working conditions, child labor and exploitation in cobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo,” they wrote. “As a solution to increase the enforceability of human rights in the context of an ‘ethical’ cobalt trade is being discussed.” Currently, only the aforementioned minerals, known as 3TGs, are considered by the European Union to be mined using forced labor or used to finance armed conflict. But there is fresh concern about the armed forces in DRC and their massive cobalt mining operations. Moreover, China controls seven of DRC’s largest mines, raising concerns about a monopoly on the precious metal. End-of-life and Recycling Issues Car manufacturers, such as Nissan and Tesla, estimate that the lifespan of LIBs will be eight years or 100,000 miles,  Tobias Walker wrote on AZOCleanTech website. However, he wrote, “[u]sing today’s methods, reusing batteries for another five to seven years offers a cleaner environmental solution. For example, using second-life batteries could reduce the gross energy demand and global warming potential by up to 70%.” Using today’s methods, reusing batteries for another five to seven years offers a cleaner environmental solution. For example, using second-life batteries could reduce the gross energy demand and global warming potential by up to 70%. This is because end-of-life LIBs are a resource of highly enriched materials that can be recovered and reused, reducing the need for exploration and mining. Recycling LIBs could also reduce the amount of devices that area sent to landfills. This in turn could reduce metals, such as cobalt, nickel, manganese, and others, from leaking into the soil and polluting groundwater. Furthermore, recycling LIBs could reduce raw material imports from countries with armed conflict, illegal mining, human rights abuses, and harmful environmental practices. Meanwhile, fluctuations in the prices of battery raw materials can adversely affect the economics of recycling LIBs. This is especially true for cobalt, the price of which fell drastically in 2019, thereby incentivizing manufacturers to choose newly mined materials over recycled materials. These challenges have encouraged a search for alternatives, such as non-lithium-based battery chemistries like iron-air batteries and sodium-ion batteries. Other research topics are on improved mineral efficiency and increases in energy density, improved safety, cost reduction, and increases in charging speed. There are also attempts to produce LIBs with reduced flammability and volatility using aqueous lithium-ion batteries, ceramic solid electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, ionic liquids, and heavily fluorinated systems. ‘Black Mass’ Some LIB components—iron, copper, nickel, and cobalt, for example—are safe for incineration and in landfills, but they can also be recycled. Cobalt is the most expensive, and thus its recovery is a major focus of recycling. Recycling of LIBs involves numerous stages, including collection, evaluation, disassembling, and separation of components. The batteries are very often shredded. This process creates “black mass,” or granular material from the shredded cathodes and anodes, along with copper and aluminum foils, separators (thin plastic), steel canisters, and electrolyte. Black mass can be recycled further and made into material for new cathodes and anodes. It is often sent to another facility where the valuable metals within it, such as cobalt, nickel, and lithium, are recovered. The most commonly used approach is pyrometallurgy, a smelting process that utilizes a high-temperature furnace to reduce the components of the metal oxides to an alloy which can then be separated into its various components by hydrometallurgy. The remaining slag can be reused in the concrete industry. Pyrometallurgy furnaces operate at temperatures approaching 1,500°C (2,700°F) to recover cobalt, nickel, and copper, but they cannot recover lithium, aluminum, or the various organic compounds that are burned in the process. These plants also operate at a high capital cost because of the need to treat the toxic fluorine compounds that are emitted during the smelting process. The second process, hydrometallurgy is a less expensive and less energy-intensive leaching process using strong acids to recover lithium and other metals (recovered by pyrometallurgy) at temperatures below 100°C (212°F). However, it requires the use of caustic materials such as hydrochloric, nitric, and sulfuric acids and hydrogen peroxide. Currently, researchers are experimenting with a third, direct recycling process, called “cathode-to-cathode” recycling, in which energy is saved by preserving the cathode structure, thereby reducing the amount of manufacturing needed in further recycling. Pyrometallurgy … recover[s] cobalt, nickel, and copper, but … cannot recover lithium, aluminum, or the various organic compounds, … [while] hydrometallurgy … recover[s] lithium and other metals … [but] requires the use of caustic materials such as hydrochloric, nitric, and sulfuric acids and hydrogen peroxide. Lithium-Ion Battery Reuse and Recycling Companies Canadian LIB recovery company Li-Cycle managed to produce 6,825 tons of black mass and related material in 2023. The company operates a two-step process in which LIBs are shredded without the need for dismantling or discharging, and processed with minimal solid and liquid waste, zero combustion risk, zero discharge of wastewater and reduced emissions into the atmosphere. In Massachusetts, Ascend Elements focuses on