*By Rick Laezman Hydrogen bus by European manufacturer Solaris. ©Markiewicz/Solaris Bus & Coach S.A. (CC BY-SA 4.0) The nation's largest contributor of greenhouse gases, transportation , is on a path to reduce its carbon emissions, and electric vehicles (EVs) are leading the way. But EV technology does not have a monopoly on change. Enter hydrogen. As the most abundant element in the universe, and the third most common element on Earth, it holds tremendous potential as a clean-burning alternative to fossil fuels. The idea of hydrogen cars is not new. The concept has been discussed and tested for decades. While still mostly on the sidelines, the technology may now be ready to join the great race against global warming and help vehicle travel further reduce its emissions. Hydrogen Fuel Cells Hydrogen can be used to power vehicles in more than one way. The most common is with a device known as a hydrogen fuel cell. Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) generate power through a process that is not unlike the way a battery works in an electric car. Electrical energy is discharged, harnessed, and transmitted via an electrical motor to produce wheel rotation, which propels the vehicle. Unlike a battery, however, a fuel cell converts the chemical energy of hydrogen to generate electrical energy. As long as the fuel (hydrogen) is present, the fuel cell can continue to function. Figure 1. Hydrogen fuel cell car concept. ©bgpsh/shutterstock In a fuel cell vehicle, compressed hydrogen gas is stored in a tank, similar to gasoline in a conventional vehicle. But instead of running through a combustion engine, the hydrogen is fed into a fuel cell stack, which is an aggregate of cells where the electro-chemical conversion takes place (see Figure 1). Each cell contains a positive and negative electrode, which are wrapped around an electrolyte. The hydrogen gas is channeled through the negative electrode, the anode. Meanwhile, oxygen is fed to the positive electrode, also known as the cathode. A catalyst at the anode splits the hydrogen molecules into electrons and protons. The electrons then travel through a separate circuit, which creates a flow of electricity that is harnessed to power the vehicle’s electric motor (see Figure 2). At the same time, the protons travel separately through the electrolyte to reach the cathode where they reunite with the oxygen and the same electrons they were separated from. Fuel cells are efficient, quiet, and clean; there is no combustion, there are no toxic emissions. Fuel cells are efficient, quiet, and clean; there is no combustion, there are no toxic emissions. The only thing that comes out of the tailpipe of a fuel cell-powered vehicle is water, one of the most innocuous substances on the planet. Figure 2. Hydrogen fuel cell ©Pepermpron/shutterstock The benign impact of a fuel cell is one of its greatest selling points. If society is able to effectively harness the gas, it will have a virtually limitless supply of clean fuel. Hydrogen Combustion Engines Not surprisingly, hydrogen fuel cells aren't the only type of vehicle engine powered by hydrogen. The gas can also be burned in an internal combustion engine (ICE), just like petroleum gasoline, diesel, and ethanol. Like fuel cells, the hydrogen ICE is gaining traction, and more companies are looking closely at the idea. If a hydrogen-powered internal combustion engine could be commercialized, it could solve the problem of emissions generated by the burning of fossil fuels without losing the power and efficiency of an ICE. Attention has focused on the use of hydrogen ICEs for medium- and heavy-duty vehicles—including vans, buses, and trucks—because ICEs are more efficient than fuel cell engines for vehicles that carry heavy loads over long distances. The concept is still very much in the development phase, but industry stakeholders are taking it seriously. Attention has focused on the use of hydrogen ICEs for medium- and heavy-duty vehicles—including vans, buses, and trucks—because ICEs are more efficient than fuel cell engines for vehicles that carry heavy loads over long distances. Hydrogen would provide these types of vehicles with the fuel density they need but without the pollutants. Concept of a hydrogen ICE truck by Iveco at IAA Transportation 2024, Hanover, Germany. Photo: Matti Blume (CC BY-SA 4.0) Earlier this year, the US Department of Energy (DOE) announced  $10.5 million in funding awards for three projects focused on research, development, and demonstration in this area. PACCAR Inc., an American truck designer and manufacturer, Cummins Inc., an American engine manufacturer, and MAHLE Powertrain, an American company that provides engineering and consulting on hybridized ICEs, were awarded funding. Together, these three ICE projects will support the use of hydrogen in the medium- and heavy-duty transportation sector. Navigating California's Hydrogen Highway Developing the proper engine technology is only part of the challenge to a future with hydrogen vehicles. A robust and reliable infrastructure for making hydrogen fuel available is also essential. Given how the nation's charging network for electric cars is lagging behind, hydrogen fueling stations face a similar problem. The marketplace is not always efficient