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*By Julie Peterson ©Olga Miltsuva/Shutterstock Intermittent fasting is a topic that’s not starving for attention. In both conventional and alternative medical circles, the best methods of fasting and their associated health benefits are generating plenty of discussion. Even a famous yogi  has addressed this trend, saying it is simply the world catching on to what yogis have practiced for centuries. Fasting requires a break from food, but the duration and types of fasting can differ. Intermittent fasting (IF) isn’t strictly defined, but it typically involves going without food for a period of 16 to 24 hours and then returning to normal eating. Because the body uses a significant amount of energy to digest food, abstaining from food conserves that energy and allows the body time to regulate and cleanse itself. IF seems to fit modern lifestyles of work or study because it is easier to do than fasts that last more than one day.   Dr. Dean Ornish , clinical professor of medicine at the University of California, San Francisco, and Dr. Valter Longo , director of the University of Southern California’s Longevity Institute, say that intermittent fasting can reduce occurrence and even reverse some of the chronic diseases that plague modern society, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer.   Johns Hopkins University neuroscientist  Dr. Mark Mattson  agrees. After studying IF for 25 years, he has concluded that the human body evolved to survive without food for many hours or days due to necessity. In prehistoric times, humans were hunters and gatherers, and it took a lot of time to procure a meal.   After studying intermittent fasting for 25 years, [Dr. Mark Mattson] has concluded that the human body evolved to survive without food for many hours or days due to necessity. Intermittent fasting is part of life for hunter gatherers like those who live in Tanzania. ©Calvin pro7/Wikimedia. Even as recently as 50 years ago, chronic illnesses were not as prevalent as today. Increased consumption of processed foods high in sugar, salt, and unhealthy fats, along with decreased physical activity and a sedentary lifestyle have contributed to a rise in obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. People generally ate smaller portions and went to bed when it got dark. More time was spent working and playing outdoors, leading to a more active lifestyle overall. The advent of modern conveniences, particularly television and computers, dramatically lowered the amount of time people spend outside. There is a common thread throughout health and fitness texts that people should sit less and eat less. Yet, most people can’t deny that they sit and snack more than is healthy and have occasionally had bouts of late-night noshing in front of the television. Late-night noshing. pexels While IF methods promote healthful foods and drinks, they aren’t focused as much about what people eat but when. The excitement from experts over the evidence thus far suggests that it may be worth going to bed hungry now and then, because in addition to indications of potentially reducing levels of chronic disease, IF results imply improved overall health and increased longevity.   Common Intermittent Fasting Methods 16/8 Method (Leangains Protocol): The fasting window is 16 hours of fasting, followed by an 8-hour eating window. Many people skip breakfast and eat their first meal at noon, then finish their last meal by 8 p.m. Variations on this can use any 8-hour eating window. Developed by Martin Berkhan, Swedish nutritional consultant and personal trainer, this IF method is one of the first to go mainstream.    5:2 Diet : In a week, two non-consecutive days of reduced caloric intake (500 to 600 calories), are intermixed with the remaining five days of normal eating. This is a flexible plan that can be adjusted weekly. A lime’berry-seed smoothie is a meal candidate for a 5:2 Diet (on a 500-600 calorie day). ©pexels Eat Stop Eat : Designed by weight-loss guru and IF advocate Brad Pilon, the Eat-Stop-Eat plan is designed to have a complete break from food for 24 hours once or twice per week. For example, eat normally until 6 p.m. on Friday, fast until 6 p.m. on Saturday, and then go back to a regular eating pattern. Pilon points out that even one fast per week can be beneficial, but he does not recommend more than two. He also says it’s crucial to ensure adequate hydration during the fast. A typical alternate day IF schedule. Alternate-Day Fasting : An intense method of IF, alternate-day fasting is just that: Eat a normal diet one day and either completely fast or have one small meal (less than 500 calories) the next day. Spontaneous Meal Skipping : This IF method is flexible and allows one to skip meals when convenient or when not feeling hungry. It can be applied occasionally, without following a schedule. Potential Health Benefits of Intermittent Fasting IF has been shown to have health benefits such as delayed onset of age-related diseases and increased lifespan. At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), researchers  have found that fasting boosts the regenerative abilities of intestinal stem cells in mice, which can help the intestine to recover from inflammation or injury. IF [intermittent fasting] has been shown to have health benefits such as delayed onset of age-related diseases and increased lifespan.   It’s important to note that “health benefits seen in mice” are sometimes touted simply as “health benefits” and the reader might believe these benefits apply to humans. While studies on mice can show promise for future results in humans, it may not be the case with all health benefits. Other health benefits attributed to fasting are sometimes first-person reports and testimonials to programs. This is not to say they aren’t true, but they are not from scientific studies conducted on a large number of people over a length of time and compared to a control group.   The following health benefits are believed by many to be reasonable outcomes of IF. Weight Loss and Fat Loss : IF reduces calorie intake by limiting the eating window, which can lead to weight loss. It also promotes fat burning by lowering insulin levels during fasting periods.   Improved Metabolic Health :  Fasting can lead to improved insulin sensitivity, lower blood sugar levels, and reduced inflammation, all of which are beneficial for metabolic health.   