the production of cathodes from discarded batteries and manufacturing scrap using their Hydro-to-Cathode process. This delivers precursor and finished cathode materials that can subsequently be used by other manufacturers for LIB production. Redwood Materials, founded by Tesla co-founder JB Straubel, recovers metals from batteries and produces anodes and cathodes for electric vehicles. The company is developing a complete closed-loop, domestic supply chain for LIBs, including collection, refurbishment, recycling, refining, and remanufacturing of battery materials. It claims 95% recovery of key battery materials and aims to produce enough anode and cathode for 1 million electric vehicles annually by 2025. The company’s hydrometallurgy facility was the first commercial-scale nickel production plant to open in the US for a decade and is the only commercial-scale source of lithium supply to come online in the US in decades. While traditional mining projects often take more than 10 years to become operational, Redwood took around two years to build and activate its facility. Opportunity for Higher Efficiency and Sustainability in the Years Ahead Given that the global market for battery recycling is expected to reach $13 billion by 2030, there is an increasing opportunity to grow the battery supply chain. The recycling market is currently dominated by China and South Korea while in other countries, particularly in the West, expansion of the market will depend on the provision of subsidies and on government regulation. Manufacturers outside of Asia have decided that entry into this market is not currently feasible. In order to change that perception, governments will have to ramp up technology and investment opportunities in order to remain competitive with China and South Korea in a range of electronics sectors, particularly electric vehicles. Meanwhile, in addition to its March 2024 announcement, the US Energy Department has already pledged to spend more than $192 million in new funding for recycling batteries, according to Industry EMEA, a website that curates news for international engineers. The Energy Department is also launching an advanced battery research and development (R&D) consortium and continuing the Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Prize. This supports the Biden Administration’s goal to achieve a US net-zero carbon economy by 2050. Another boon to LIB recycling industries are studies showing that batteries manufactured from recycled materials are even more efficient than those utilizing newly mined materials. The promise of improved EV charging and longer-lasting batteries will help develop a more sustainable and efficient global clean energy system in the years ahead. *Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests, including green transportation.

Managing Products with Refrigerants (HFCs) *By Gordon Cairns What is cool and causes warming? This may sound like a children’s joke or riddle aside, the answer itself is dry: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), a man-made compound used primarily as a refrigerant. Created to replace chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HFCs help keep food fresh in the refrigerator and indoor spaces temperate through air conditioning. However, HFCs account for a small but significant share of global greenhouse gases emissions. Anthropogenic emissions of fluorinated gases rose to around 2.3% of total greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 from around 1% in 1990, according to the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)’s Sixth Assessment Report, published in 2021. Slow Leaking of HFCs In a recent podcast on Resources Radio, Lisa Rennels, a PhD candidate at the University of California, Berkeley, and an Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Fellow with the National Center for Environmental Economics at the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), explained why HFCs are such a potent contributor to global warming. “While they're in the atmosphere, they have a much larger impact on temperature than a gas like carbon dioxide,” she said. “We see this when we compare what we call ‘temperature impulse responses,’ which is the response of the global temperature to a pulse of a greenhouse gas emission.” “While they're in the atmosphere, [HFCs] have a much larger impact on temperature than a gas like carbon dioxide.” She added: “While carbon dioxide is emitted from activities like fossil fuel combustion that happens all at once, HFCs are integral components to technologies like air conditioners, and they tend to leak out slowly over time at a much lower rate. These different factors are relevant when we try to project their emissions and the impacts on climate change.” Rising Air Conditioning and Energy Demand More than 90% of the 780,000 tons of high-GWP HFCs manufactured annually are used for making necessities of life—refrigeration and air conditioning, Dr. Ashley Woodcock, professor of respiratory medicine at University of Manchester in the UK, wrote in a 2023 article in the New England Journal of Medicine. As the world continues to get warmer—2023 was the warmest year on record, according to the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration—life in urban and other communities would become increasingly difficult without indoor cooling. The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that two out of three households in the world will have an air conditioning unit by 2050, doubling the amount from