enough in the early stages to encourage growth of new technologies. Therefore, government plays an important role. Much like it has been with EVs and solar power, the state of California has been a national leader in advancing hydrogen power. Much like it has been with EVs and solar power, the state of California has been a national leader in advancing hydrogen power, and, in that respect, also forward-thinking. It took steps to create a refueling infrastructure to support hydrogen cars more than 20 years ago. Then-Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger waved the checkered flag on the race for hydrogen in April 2004 when he signed Executive Order S-07-04. It initiated the so-called “ California Hydrogen Highway Network (CaH2Net) ,” whose mission was to assure that hydrogen fueling stations were in place to meet future demand created by hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles entering California roads. The CaH2Net marked the beginning of a process to coordinate between the California government, academia, and private industry stakeholders to establish a shared vision and create a blueprint of actions needed to create a hydrogen highway in the Golden State. Nearly 10 years later, California passed Assembly Bill 8  (AB 8; Perea, Chapter 401, Statutes of 2013), which among other things, dedicated up to $20 million per year for 10 years to support continued construction of at least 100 hydrogen fuel stations. According to the latest annual report  on the progress toward meeting the goals set by AB 8, “California’s hydrogen fueling network has grown to 65 stations, with 59 Open-Retail stations available for customer fueling as of August 10, 2023.” Most of those stations are in the highly populated areas of San Francisco and Los Angeles. [There is] a correlation between the delay in fueling station buildout and a similar delay in market projections for the sale of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. A number of factors are cited for the delay in reaching the state's goal of 100 stations. The report does note a correlation between the delay in fueling station buildout and a similar delay in market projections for the sale of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Although the state has not reached its goal, it is still on the way and not far off. The report projects the state could still have 100 fueling stations by as early as 2025. Hydrogen Vehicles Around the World California is not the only benchmark. According to market research firm, Interact Analysis , in the first half of this year, 41 countries and regions around the world had operating hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs). Another seven countries were planning or constructing their very first stations. The distribution of hydrogen stations around the globe is highly concentrated. “China, South Korea, Japan, and Germany have more than 100 operating stations, together accounting for 72% of the global total,” the report said. According to the same data, California accounts for more than 75% of the total in the United States. Hyundai ix35 fuel cell electric vehicle at hydrogen refueling station, Wuppertal. Germany. Photo: Artur Braun CC BY-SA 4.0 A closer look at the world's leader, China, suggests what it might take for hydrogen to catch on elsewhere. Interact Analysis reports that the expansion of HFEVs and HRSs in China is the result of government promotion that has triggered a cycle of expansion. The promotion of hydrogen and hydrogen vehicles became an official Chinese government policy starting in 2019. It was reiterated in subsequent years leading to growth in the industry and demand for refueling stations. This increase in demand encouraged 30 provinces and municipal cities across China to issue policies covering the development of HRSs, totaling more than 1,200 sites. While the United States is not a one-party state, government can still play a role, and the US has taken steps to encourage the development of the hydrogen industry. Last year, the Biden Administration announced an award of $7 billion from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law to seven “regional clean hydrogen hubs.” [S]even projects, scattered across the country, will produce, deliver, and provide end-use of clean hydrogen, derived from diverse domestic resources like solar energy, wind, nuclear energy, biomass, and natural gas with carbon capture. The seven projects, scattered across the country, will produce, deliver, and provide end-use of clean hydrogen, derived from diverse domestic resources like solar energy, wind, nuclear energy, biomass, and natural gas with carbon capture. The administration expects the hubs to “catalyze multistate hydrogen ecosystems,” which will expand and connect to form “a national hydrogen economy.” HFCEVs on the Road Many manufacturers have entered the race to build hydrogen fuel cell EVs. According to the national Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership , a non-profit collaboration of manufacturers, organizations, government agencies, and other stakeholders, over 18,000 FCEVs have been sold or leased in the U.S. as of September 2024. Models include the Toyota Mirai, Hyundai Nexo, Honda Clarity, Audi H-Tron Quattro, Chevrolet Colorado