Autophagy : Fasting for 24 to 48 hours can trigger autophagy, a process in which the body cleans out damaged cells and regenerates new ones. This process is thought to protect against diseases like cancer and Alzheimer’s. In studies done on mice, Longo saw that healthy cells survive better than cancer cells in fasting conditions. He hypothesizes that in evolving to divide so rapidly, cancer cells gave up other evolutionary adaptations, such as surviving in the absence of nutrition.   Heart Health : IF may help improve various risk factors for heart disease, including cholesterol levels, blood pressure, and inflammatory markers. Brain Health :  Fasting may enhance brain function by increasing the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and reducing the risk of neurodegenerative diseases.   Longevity :  Animal studies suggest that intermittent fasting may extend lifespan, potentially due to its effects on cellular repair processes, inflammation, and metabolic health.   Chemotherapy :  Researchers found that people who fasted for 72 hours before chemotherapy treatments underwent lower toxicity and a lighter effect on bone marrow due to the treatment. This could be a helpful adjunct to chemotherapy treatments if only to lessen the dire side effects for patients.   Researchers found that people who fasted for 72 hours before chemotherapy treatments underwent lower toxicity and a lighter effect on bone marrow due to the treatment. Potential Risks Many experts are cautioning that people shouldn’t move too fast toward fasting because research studies involving IF with humans have been short and small. These studies have experienced a high percentage of dropouts, which could be a sign of the difficulty of IF. A 2020 systematic review  of studies done on forms of IF indicates promise for the treatment of obesity; however, the review also adds that more long-term research into intermittent fasting is necessary to positively confirm other health benefits in humans. Still, even the small body of research has many practitioners excited about a diet that holds promise for incredible health benefits.   In a study of mice published in Nature  in August 2024, MIT researchers  have now identified the pathway that enables the enhanced regeneration of intestinal stem cells, which is activated once the mice begin “refeeding” after the fast. They also found a downside: When cancerous mutations appeared during the regenerative period, the mice were more likely to develop early-stage intestinal tumors. “Having more stem cell activity is good for regeneration, but too much of a good thing over time can have less favorable consequences,” says Omer Yilmaz, an MIT associate professor of biology, a member of MIT’s Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, and the senior author of the new study. While this initially seems dismal news for IF, it is the results seen in mice and could lead to greater refinement of fasting windows. Perhaps the ideal regeneration window is such that the results will not cause increased likelihood of cancer, or the introduction of mutations will be able to be avoided. The results may or may not transfer to human studies.   Other Considerations For those who want to try IF, it is recommended to check with a medical provider first. Dr. Frank Hu , chair of the department of nutrition at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, points out that those with a history of eating disorders, pregnant or breastfeeding women, individuals being treated for high blood pressure, have heart or kidney disease, or those with unstable blood sugar levels (such as with diabetes) should not  fast. In these people, fasting could cause dangerously low blood sugar or electrolyte imbalances. It’s important that during eating windows, one consumes nutrient-dense foods that are rich in protein, fiber, and healthful fats. If the focus is solely on caloric intake without regard to nutrition, it could lead to deficiencies. And while the intermittent faster may be ready to eat a huge meal when breaking a fast, go slow. “It’s better to spread those calories over your next two meals,” advises hepatologist Nizar Zein, MD , of the Cleveland Clinic. “This will help you avoid rapid changes in blood sugar and the fatigue associated with consuming a large amount of food.” Go slow when breaking a fast. Spread all those calories out over time. ©Shutterstock It’s important that during eating windows, one consumes nutrient-dense foods that are rich in protein, fiber, and healthful fats.   During the fasting window, it’s crucial to maintain hydration. Drink water (plain or flavored with lemon, lime, or cucumber), black coffee, herbal and green teas, sparkling water, or any other drink that is close to zero calories.   Some people may experience hunger, irritability, headaches, or difficulty concentrating during fasting periods. These effects often diminish as the body adapts to the eating pattern. Still, it is helpful to avoid thinking about food or being at functions where food is the focus. It’s also advised to avoid strenuous activities while fasting.   Fasting schedules can sometimes interfere with social and family activities, making it challenging to maintain long-term. To help with success, make the calories count by selecting nutrient-dense foods that are rich in fiber, healthful fats, and protein (avocado, beans, eggs, fish, lentils, nuts). Filling foods that are low calorie are also helpful (fruits with high water content, raw vegetables, popcorn). Any time fewer calories are to be eaten, it’s a great idea to season meals generously with herbs and spices. Full flavors can reduce feelings of hunger. Seasoning can make food more satisfying when fewer calories are eaten. ©AlexRaths/istock Conclusion The evidence is still coming in, but many experts on nutrition and longevity believe that intermittent fasting can be an effective and flexible dietary approach for improving health, managing weight, and increasing lifespan. It’s important to consult with a healthcare provider, especially if there are any preexisting health conditions. If the green light is given, choose an IF method that fits your lifestyle and approach it with a focus on balanced nutrition and overall well-being. Eat fresh, local foods and stay hydrated. It’s also a good idea to enlist the support of friends or family, as society’s focus-on-food can make it difficult to endure very low-calorie days over the long term. * Julie Peterson writes science-based articles about holistic health, environmental issues, and sustainable living from her organic farm in Wisconsin.