today and increasing the demand for greenhouse gases if unabated on the same path. The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that two out of three households in the world will have an air conditioning unit by 2050, doubling the amount from today and increasing the demand for greenhouse gases if unabated on the same path. Meanwhile, the IEA also projected that space cooling in the buildings sector will account for 16% of global electricity consumption and just under 30% of total electricity in the buildings sector. Yet ensuring that cooling needs are met does not necessitate having to solely focus on manufacturing more air conditioning units. New buildings can be constructed in a way that prioritizes passive solutions for keeping temperatures comfortable and building occupants can be educated about setting the air conditioner temperature to a lower power output point. Furthermore, new air-conditioning equipment built in the future will have better energy efficiency than the units being made today, the IEA said in its 2018 report, “The Future of Cooling.” Smuggling of HFCs Ironically, HFCs were introduced to help save the ozone layer by replacing hazardous chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) per the Montreal Protocol of 1987. Now HFCs are deemed too hazardous to the environment too, and their use is being gradually reduced by the Kigali Amendment of the Montreal Protocol which will see their use cut by 85% by 2036. The Kigali Amendment was signed in 2016, went into effect on January 1, 2019, and was ratified by 157 countries as of April 10, 2024, including by the United States on September 21, 2022. Changing heating and cooling systems is neither cheap nor easy. Grocers may face costs of more than $1 million a store to convert to non-HFC cooling, the Food Industry Association has predicted.  Moreover, as the Kigali Amendment restrictions come into force, those in need of HFCs are resorting to desperate measures. Earlier this year, Michael Hart of San Diego, California, became the first person to be charged with smuggling HFCs into the United States from Mexico, the US Attorney’s Office in the Southern District of California said in March. The indictment alleges Hart carried the refrigerants across the border into California in his vehicle, hiding them under a tarp and tools. Now HFCs are deemed too hazardous to the environment too, and their use is being gradually reduced by the Kigali Amendment of the Montreal Protocol which will see their use cut by 85% by 2036. A few weeks later, Resonac America in San Jose, California, was caught illegally importing approximately 6,208 pounds of these gases into the Port of Los Angeles, according to an article in Scientific American. Resonac America agreed to pay a penalty of over $400,000 and has been ordered to destroy 1,693 pounds of HFCs, said the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance. If these chemicals had been released into the atmosphere, this would have been about 41,677 metric tons of CO2e, or the amount of emissions from powering 8,225 homes with electricity for one year, Scientific American said. Alternative Refrigerants Available There are a variety of climate-friendly, energy-efficient, safe and proven HFC alternatives already available. These alternatives include natural refrigerants, HFCs such as R32, Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs), and a blend of HFC and HFO. Another climate-friendly alternative to HFCs in a number of supermarkets’ large refrigeration systems are CO2 cascade systems. They have at least two refrigeration systems connected in series, with a higher-temperature side and a lower-temperature side. In these cycles, refrigerants with different freezing and boiling points are used, and these systems are more efficient than conventional refrigeration systems. Natural refrigerants, including hydrocarbons and ammonia, are also considered, given their low GWP and low ozone-depleting properties. However, ammonia is hazardous and corrosive despite its high energy efficiency, and hydrocarbons such as R-600a (isobutane) and R-290 (propane) are highly flammable and unfit for retrofitting. Careful consideration is thus necessary when implementing alternative refrigerants. Consumers can help reduce HFCs by researching whether the air conditioning in the new car or refrigerator they are considering to buy uses greenhouse gases and if there is an HFC-free alternative. Furthermore, by regularly maintaining the equipment in cars and houses, one can also help reduce leaks of these chemicals as well as ensure their proper end-of-life recycling. Respiratory Inhalers and HFCs In addition to refrigerants, HFCs are used as a propellant in the respiratory inhalers that tens of millions of people use to treat their asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. [A]t least 800 million to 825 million inhalers [with HFCs] were made in 2021 alone. Their usage translated into the release of around 10,700 tons of HFC-134a and HFC-227ea into the atmosphere. While inhalers comprise a small percentage of the world’s HFC use, each asthma inhaler releases HFC—and based on HFC manufacturing industry estimates to the UN Environment Programme’s Ozone Secretariat, at least 800 million to 825 million inhalers were made in 2021 alone. Their usage translated into the release of around 10,700 tons of HFC-134a and HFC-227ea into the atmosphere. According to Dr. Woodcock, inhalers that use HFCs as propellants generate the same carbon footprint emissions as a small