ZH2, Mercedes-Benz GLC F-Cell, and Nissan X-Trail. AC Transit and Sunline Transit also each manufacture their own line of hydrogen fuel cell transit buses. Toyota’s hydrogen fuel cell model Mirai at the 2020 Montréal International Auto Show. Photo: Bull-Doser/Wikimedia Currently, in the United States, only two models are available to the public. The Toyota Mirai  is a sedan that starts at about $50,000. The Hyundai Nexo  is an SUV that starts at around $60,000. To ease the pain of refueling, both manufacturers offer a $6,000 credit for the purchase of hydrogen that lasts up to six years on a purchase and three years on a lease. One final consideration is safety. Hydrogen is an extremely flammable gas. This poses a danger for vehicles that have been involved in an accident. It's important to note that traditional petroleum gasoline is also flammable. But manufacturers have developed designs and rigorous testing methods to make vehicles safe by guarding against the possibility of an explosion after a collision. HFCEV manufacturers have taken similar measures. Toyota has addressed safety in the Mirai through the design of the fuel cell tank and the refueling nozzle, and rigorous testing of both. Hydrogen is as safe as any other fuel used in a car, proponents say. Hydrogen may even have an advantage over petroleum gas because it is so light. In the event of a tank leak after a collision, the gas is likely to quickly dissipate into the atmosphere, unlike petroleum gas, which will dissipate much more slowly, increasing the time and likelihood that it could ignite from a spark. The Future of FCEVs While still a long way from competing with traditional vehicles, and not even close to its chief rival, EVs, hydrogen vehicles have a promising future. Multiple studies project strong growth in the years ahead, with total market value growing from around $1 billion to about $40 billion by the end of this decade. Like so many other new technologies, the prospect for growth presents a quandary. Consumers are not likely to invest in a new vehicle until the refueling infrastructure is available, but the same infrastructure is not likely to be built out until there is enough demand from vehicle owners. The solution is investment. Judging from the actions of private and public stakeholders, the intent is there. It should only be a matter of time before their actions will pay off. *Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has been covering renewable power and other related subjects for more than ten years.

Nobel Laureate David MacMillan Sees Revolutionary Change on the Horizon   *By Robert Selle   David MacMillan at a 2024 conference for high school STEM scholars in New Jersey held at Princeton University’s Frick Lab. He brought his Nobel Medal for the high school students to see up-close. ©Wendy Plump “We’re one catalytic reaction away from solving climate change,” says David MacMillan, co-winner of the 2021 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and professor at Princeton University. The source of his enthusiasm is a process to catalyze the mineralization of aerobic carbon, changing carbon dioxide (CO2) to carbonate rock, otherwise known as limestone.** Intellectual Generosity: Driver of Scientific Breakthroughs For the Scottish chemist, who is now 56, science is about excitement, curiosity, risk taking, creative thinking—and being willing to shun groupthink. Even more fundamentally, it’s about gratitude and sharing of discoveries, for without these values, science would be siloed and selfish. “Generosity,” MacMillan says , “is really important as a scientist because you’re going to have to be around other people, and you’re going to have to give and take and share” with other scientists. If you don’t, he warns, a person’s career will surely suffer. He believes in karma, though not in a spiritual sense. “I really do believe that people who are generous, the world knows they’re generous and gives them back fivefold. … Being generous as a scientist is an extraordinarily important attribute.” MacMillan and his wife used his share of the Nobel Prize money (about $500,000) to set up the May and Billy MacMillan Charitable Fund, in honor of his parents for their lifelong support. Speaking of gratitude, MacMillan  and his wife  used his share of the Nobel Prize money (about $500,000) to set up the May and Billy MacMillan Charitable Fund, in honor of his parents for their lifelong support. MacMillan’s wife is Jiin Kim MacMillan, of Korean ancestry, who is a chemist and pharmaceutical industry consultant involved in drug development. They have three daughters. David MacMillan with his wife Jiin Kim MacMillan and their three daughters. ©Corinne Strauss “My parents cared enormously about giving us opportunities,” the Nobel laureate  says. “They cared about education. They’d give you the shirts off their backs to allow you to better yourself. So, this seemed like a great way to honor what they did for me and my siblings.” The foundation provides educational opportunities for financially disadvantaged students in Scotland. It selects a program in Scotland each year for a one-time grant. The first recipient was the University of Glasgow, spurred by MacMillan’s appreciation for helping launch him on his career path and because “they have a great program in place to help underprivileged kids get to university and stay there.” “I also think it’s so important to give back,” MacMillan says. “There were so many people, our predecessors, who created opportunities for people like me. So, to get the opportunity to also do the same thing going forward is important.” The scientist hails  from the hamlet of New Stevenston, next to the small town of Bellshill, nestled between two giant steel mills in a coal mining area about 10 miles from Glasgow. His father was a steelworker and his mother a maid, and he was raised in government housing in a row house community.   