Russia’s remote Bystrinsky metals mine in the Trans-Baikal Territory took over three years to build. Wikimedia In its Arctic Economic Report 2024 , released in September, the Arctic Economic Council (AEC) highlighted the potential for northern nations to dominate future global extraction of critical raw materials (CRM). Citing a report  by the International Energy Agency that sees demand for critical minerals nearly tripling by 2030, the AEC sees this trend as a “massive” opportunity to outfit remote Arctic communities with new extraction infrastructure that will benefit local and regional economies and thwart climate change. Notes: Rare earths include the four magnet elements: neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, and terbium. Demand for clean energy applications includes consumption for low-emissions power generation, EV and battery storage, grid networks and hydrogen technologies. ©IEA CC BY 4.0 The US Department of Energy defines  a critical material as “any non-fuel mineral, element, substance, or material” with a “high risk” of supply chain disruption. Materials essential to energy technologies, including “technologies that produce, transmit, store, and conserve energy,” are of greatest concern. (see DOE video ) The AEC report says that “an overwhelming majority” of the materials typically needed for renewable energy production and storage are found in the Arctic. The region is sizable, has a stable mining sector, and a long history of Indigenous participation. It also upholds “some of the highest [mining] standards globally [with] fewer greenhouse gas emissions.” As a result, the AEC thinks “the Arctic could be at the forefront of new ways of mining.” The AEC report cites Northern Sweden’s steel industry’s conversion to “fossil-free production and mining” and the first rare earth elements (REE) deposit in Europe in Kiruna, Sweden, as examples of the region’s “ambition to mine new types of minerals.” Additional Arctic mining opportunities include Europe’s largest gold deposit in Finnish Lapland, large deposits of nickel and cobalt in Greenland, one of the world’s largest zinc mines in Alaska, “one of the world’s richest reserves of high-grade iron” in Nunavut, “some of the largest [REE] deposits in the world” in Norway and Sweden, and the world’s largest producer of palladium in North Siberia. The AEC report offered advice to policymakers on ways the region can realize its potential as a CRM production juggernaut: The sparsely populated Arctic region has “worrying demographic trends.” To counter this, policymakers can increase training for local workers and make stronger efforts to recruit workers from outside the region. Local education can focus on vocational training and skills development. Governments need to invest in building critical infrastructure, such as “roads, ports, rail, power lines and communications,” to attract private investments and benefit local communities. There continues to be a need to “strengthen and ensure meaningful Indigenous and community consultation and participation” in mining expansion decisions. Increased CRM mining must be seen as crucial to the national security of participating Arctic nations. Development is needed to meet accelerating CRM demand and mitigate climate change. Thus, “faster responses on decisions from the public sector” are key to advancing mining in the Arctic.   Sources: https://www.arctictoday.com/new-report-arctic-could-be-vital-supplier-of-critical-minerals-for-global-green-transition/ https://arcticeconomiccouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/aec-arctic-mining-report-2024-sample.pdf https://origin.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2024 https://www.energy.gov/cmm/what-are-critical-materials-and-critical-minerals

In recent years, researchers have periodically identified human organs breached by a microplastic (MP) incursion that has spread to every corner of the planet. Microplastics have been found in Antarctica , in babies , and even in human blood  and lungs , so perhaps it was inevitable that researchers would find them in the human brain. ©Wikimedia/Patrick J. Lynch In a study  published by JAMA Network Open in September 2024, a team of scientists, led by Dr. Thais Mauad, an associate professor  of pathology at the University of São Paulo Medical School in Brazil, found microplastics in an anterior area of the brain called the olfactory bulb. This was the first known published study on microplastics in the brain. The olfactory bulb is a part of the brain  that processes information associated with smell. There are two bulbs per person, each located above a nasal cavity. Some researchers “worry the olfactory pathway may also be an entry point  into the brain beyond the olfactory bulb,” NBC News reported . The team analyzed the olfactory bulbs of 15 deceased individuals and found microplastics in eight of them. The most common polymer discovered was polypropylene (43.8%), and the most common identifiable shapes were particles (75%) and fibers (25%). The sizes of the MP particles ranged from 5.5 to 26.4 μm, while the mean fiber length was 21.4 μm.  The study authors said their discovery raises “important questions about … the mechanisms by which MPs might reach brain tissues” as “the presence of microplastics in the human olfactory bulb suggests the olfactory pathway as a potential entry route for microplastics into the brain.” They highlighted a need for further research on the “neurotoxic effects and implications for human health.” Sources : https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2823787?utm_source=For_The_Media&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=ftm_links&utm_term=091624 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10826726/#:~:text=Recently,%20in%20a%20clinical%20study,,%20and%2015%20%25%20were%20resin . https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-61739159 https://www.aol.com/microplastics-found-human-brain-151000303.html https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/microplastics-brain-new-research-finds-plastics-olfactory-bulb-rcna171200