family car traveling 200 miles. In the UK, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) advises patients about how different inhalers have different carbon footprints—including being comparable to long car drives—and suggests the patients consider “dry powder” inhalers. In Dr. Woodcock’s article in the New England Journal of Medicine, he said that a campaign to promote “greener” inhalers to the public and clinicians in Greater Manchester, England, helped reduce the inhaler carbon footprint by 10%, equivalent to taking 3,400 cars off the road. Moreover, In November 2022, the Greater Manchester Integrated Care Partnership stated that over 300,000 inhalers (with carbon emissions equivalent to 28,000 cars) were prescribed every month, indicating a switch to dry powder inhalers can help reduce carbon footprint to less than 1kg (2.2 lbs) of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per device. There is also guidance from the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence for making a decision based on the type of inhaler, whether the inhaler contains HFCs, and its carbon footprint. The Montreal Agreement has been successful in reaching its targets to eliminate use of CFCs, and there’s reason to believe that, with the wider public’s assistance, the Kigali Amendment’s phase out of HFCs can also be achieved. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

How NYC Restauranteurs and Chefs Are Turning the Tables on Food and Plastic Waste *By Jerry Chesnut A decade ago, New York City was eager to do its part to help the environment by using its new regulations to reduce food and plastic waste generated by the city’s thousands of restaurants. Then COVID-19 struck and eating out came to a halt. Virtually all restaurants closed, many temporarily and many forever. Takeout—or dining at home—became the norm. And all this in a city that experiences an 80% fail rate for newly opened eateries even in good times. Today, things have turned around, not only for the NYC restaurant industry, but also for the city’s conscientious diners, chefs, and restaurant owners who care about reducing restaurant waste. Dining out is thriving again, and the city has unveiled plans to renew enforcement of older waste regulations while also introducing new (2023) regulations to curb plastic use in takeout food orders. For instance, plastic straws and beverage stirrers are now available to restaurant patrons but only upon request. Plastic carryout bags are still allowed, but restaurants that once bagged and piled up their trash overnight for sidewalk pickup must now use rat-resistant containers. Meanwhile, diners who support efforts to curb both food and plastic waste are starting to frequent a small-but-growing number of “zero waste” establishments that claim to generate no food or plastic waste whatsoever. Recovery Means More Trash For some, these welcome changes could not have come too soon. An estimated 22 billion to 33 billion pounds of food are wasted annually by US restaurants, according to the FoodPrint project. An estimated 22 billion to 33 billion pounds of food are wasted annually by US restaurants, according to the FoodPrint project. Moreover, those staggering numbers do not include plastic waste. According to NBC News, the NYC mayor’s office reported an estimated 18 million tons of single-use plastic eating utensils had been extracted in 2019 from the city’s residential waste stream. Citing a report from the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), the Hunter College New York City Food Policy Center reported in 2020 that 68% of all discarded food in New York and two other major US cities is still edible, and that in New York City alone, 20% of this edible waste was generated by restaurants and caterers. What NYC Does About Food Waste NYC currently requires restaurants to separate their organic food waste and to “arrange for collection by a private carter.” Alternatively, eateries can self-transport organic waste or process it on-site. Enforcement, though relaxed during the pandemic, was re-established in mid-2022 to dole out a $250 to $1,000 fine to eateries that do not follow the separation rules. There have been accounts by dedicated scavengers (so-called “dumpster divers”) that few restaurants follow these rules, but these same accounts noted that the waste-separation rules do not apply to smaller establishments. Takeout food discarded at home is also being impacted by a city initiative, introduced in 2023, to collect curbside residential food waste for composting. The city’s capacity to fully compost that waste is still in development. Zero-Waste Dining on the Rise From chef Mauro Colagreco’s renowned three-Michelin-star Mirazur in France to restaurants scattered throughout New York City and the world, zero-waste dining and waste reduction strategies are establishing themselves as potentially profitable trends in the restaurant industry. One review of 114 restaurants in twelve countries found that almost all establishments “achieved a positive return” on their waste reduction investment, and an average of 75% of the sites recouped that investment within a year. In addition, none of the places reviewed spent more than $20,000 on waste reduction efforts. According to Barron’s, Mirazur became “the world’s first restaurant [Jan/2020] to receive “Plastic Free” certification,” inspiring over 500 inquiries from other restauranteurs interested in going “plastic free.” In London, chef Doug McMaster’s Silo claims to be the “world’s first zero-waste restaurant.” In