His brother Iain was the first in his family to attend university, and he did so against his parents’ wishes. But when Iain got a job the first day after graduating that earned more than their father’s, the senior MacMillan became a fan of undergraduate study and pushed David there. The scientist says that his brother is his life’s inspiration. ‘Study What Speaks to You’ MacMillan’s advice for someone just getting into chemistry—or any field of science—is to “sample it, see what speaks to you.” “[O]nce you think, ‘I really like this,’ regardless of whether you’re in college or high school, go find someone who’s doing that in a lab.” “Second, once you think, ‘I really like this,’ regardless of whether you’re in college or high school, go find someone who’s doing that in a lab. And sort of beg or pray to join that lab and work there part time for a summer. Then, if there is still the feeling, ’This is fun. I really enjoy doing science,’ immerse yourself, throw yourself into it,” MacMillan says. David MacMillan (far left) with a few of the members of his lab who were co-authors on a paper in Science, standing in Princeton’s Frick Lab. ©C. Todd Reichart In the 1980s, during his first year at the University of Glasgow, studying physics, MacMillan many times felt close to dropping out. He tried getting various jobs but wasn’t good at job interviews, so he couldn’t land any work. In his second university year, however, “it was not so much I found organic chemistry as organic chemistry found me.” He had to travel an hour to his classes and then an hour home, and during this time he would devour a worn organic chemistry textbook. After a while, he was far ahead of his coursework and could truly begin to feel how organic molecules come together on the nanoscopic level. He came to feel he could do chemistry naturally—and joyfully. “There’s a lot of fun in doing that, and that’s what organic chemistry felt like to me.” Questioning Science Orthodoxy Regarding the pre-2000 consensus thinking around metal catalysts, the Nobel Prize winner says, “The way the chemistry works in this one area—everyone does it this way, [but] does it make sense? And some of it made sense, but some of it seemed kind of strange to me that we were doing it in this bizarre [metal-catalyst] way. So, we started to question, are there other ways to do it? Are there other ways to think about it? And that’s when we started to have ideas about going in this completely different direction.” [T]hose who hold the purse strings—that is, the research-proposal reviewers at the various foundations and government agencies—are often constrained by chemistry orthodoxy. He also noted that without donor funding there’s no scientific progress. But those who hold the purse strings—that is, the research-proposal reviewers at the various foundations and government agencies—are often constrained by chemistry orthodoxy. “Funding agencies are great,” MacMillan said, “but sometimes reviewers for funding agencies are difficult because reviewers are often looking for things based on what we already know. And sometimes young [researchers] want to go in a completely different direction that makes no sense compared to what we already know. ... So, we do the things that ‘make sense’ as opposed to the things that are more unusual or higher risk.” 'Eureka’ Moment MacMillan’s “eureka” moment in the organocatalysis field came in 1998 as a first-year assistant professor at the University of California at Berkeley. A first-year graduate student in his lab, Tristan Lambert, asked him a simple question about a particular organic chemical reaction. “I went to the board, I was drawing up the answer to the question, and right there, right then, we had the idea,” MacMillan said. “But I thought, it looks too simple, there’s no way this is going to work. [But] we tested it that afternoon, and it worked—that afternoon!” MacMillan’s discovery was that simple, cheap organic molecules could perform the same molecular-level breaking-and-joining catalytic function as expensive toxic metals. Organocatalysis was born. He is often asked what is going to be the next big development in organocatalysis, and he tells people , “I have absolutely no idea. But … it’s not going to be based on who has the most money. It’s going to be based on who has the best idea.” ** MacMillan notes that there is an enormous amount of alkali metal salts that exist in the Earth’s crust, slowly absorbing CO2 to create carbonates. But this happens at a snail’s pace.  “So, if you can accelerate that process through catalysis, it would easily be the world’s most important chemical reaction,” he says. (For a detailed account of organocatalysis and MacMillan’s breakthrough, see “ How Catalysis is Poised to Rock Our World " and " Innovations in Chemical Catalysis Will Revolutionize the Future ” by David MacMillan.) *Robert Selle  is a freelance writer and editor, based in Bowie, Maryland.