Carefully Constructed Gardens Replace Cement, Prevent Flooding and Attract Pollinators *By Gordon Cairns A rain garden in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. ©Maureen Flynn-Burhoe/Wikimedia/Flickr (CC BY 2.0) A movement is afoot to beautify cities and populated areas by removing substantial amounts of excess cement and planting greenery that is aimed at reducing stormwater runoff and flooding. Water-absorbing “rain gardens” are popping up around the world and are part of the “Soak Up the Rain” effort by the US Environmental Protection Agency . Individuals can make rain gardens on their own properties while communities can create this green infrastructure in their cities and public areas. Historical Fights Against Flooding In the Middle Ages, the Dutch  dealt with the encroaching waters of the North Sea by building dikes , dams, and a canal system to stop, then harness the sea. Since then, countries across the world have been using innovative methods to combat the catastrophic risk of flooding. In Jakarta , Indonesia, for instance, the government plans to build a 20-mile artificial island in Jakarta Bay—in the shape of its national emblem, the eagle-like Garuda bird—to protect its capital city from storm surges. Meanwhile, in the borough of Enfield, London, 80 hectares (about 197 acres) of empty land has been transformed into a natural defense system  against flooding in nearby towns. New woodlands have been planted that contain 50 ponds to absorb rainwater. Excess stormwater and flooding can be a common problem in modern population centers. For instance, in the United States’ Great Plains states, its great swaths of prairie grasses and woodlands would have once absorbed the rush of water from heavy rainstorms. But today, when the clouds open up over a typical Midwestern city, the gushing water has less soft soil to slow down its flow, and it instead races over roofs, parking lots, sidewalks, and roads. Runoff is then funneled towards storm drainage systems into rivers, lakes, and streams, even though this can increase the risk of flooding. The Natural Solution A rain garden retaining rainwater. ©Monolito Nimbus (CC BY-SA 4.0) Rain gardens are a beautiful solution  to mitigate impervious, man-made, urban landscapes. Rain gardens return the land to something approximating its naturally porous state; it can again capture and filter stormwater before it runs off into storm drains, thus reducing the risk of flooding. Moreover, not only are rain gardens beautiful to look at but maintaining them is good for the gardener’s health. Rain gardens are not just a garden. They are designed to collect water in shallow hollows in the yard that have been filled with appropriate vegetation. This practice, also known as bioretention , is designed to mimic the mechanisms of natural systems that reduce water volume and pollution removal. The rain water is encouraged to slowly seep into the ground. By reducing the velocity of the flow, this process reduces the potential for erosion as well as cutting the amount of pollutants pouring from a yard into a storm drain and waterways. Bioretention next to roads in Greendale, Wisconsin. ©Aaron Volkening/Flickr Another benefit of rain gardens is their help in refilling groundwater in aquifers; they capture runoff in the shallow hollows of up to 2 feet deep to avoid soil compaction and then let it soak deeply into the ground. Furthermore, their design helps them act as a pollution and sediment filter by catching almost the first inch of runoff, which contains the highest concentration of pollutants. Thus, rain gardens transform stormwater from a destructive carrier of pollution into a source of sustenance for plant and wildlife habitats—the plants thrive on nitrogen and phosphorus that is picked up by their roots. Thus, rain gardens transform stormwater from a destructive carrier of pollution into a source of sustenance for plant and wildlife habitats—the plants thrive on nitrogen and phosphorus that is picked up by their roots. Although conventional gardens on one’s property are a valuable asset, they are not a rain garden  unless stormwater runoff is directed into the garden. Rain gardens can be difficult to maintain  because it is necessary to have a proper grasp of all planted species throughout all seasons to ensure none are accidentally weeded. There are also additional upfront costs, such as the size of a rain garden being 5 to 10% of area where stormwater comes from. Rain gardens also incur additional costs  if drainage is needed instead of soil as the filtration medium. Sample diagram of a rain garden. ©Melbourne Water (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) Six Components of a Rain Garden A rain garden typically has six basic components  (see image above)—growing medium, vegetation, rock trench, perforated drain, above-ground storage zone, and overflow—according to Kerr Wood Leidal, a Canadian engineering consulting firm. The growing medium supports plant growth and holds water. Vegetation promotes the regeneration of the infiltration surface and supports evaporation and transpiration. A rock trench holds water and releases it after a rainstorm, while a perforated drain protects plant roots from flooding and maintains adequate oxygen in the space. The storage zone above ground holds rainwater after a heavy downpour until the growing medium is able to accept the water. Finally, the