January 2020, just prior to the pandemic-related restaurant lockdowns. Bon Appetit reported how west~bourne, an “LA-inspired all-day café” in New York’s Soho neighborhood, competed to be the city’s first “certified” zero-waste restaurant. The magazine noted that a restaurant manager would take pictures of the “compost, recycling, and trash accumulated” in a single day. The bags would then be weighed and documented on a spreadsheet as evidence of their zero-waste effort. By 2018, a few NYC restaurants were already featuring their versions of “zero [food] waste dishes.” These offerings included often discarded food parts, such as “broccoli, cauliflower and mushroom stems,” in the dishes. Other excess food parts were turned into vinegars or sent off to farmers for their pigs to eat. Blackbarn Shines with Peat Creativity and innovation continue to drive the city’s waste-reduction trend as restaurants, such as Blackbarn in Manhattan, find inventive, tasty ways to keep conscientious diners coming. CBS News reported in 2023 that Blackbarn's menu, co-created by executive chef Brian Fowler and chef/owner John Doherty, benefited from a relationship with Peat, a provider of “food waste upcycling” in the borough of Queens. Peat delivers Peat-grown mushrooms to Blackbarn (via low carbon e-bike) at a reduced price in exchange for Blackbarn’s compostable food waste (which Peat e-bikes haul away). Today, even New York’s waste-averse home cooks can shop instore or online from Brooklyn-based Precycle for bulk food supplies with a zero-waste footprint. Zero-Waste Exemplar One of today’s leading examples of zero-waste dining in New York City—not to mention overall commitment to sustainability—is Rhodora Wine Bar in the borough of Brooklyn. Rhodora’s owner, Henry Rich, and director, Halley Chambers, have pledged to send “absolutely nothing” to landfills. According to Bon Appetit, their approach to outlawing plastic and food waste in their operations is comprehensive. Single-use plastics are forbidden on-site, and suppliers must meet the expectation that everything incoming is to be “recycled, upcycled, or composted.” This means that incoming packaging materials can be composted or recycled or delivery packaging can be returned and reused. Single-use plastics are forbidden on-site [at Rhodora Wine Bar], and suppliers must meet the expectation that everything incoming is to be “recycled, upcycled, or composted.” As a wine bar, Rhodora’s menu consists of conservas (tinned fish); hard, aged cheeses; and antipasti (pickled vegetables) meant to complement their wines. This menu helps minimize food waste and unnecessary cleaning products, and the foods’ tin and aluminum packages are easily recycled and of relatively high value. The wine comes from “small-farm, natural winemakers” that share Rhodora’s commitment to the environment and aversion to what they describe as the often-harmful processes of “large-scale wine manufacturing,” according to Bon Appetit. Rethinking Food Waste The city’s growing zero-waste zeal is inspiring some restauranteurs and chefs to both reduce waste and deliver food to needy neighbors—and do so off the clock, for nothing. Non-profit Rethink Food—founded by culinary veteran Matt Jozwiak and pioneering chef Daniel Humm of Eleven Madison Park—is passionate about upcycling nutrition that is normally lost through tossing out good food. They are creating meals for disadvantaged New Yorkers who have no access to healthy food, not to mention gourmet dining. Serving haute cuisine to those “last” in the food line is probably unprecedented, but Rethink Food’s track record is impressive (having] put together over 14.8 million locally prepared, gourmet meals, rescuing more than 1 million tons of food. Serving haute cuisine to those “last” in the food line is probably unprecedented, but Rethink Food’s track record is impressive. Founded in 2017, the organization is on the threshold of serving over 24 million locally prepared gourmet meals and rescuing more than 2.4 million pounds of food. Rethink Food wants more New Yorkers to get involved. Its newly opened facility (March 2024) in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Manhattan features a “street-facing space” for the public to learn about and engage in their work. Innovative “dinner series with chefs” and community events and programming are being designed and scheduled to teach ways of fostering food security and reducing waste. Rethink Food founder and CEO Matt Jozwiak says the new space “reflects our culture of centering community leaders, culinary professionals, and hospitality at the heart of our approach to creating a more sustainable and equitable food system.” Six Years to Zero-Waste Dining According to the Sustainable Restaurant Association, restaurant waste reduction involves five action points: to measure “how much and where food was wasted,” to get staff on board, to control portions (avoid “overproduction”), to review inventory and purchasing procedures, and to find ways to repurpose excess inventory and any food that could go to waste. With growing support from the city and its diners and restauranteurs, New York City appears committed to keeping the zero-waste restaurant trend going and meeting its ambitious goal of sending no waste to landfills by 2030. *Jerry Chesnut. Jerry Chesnut has pursued a lifelong interest in the role of diet in physical and mental well-being. Having lived more than half of his life in and near New York City, he maintains an avid interest in the city’s sustainable food scene.