Eco-First Designs Celebrate Indigenous African Culture   *By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe   Gando primary school extension designed by Francis Kéré. Photo: Wikimedia Kéré Architecture, founded by renowned architect Francis Kéré, is universally admired for designing structures with uplifting African Indigenous design motifs that meet the needs of communities across the globe . And the Kéré team does it with sustainable, local materials and production techniques. Francis Kéré. Photo: Astrid Eckert (CC BY-SA 3.0) The   United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) has recognized Kéré Architecture for its traditional, environmentally responsible building practices, particularly in Africa, where population growth creates an urgent need for urban housing. By 2050,   Africa’s population is predicted to reach 2.4 billion , with 80% of the growth expected in cities, according to the African Development Bank. Today, Africa accounts for approximately 6% of global energy demand. More than half of this comes from the continent’s buildings. As African cities grow, so will the consequences for the environment if nature-based construction is not encouraged.   According to UNEP, 70%  of Africa's building stock that is expected to exist in 2040 has yet to be constructed, While building poses a challenge, it also creates an opportunity to produce buildings using energy-saving techniques with a lower carbon footprint.  Berlin-Based Solutions Berlin-based Kéré Architecture collaborates with schools, communities, and cultural events throughout the world to design eco-friendly structures reflecting African influences.   Berlin-based Kéré Architecture collaborates with schools, communities, and cultural events throughout the world to design eco-friendly structures reflecting African influences.   The firm adopts building techniques that reduce the need for   air conditioning ,   long-range transport of building materials , and   concrete production , all of which add to greenhouse gas (GHG)   emissions and contribute to the climate crisis .   Lycée Schorge Secondary School The UN teamed up with Francis Kéré and colleagues on a project in Kéré’s home country of Burkina Faso: Lycée Schorge Secondary School . Designed by Kéré Architecture and completed between 2014 and 2016, the 1,660-square-meter-built area (about 17,800 square feet) is located in Koudougou, the third most populated city in Burkina Faso.    The Lycée Schorge design took inspiration from traditional settlements in this part of West Africa. To create the feel of an autonomous “village,” the school has a central courtyard surrounded by nine modules that protect students and staff from the region’s typical extremities of heat, wind, and dust. Lycée Schorge courtyard. ©Andrea Maretto for Kéré Architecture The Kéré Architecture team used locally sourced laterite ( a type of soil rich in iron and aluminum) that gives the campus its deep red color. With excellent thermal mass, laterite can absorb heat during the day and radiate it at night. The laterite was cut and shaped into bricks, left in the sun to harden, and used to construct the school’s nine modules.   Using local eucalyptus wood wraps, Kéré Architecture developed a secondary façade to fit around the classrooms and act as a transparent “fabric” to cool rooms during hot daytime temperatures.   Using local eucalyptus wood wraps, Kéré Architecture developed a secondary façade to fit around the classrooms and act as a transparent “fabric” to cool rooms during hot daytime temperatures. An undulating ceiling, wind-catching towers, and overhanging roofs were also installed to decrease the temperature in the school’s interior. The eucalyptus wood “fabric” surrounding the school’s exterior. ©Andrea Maretto for Kéré Architecture “The Lycée Schorge Secondary School sets a new standard for educational excellence in the region while providing an inspiring showcase of local building materials applied to an iconic and innovative design,” said Kéré Architecture.   Balancing Progress and Function With Francis Kéré at the helm, the firm’s design timeline has reflected various influences and ecological advancements. This can be seen in Francis Kéré’s inaugural project  in Burkino Faso, Gando Primary School, built in his hometown.   Completed in 2001, the 520-square-meter (almost 5,600 square feet) school was a collaboration between the Kéré Foundation and the Community of Gando. Besides expanding the number of schools in the Boulgou Province, the designers sought to solve two issues typically plaguing educational buildings: poor ventilation and lighting. The project took home the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 2004 and the Global Award for Sustainable Architecture in 2009. The library at the Gando Primary School. Photo: Wikimedia The Gando school inspired the creation of the Naaba Belem Goumma School  a decade later, which won Kéré the 2011 Regional Holcim Award Gold for Africa, and the 2012 Global Holcim Award Gold for Middle East.   “[T]he design pioneers a new building technique: in-situ cast walls made of poured local clay mixed with cement and aggregate.”   “Combining both modern and vernacular construction methods, the design pioneers a new building technique: in-situ cast walls made of poured local clay mixed with cement and aggregate,” Kéré Architecture stated. 2-meter-wide (~6.5 ft) walls (left) were formed from local clay mixed with cement and aggregate (right) to construct the Naaba Balem Goumma School.  ©Kéré Architecture This technique enabled a faster build with greater architectural flexibility than with traditional clay bricks, the company said. The material was chosen for its sustainable properties, as well, and for being cheaper than concrete. Its properties allowed for up to 2-meter-wide (~6.5 ft) wall modules, using steel formwork that can be removed within 48 hours (see images above). Eucalyptus wood façades and large roof overhangs were added to protect against wind and dust (see images below). © Kéré Architecture © Kéré Architecture The school’s buildings are arranged in ways reminiscent of traditional compounds in the region. A circle opens to the west, presenting a protected courtyard preventing hot and dusty wind from entering the school’s yards. A double facade was constructed to offer a shaded buffer zone between the two facade layers, further cooling the classrooms.   In addition, an extensive terraced area surrounds the campus, planted with native tree species. The landscaping helps control classroom temperatures while strengthening surrounding soil against desertification.   Fostering Collaboration Pivoting from education to governance, Kéré Architecture was commissioned to design a new Benin National Assembly. It announced the project by saying : “Having outgrown its current building, which dates back to the colonial era of its past, the parliament of the Republic of Benin has entrusted Kéré Architecture to design a new national assembly that will embody the values of democracy and the cultural identity of its citizens.” A model of the Benin National Assembly. ©Kéré Architecture Construction began in 2019. The layout of the 35,000-square-meter (~376,000 square feet) National Assembly is inspired by the “palaver tree,” the symbol of the West African tradition of meeting under a tree to problem-solve in a community’s best interests.   “The palaver tree is a timeless symbol, having borne witness to previous generations and inspiring respect for the majestic forces of nature,” Kéré Architecture said.   “[T]he parliament of the Republic of Benin has entrusted Kéré Architecture to design a new national assembly that will embody the values of democracy and the cultural identity of its citizens.”   The “trunk” of the building is a hollow structure presenting a central courtyard. Its design allows for people to gather in spaces that receive natural ventilation and indirect light.   A public park, which will be home to Benin’s native flora, will extend to the “roots” of the tree-like design to boost openness and transparency and provide extensive shaded space. Planted roofs will merge the park’s environment with the core architecture.   Kéré Brings Baobab Designs to California In 2019, Kéré Architecture designed a “living” installation, inspired by the baobab tree (see video ), for the outdoor space of the Coachella Music and Arts Festival in California.   Calling the group of structures Sarbalé Ke—or “House of Celebration” in the Bissa language of Burkina Faso—Francis Kéré and team designed the structures to mimic the interior of the baobab. The legendary tree is known for becoming hollow inside with “skylights” forming in the central trunk as it grows.   “In West Africa, [the baobab] is deeply valued as a community landmark and revered for its medicinal and nutritional uses,” the company explained.   “In West Africa, [the baobab] is deeply valued as a community landmark and revered for its medicinal and nutritional uses.”   Kéré Architecture’s Coachella installation featured 12 baobab towers, each designed to mirror the material, texture, and spatial layout of the architecture in Francis Kéré’s birthplace of Gando. In the daytime, the towers’ radial design welcomes light into each structure. Then, as the sun sets, the baobab towers are illuminated from within to brighten the festival through the night. Architectural drawing of Sarbalé Ke, the Kéré-designed Coachella festival installation inspired by the revered African baobab tree. ©Kere Architecture At the design’s heart, its three tallest “trees” form the installation’s center and its primary gathering space. Visitors are encouraged to connect with the ecologically inspired spaces, each a merger of nature and construction.   “The materials for the baobab towers were chosen with affordability and local availability in mind,” Kéré Architecture said. Steel is the primary structural material and supports triangular wooden panels in matte blues, oranges, reds, and pink, nostalgic of the color palette of California’s sunrises, sunsets, and nearby mountain ranges.   Following the 2019 festival, Sarbalé Ke was rehomed to the East Coachella Valley, where it now resides as a permanent structure in a public gathering pavilion ( see video ).   