overflow protects any nearby buildings when heavy rainfall or freezing of the ground overwhelms the rain garden by safely steering the water to a nearby location. Growing One’s Own Rain Garden If the deep-rooted plants in the rain garden are native to the region, they will not need special attention once they are established. Rain garden plants  may be trees, shrubs, and perennials depending on their tolerance to wet or dry soils . Plants may include hornbeam, birch, red and black chokeberry, and big bluestem, depending on the growing zone or region. Of course, non-native plants can be used, provided they are also pest-free and not invasive. The best soil type is sandy soil that drains well, but rain gardens can even be built within gardens with less permeable soils, such as clay, as long as they can absorb the stormwater runoff from the house or garage. The best soil type is sandy soil that drains well, but rain gardens can even be built within gardens with less permeable soils, such as clay, as long as they can absorb the stormwater runoff from the house or garage. A rain garden installation in progress in front of a home. ©Tricia J/Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0) Potential rain gardeners can test the infiltration abilities of their soil by digging a hole 8 inches wide by 8 inches deep  and filling it with water. If the water level recedes at 1 inch per hour, then the area is perfect for a rain garden without any extra soil preparation. The size of the garden will be determined by the amount of storm runoff that needs to be absorbed and the permeability of the soil, with a sandy soil rain garden needing less space than a clay soil garden. During a rainstorm , watch the flow of the water to find the best place for the garden, bearing in mind it should be at least 10 feet from building foundations and 25 feet away from septic system drain fields. Call the local services provider beforehand to avoid digging into buried cables and pipes. Although a rain garden might look unkempt compared to an immaculate lawn, they do need a degree of maintenance, including regular weeding . A newly planted rain garden should have a mulch, such as wood chips or compost between the plants, to help prevent weeds and erosion, and reduce watering needs. The mulch needs to replenished as necessary and spread by hand to avoid damaging the plants. The Front Yard Initiative A rain garden as part of the Front Yard Initiative. ©Urban Conservancy The City of New Orleans is working to cope with runoff. After a heavy rainfall, the water in this growing metropolis  on the Mississippi River delta has few places to go, due to the extent of development. To resolve its runoff problem, New Orleans is helping residents get rid of excess garden paving and encouraging the creation of rain gardens. The city has “had a problematic, unhealthy relationship with water,” according to Dana Eness, executive director of Urban Conservancy (UC), a nonprofit organization that fosters environmental and economic resilience in a warm weather climate. Eness said that after the devastation of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the city started a conversation with water experts from the Netherlands, a country with water management expertise developed after the devastating North Sea Flood of 1953 . The Dutch experts encouraged the city to look for natural solutions to support their infrastructure problem. “They told us what they have learned, which is you can’t engineer your way out of this situation. You have to look at biodiversity, you have to take your lead from Mother Nature by identifying a nature-based solution,” she said. As the city looked for ways to support the green infrastructure, UC started hearing complaints from residents about too much paving in neighbors’ yards, causing water to flood their properties, and so the Front Yard Initiative (FYI) was born. The program encourages people to remove excessive paving and replace it with their own rain gardens. FYI pays residents $2.50 per square foot of paving they lift from their front yard  in an initiative designed to let water seep into the ground and reduce the risk the city faces from further flooding. FYI pays residents $2.50 per square foot of paving they lift from their front yard in an initiative designed to let water seep into the ground and reduce the risk the city faces from further flooding. Pavement in front of a house is replaced by a rain garden. ©Al Duvernay In the last 10 years, UC has provided financial and technical assistance to over 150 homes and lifted more than 93,000 square feet of paving from front yards. This allows, at a conservative estimate, 125,000 gallons of water to be diverted from the city’s pumping system and streets and instead absorbed into the ground after a heavy rainfall. This adds up to 4 million gallons annually. Eness explained: “For the individual on their lot and their neighbors, it can be a major quality of life changer. They can now use their backyard that might have held water for three days and can walk from their car to their house without getting their ankles wet due to rainstorm water. “That is a dramatic and immediate improvement,” she said. Eness added that rain gardens also expand the biodiversity of the area: When heat-reflecting pavement is replaced by lush greenery that cools the environment, it attracts butterflies and bees. The runoff in neighborhoods is improved by even one rain garden in the area; this encourages others to build their own bioretention spaces, creating a virtuous circle. Pavement by a road is replaced with a rain garden with various plants. ©Urban Conservancy While the level of water absorption in rain gardens is small compared to a citywide scale—the city’s pumping system has to deal with 450 million gallons in the first hour of a rainstorm—rain gardens keep significant amounts of water out of the system at an important moment. “What this is doing in a volume scale is dwarfed but in that first critical hour, every drop counts,” Eness explained. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

Global Temperatures and Greenhouse Gas Concentrations Reached “Record Levels” in 2023   The Copernicus Climate Change Service, the EU’s Earth Observation Programme, recently released its seventh annual European State of the Climate report . It highlighted key climate-related events in Europe, as well as updates on the Arctic and global temperatures in 2023.   Europe is estimated to have suffered €13.4 billion (about $14.9 billion) in 2023 due to climate-related events, such as heatwaves, wildfires, floods, drought, and storms.  Globally, around 220,000 glaciers cover an area of approximately 700,000 square kilometers (about 172.9 million acres), but since 1976 about 8,200 cubic kilometers (about 1,967 cubic miles) of glacier ice has been lost.  In 2023, sea ice coverage in the Arctic reached its lowest in September, at 18% below average and sixth lowest based on a reference period of 1991 to 2020.  Globally, 2023 was the “warmest year on record” with the largest monthly temperature anomaly (deviation from normal) on record in September at 0.93°C (about 1.67°F) above average based on a reference period of 1991 to 2020.   Since 1993, annual average sea level rise has been 3.4 mm (0.13 in) globally and 2 to 4 mm (0.07 to 0.15 in) in Europe.  In 2023, the annual average concentration of carbon dioxide was 419 parts per million and for methane was 1,902 parts per billion, reaching record levels.    Source:   European State of the Climate Report 2023

Russia Ranked as a Top Exporter of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium Fertilizers in 2022   The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations released a new report  highlighting global export and agricultural use of inorganic fertilizers from 2002 to 2022. Fertilizer nutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus (as phosphorus pentoxide, or P2O5), and potassium (as K2O). Although P2O5 and K2O do not exist as compounds  in their respective fertilizers, calculations can be done to determine the actual percentages of phosphorus and potassium.    Russia was a top exporter of all three nutrients in 2022. It ranked first for nitrogen (18% of total), third in phosphorus (16% of total), and second in potassium (23% of total).  Meanwhile, India ranked first for phosphorus exports (24% of total), second for nitrogen (14% of total), and fifth for potassium (6% of total).  In 2022, Canada had the highest export of potassium fertilizers, accounting for 37% of the total. Meanwhile, Morocco had the highest for phosphorus fertilizers, accounting for 21% of the total.  Brazil was a prime importer of all three fertilizers, including about 2.06 million tons of nitrogen fertilizers, 1.13 million tons of phosphorus fertilizers, and 3.34 million tons of potassium fertilizers in 2022.  The US had the highest imports of potassium fertilizers at around 5.64 million tons from Canada in 2022, which was around 43% of Canada’s potassium fertilizer exports.  Overall, Asia had the highest total fertilizer use at close to 180 kg/ha in 2022, followed by the Americas (about 130 kg/ha), Europe (about 80 kg/ha), Oceania (about 60 kg/ha), and finally Africa (about 20 kg/ha).    Sources:   FAO. 2024. Inorganic fertilizers – 2002–2022 . FAOSTAT Analytical Briefs, No. 90. Rome.

Pumpkins are 92% Water and Rich in Vitamins and Minerals   Autumn is the season of harvest and gratitude, whether it be through Thanksgiving in the US, Chuseok in South Korea, or Erntedank fest  in Germany. Accompanying such celebrations are tasty seasonal dishes, including the pumpkin variety. Below are some facts on these large fruits.  According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, global production in the “pumpkins, squash and gourds” category was 22.8 million tons in 2022. Highest production was in Asia (50.5%), followed by Europe (21.2%), the Americas (15.4%), Africa (11.9%), and Oceania (1%).  In the US, over 1 billion pounds  of pumpkins were harvested by the top six producing states.  Morton, Illinois, is called the “ pumpkin capital of the world ” because 85% of the world’s canned pumpkin is packed in the Nestle/Libby’s plant there.  Pumpkin is nutritious  given its vitamin and mineral content, including vitamin A, vitamin K, iron, and magnesium. Pumpkin seeds contain copper, magnesium, phosphorus, and zinc but are high in fat.  Pumpkins are about 92% water  and are winter squashes.  When composting pumpkins   (especially jack-o-lanterns), paint, candles, and wax should be removed beforehand.    Sources:   https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize   [search “pumpkins, squash and gourds”]   https://www.morton-il.gov/citizen-support-center/tourism/   https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/pumpkin-nutrition-review#nutrition   https://www.ers.usda.gov/newsroom/trending-topics/pumpkins-background-statistics/   https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/10-things-you-probably-didnt-know-about-pumpkins   https://www.treehugger.com/how-host-pumpkin-smash-and-compost-jack-o-lanterns-4854373