Belief in a Good Future In 2022, Francis Kéré became the first African to receive the Pritzker Prize, hailed as the “Nobel Prize for Architecture.” In April 2024, he announced a new design project at Munich’s Technical University (TUM) where he serves as professor of architectural design and participation. His team will design a vertical, urban daycare center using wood as its core building material. Named Ingeborg Pohl Kinderoase (Children’s Oasis), the 700-square-meter (~7,500 square feet) school is expected to welcome 60 children by the end of 2025. It will feature an outdoor play area on the center’s roof called “Himmelswiese” (“Meadow in the Sky”).   “I work as an architect all over the world, but I feel a special connection to my university, TUM,” Francis Kéré   said .  This house will, of course, be a house for children, but it is also a gift to the entire urban society, a signal for sustainability and the belief in a good future,” he added.   It could be said that Francis Kéré’s gift, like each of his architectural contributions, will marry history to the future, connection to space, and the familiar to the sustainable. *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 10 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences.

Scientists Explore the Possibilities of Self-Controlled Thought or Awareness in Animal Species   *By Mark Smith What level of self-awareness does a Chameleon possess? ©Shutterstock From bumblebees rolling wooden balls for fun to crayfish exhibiting traits of anxiety, animal behaviors have some experts concluding that creatures actually possess consciousness. Philosophers, neuroscientists, conservationists, biologists, and experts from many other fields have weighed in on the discussion over the years, but the signing of the Cambridge Declaration of Consciousness  in 2012 was seen as a milestone. For the first time, scientists from across the globe put their name to a document claiming the evidence was in—many types of animals have the capacity for some level of self-controlled thought or awareness. Another landmark occurred in April 2024 with the New York Declaration , when 290 academics, scientists, and philosophers backed claims that there was a “realistic possibility” of conscious experience in all vertebrates and many invertebrates—such as crustaceans  and insects.   Do flies (insects) exhibit consciousness? ©Wikimedia Do crabs (crustacean) exhibit consciousness? ©Pexels The potential ramifications of this development are huge and could impact everything from the ethics of how people fish and farm to the scope of legal protections and rights afforded to animals in the future. But despite a growing consensus, scholarly opinions remain divided on the subject.  What Is Consciousness? One of the biggest challenges in the debate—and the main cause of contention—is establishing what is meant by consciousness in this context. Professor Kristin Andrews. ©Kristin Andrews Philosopher and cognitive scientist Kristin Andrews is one of three academics behind the New York Declaration, along with environmental scientist Jeff Sebo of New York University and philosopher Jonathan Birch of the London School of Economics. Professor Andrews, who is York Research chair in Animal Minds at York University in Toronto, said the definition in the declaration was very specific. She told The Earth & I : “Some disagreement arises [in the wider debate] because people mean different things by the word consciousness. In the declaration, we focus on a type of consciousness called sentience—the ability to feel things like pain, pleasure, heat, hunger.” “In the declaration, we focus on a type of consciousness called sentience—the ability to feel things like pain, pleasure, heat, hunger.” Sentience, a type of consciousness, includes the ability to feel pleasure. ©Shutterstock A Growing Body of Evidence According to the New York Declaration, there have been several studies in recent years that have lent credence to the notion of animal consciousness.   In a 2020 study , crows were trained to report their visual perceptions using head gestures. In a test  carried out in 2021, octopuses were shown to avoid pain and value pain relief. Another study  found that cuttlefish remember details of specific past events, including how they experienced them. Another  found that bumblebees engaged in play activity. Other studies  found crayfish display “anxiety-like” states that could be altered by anti-anxiety drugs.  Cuttlefish recall details of specific past events. This cuttlefish is using camouflage. ©Wikimedia This growing body of work has led many scientists to reassess their views on the nature and prevalence of animal consciousness. One of the signatories to the New York Declaration was Anindya “Rana” Sinha, a professor of animal behavior and cognition at the National Institute of Advanced Studies in India. Professor Sinha has spent 30 years studying wild bonnet macaques. His early research also focused on the behavioral biology of wasps. A juvenile wild bonnet macaque. ©Wikimedia Professor Anindya “Rana” Sinha. ©Anindya Sinha Over the course of his career, he observed what he described as “very complex patterns” of behavioral interaction or communication. These observations convinced him that there was