Potential as a Fuel Rises When Paired with Renewable Energy (“Green Hydrogen”)   Hydrogen (H) is the most abundant element  in the universe; it is typically found bonded to carbon (such as hydrocarbons in petroleum) and oxygen (as in water). Hydrogen is not widely used as a fuel at this time .  However, given its energy density, molecular hydrogen (H2) has potential to be used as fuel, especially in conjunction with developments in renewable energy. Below are some facts on hydrogen as an element and fuel.    Hydrogen (H2) condenses into a liquid at -423°F  (-253°C), about just 20°C above absolute zero—the lowest possible temperature.   In comparison to gasoline , hydrogen has almost three times the energy density by mass (120 megajoules (MJ) per kilogram to 44 MJ per kilogram) but only about a fourth by volume (8 MJ per liter to 32 MJ per liter).   As of 2020, 99% of hydrogen  production in the US is from fossil fuels (95% from steam-methane reformation  and 4% from coal gasification). These methods are known as “gray hydrogen” from not removing the resulting carbon dioxide.   When steam-methane reformation is combined with carbon capture and storage, it is termed “ blue hydrogen .”  Only 1% of US hydrogen production is from electrolysis, a form of “ green hydrogen ” that does not use fossil fuels nor produce carbon dioxide (aside from energy costs).  Global hydrogen use reached 95 megatons in 2022 , with the highest use by China (29%). This was followed by North America (17%), the Middle East (13%), India (9%), Europe (8%), and the “rest of the world” (24%).    Sources:   https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/1/hydrogen    https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2020/07/f76/USDOE_FE_Hydrogen_Strategy_July2020.pdf    https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydrogen/   https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/pictures/HydrogenProduction_CGEP_FactSheet_052621.pd    https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ecdfc3bb-d212-4a4c-9ff7-6ce5b1e19cef/GlobalHydrogenReview2023.pdf

The Philippines, India, and Indonesia had Highest Natural Disaster Risk   The Ruhr University Bochum’s Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV) and Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft in Germany published the 2024 edition of their annual World Risk Report .  The report’s “WorldRiskIndex,” calculates natural disaster risk of 193 countries based on their exposure (to disasters), vulnerability, susceptibility, lack of coping capacities, and lack of adaptive capacities*.   The Philippines had the highest risk, with a WorldRiskIndex of 46.91.  In contrast, Monaco had the lowest risk, with a WorldRiskIndex of 0.18.  China had the highest “exposure” value of 64.59, but it ranked 22nd overall with a WorldRiskIndex of 21.31.  Many countries in Africa had low exposure but high vulnerability, susceptibility, lack of coping capacities, and lack of adaptive capacities. For example, Central African Republic had the highest vulnerability of 73.86 but ranked 107th overall with a WorldRiskIndex of 3.44 due to a low exposure value.  Among G20 nations, Indonesia and India were ranked second and third high risk overall, with WorldRiskIndex values of 41.13 and 40.96, respectively.   The US ranked 19th overall with a WorldRiskIndex of 22.56.  The EU nation with the highest risk was Italy (48th overall) with a WorldRiskIndex of 11.11.    *See page 43 of the report for more details on each parameter.  **Risk is classified based on ranges of WorldRiskIndex values: very low (0.00–1.84), low (1.85–3.20), medium (3.21–5.87), high (5.88–12.88), and very high (12.99–100.00).    Sources:   Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft / IFHV (2024): WordRiskReport 2024. Berlin: Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft.

UN Report Finds Most Goals “Severely Off Track”   A new UN   report   examines progress on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) from their 2015 baseline to current levels. Among the 135 assessable targets (out of 169), nearly half (48%) had “moderate to severe deviations from the desired trajectory” to 2030 targets. Another 18% experienced “stagnation” and 17% experienced “regression.” Only 17% were considered “on track or target met” by 2030, the UN said in its “sobering” report.  Goal 17, which encompasses global partnerships, funding, and communication efforts to achieve the SDGs, had five “on target or met” progress reports, the most of any of the goals.  Overall, four SDGs had no targets that were on track or met. These included Goal 1 (no poverty), Goal 6 (clean water and sanitation), Goal 13 (climate action), and Goal 16 (peace, justice, and strong institutions).  Regarding Goal 7 (affordable and clean energy), installed capacity for renewable electricity generation increased from 250 watts per capita in 2015 to 424 watts per capita in 2022.   Regarding Goal 11 (sustainable cities and communities), population-weighted exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) decreased from 39.1 µg/m3 in 2010 to 2014 to 35.7 µg/m3 in 2015 to 2019. However, PM2.5 concentrations increased slightly in Northern Africa, Western Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa.  Regarding Goal 12 (responsible consumption and production), e-waste generation increased from 6.3 kilograms per capita in 2015 to 7.8 kilograms per capita in 2022. However, only 1.7 kilograms per capita were collected and recycled properly in 2022.  Regarding Goal 13, developed countries met the annual $100 billion goal for climate finance in 2022 for the first time. However, this is still far from the estimated $6 trillion needed for developing countries by 2030.  Regarding Goal 14 (life below water), proportion of sustainable fish stocks (in other words, “maximally sustainably fished” and “underfished” stocks) decreased from 90% in 1974 to 62.3% in 2021.    Source:   Sachs, J.D., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G. (2024). The SDGs and the UN Summit of the Future. Sustainable Development Report 2024 . Paris: SDSN, Dublin: Dublin University Press.

*By Ellie Gabel When summer fades and autumn arrives, landscapes transform into a vibrant mix of red, yellow, and orange hues as leaves begin to fall. While the sight may be beautiful, it also presents a dilemma—what should be done with the fallen leaves?   Fallen Leaves Are Beneficial Leaf litter refers to organic material, including leaves, twigs, and other plant debris, that fall to the ground. Three layers  comprise leaf litter: the litter layer (with dead leaves), fermenting layer (with rotting leaves), and humus layer (materials that are completely rotted). Over time, leaf litter breaks down through natural processes and becomes a rich humus essential for plant growth.   Leaf litter is vital to forest ecosystems because they provide habitat and food for various organisms. Once leaf litter is colonized by fungi and microorganisms , invertebrates like beetles and earthworms consume and break it down into smaller pieces. This process is crucial as this organic matter is then mixed with and enriches the soil. Leaves left on the ground in yards or wooded areas can also create microhabitats for insects and small animals like frogs, salamanders, and hedgehogs. The cover provided by leaf litter offers shelter for amphibians  and helps retain moisture  in the soil, which is particularly important during dry periods. The Pitfalls of Burning or Landfilling Burning leaves releases harmful pollutants into the air, including particulate matter that can exacerbate asthma-related symptoms  when inhaled. Carbon monoxide and benzo(a)pyrene ( found in cigarette smoke ) are also emitted, the latter which can be a potential factor in lung cancer. When leaves and other organic materials decompose in a landfill under anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions, they produce methane, a greenhouse gas (GHG). According to data  from the US Environmental Protection Agency, yard trimmings (including grass, leaves, and tree and bush trimmings) accounted for 35.4 million tons in municipal solid waste in 2018. Although 22.3 million tons (about 63%) were composted or mulched and 2.6 million tons (about 7.4%) were combusted, the remaining 10.5 million tons (about 29.7%) were landfilled.   When leaves and other organic materials decompose in a landfill under anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions , they produce methane, a greenhouse gas (GHG). Moreover, some leaves (such as from soybeans) are also found to emit nitrous oxide , another GHG. Leaving leaves on streets or sidewalks is also unfavorable, as they can become slippery hazards when wet or frozen. A study found that the timely removal of leaf litter from streets can significantly reduce phosphorus and nitrogen levels  in stormwater runoff. When washed into local waterways, these nutrients can contribute to water pollution and algae blooms, harming aquatic ecosystems. Composting for Soil Health One of the best ways to handle autumn leaves is by composting them.   To compost leaves effectively, it's helpful to shred them down into smaller pieces, allowing for quicker decomposition. This can be done with a leaf shredder or by running over them with a lawnmower. Shredded leaves themselves can also be used for “mulching perennial flower beds, shrub borders, and over tree roots,” with a 2 to 3 inch layer  being ideal.   Having the right ratio of “brown” (carbon) to “green” (nitrogen) is essential for composting, with an ideal (C:N) ratio of 30:1 . Leaves are rich in carbon, with a C:N ratio of 40:1 to 80:1. However, to create a more balanced compost pile, leaves should be mixed with nitrogen-rich "green" materials like grass clippings, vegetable scraps, or coffee grounds.   Having the right ratio of “brown” (carbon) to “green” (nitrogen) is essential for composting, with an ideal (C:N) ratio of 30:1. Nitrogen can also be added through  dried blood, cottonseed meal, or bone meal. However, having too much “green” materials can make the pile smelly and attract nuisance animals. In Toronto, Canada, the city’s leaf composting program diverts 90,000 tons of yard waste  from landfills annually and has gained popularity for its impact on local gardens and green spaces. The program collects leaves from residential areas, processes them into compost, and gives it to the public for free during “ Community Environment Days .” This initiative showcases how communities can turn what might be considered waste into a valuable resource while encouraging sustainable practices.   Many municipalities provide programs that collect leaves for composting or mulching, ensuring they are reused rather than wasted.   Mulching For Weed Control In addition to composting, fallen leaves can be used as mulch, providing multiple ecological benefits. Mulching with leaves helps retain moisture in the soil , prevent erosion, and suppress weeds. In one to two years, [leaves] will naturally break down into a substance known as leaf mold, which can be used as a soil amendment or 2-inch mulch layer. For gardeners, leaving a thin layer of leaves on garden beds can act as a natural mulch  to suppress weeds. If a yard generates more leaves than can be used for compost, excess leaves can be saved for later use by piling them up in a corner of the yard. In one to two years, they will naturally break down into a substance known as leaf mold , which can be used as a soil amendment or 2-inch mulch layer.   By adopting sustainable practices such as composting and mulching, individuals and communities can turn autumn leaves into a beneficial component of the natural world. Rather than seeing leaves as a seasonal nuisance, they should be appreciated for their vital role in supporting soil health and biodiversity. *Ellie Gabel is a freelance writer from North Carolina who specializes in covering the latest innovations in science and technology and how they can be used to better the world we live in. In addition to writing for publications like Power Magazine, Global Trade Magazine, and Electronics360, Ellie is also the associate editor at Revolutionized.com .

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