a “certain level” of self-awareness, as well as awareness of the nature of the other individuals. [Professor Sinha] observed what he called “very complex patterns” of behavioral interaction or communication that convinced him there was a “certain level” of self-awareness, as well as awareness of the nature of the other individuals. Does this monkey recognize itself in the mirror? ©pexels “The complexity of these mechanisms makes me believe that there are definitely certain forms of sentience and awareness in these individuals that we must pay attention to,” Professor Sinha said. Professor Andrew’s work with dolphins and orangutans led her to conclude that these animals were not only conscious, but that other animals exhibited similar behavior. She pointed to a recent study of olfactory self-recognition in snakes as one such example.   “I had to start seeing other animals the way I was seeing the orangutans and dolphins, and we're finding similarities in behavior and physiology. It supports the conclusion that these other animals are conscious too,” she said. Adult and baby dolphins. ©Shutterstock Degrees of Consciousness Professor Sinha believes that viewing consciousness as a binary concept of “conscious or not conscious” may not be helpful in the current context. Instead he postulates varying “degrees” of consciousness. “I think many of the processes that humans and non-humans share in terms of the mental mechanisms that govern their decision making, or interactions with other individuals, are similar. “I think many of the processes that humans and non-humans share in terms of the mental mechanisms that govern their decision making, or interactions with other individuals, are similar." “They may, however, differ in not only the complexity of each of these processes but also which of these processes are sometimes used in combination to take a particular decision or for a particular behavioral manifestation to appear.” Professor Andrews added: “I myself wouldn't talk about human-like inner awareness, because some of the hallmarks of human consciousness include inner speech which is likely unique to humans. What is more interesting to me is what is shared—such as the capacity to feel positive and negative feelings.” Opinion or Proof? But the concept of animal consciousness remains divisive. Professor Hakwan Lau, a cognitive neuroscientist at the Institute for Basic Science in South Korea, has been critical of both the Cambridge and New York Declarations, primarily due to what he sees is yet a lack of definitive scientific evidence.   He told The Earth & I : “It is okay for people to express opinions, but they should not pretend that there is scientific support for their claims when there isn’t.”   He said: “The New York Declaration has been very clear: They are supposed to be talking about consciousness in the sense of having subjective experiences. So ‘if’ insects can consciously feel pain, they are conscious under that definition. “The trouble is that the evidence they cite tells us little about that. The evidence concerns whether insects can react meaningfully and flexibly to external stimuli. It does not tell us one way or the other whether these reactions are produced based on subjective experiences or not.” Asked whether he feels animals are conscious, he added: “Personally, I think they probably are—but that’s a matter of opinion and guesses. As a scientist I simply don’t know.                                     “We have too little evidence either way, especially for non-mammals and non-primates. There are experiments that could be done to further our understanding this, but we simply have not yet done those critical experiments yet.” “We have too little evidence [of consciousness] either way, especially for non-mammals and non-primates. There are experiments that could be done to further our understanding this, but we simply have not yet done those critical experiments yet.” Professor Andrews said: “I think it's important to say we have the same type of evidence for human and nonhuman consciousness—philosophical evidence, not scientific evidence.” She added: “Skepticism about other minds is like skepticism about the external world. Acceptance of other minds is the starting point for scientific psychology, and acceptance of the external world is the starting point for physics. Acceptance of animal minds is a framework that permits research, not a scientific conclusion.” Ramifications of Animal Consciousness There appears to be more of a growing consensus towards the notion of animal consciousness, but what implications does that have for society at large? Could it not only lead to ethical concerns but even legal issues further down the line? Professor Sinha said: “Many of us might believe that once we establish that animals are conscious, our behavior towards them needs to change. “However, I must also insist that there are perhaps researchers like me who intrinsically believe in the ethics of the right to exist, the right to survive, the right to take decisions of your own accord, which you might want to for all organisms, independently of whether they are conscious or not.” Professor Andrews said more research was needed to inform how to morally approach the subject but added: “Policymakers should acknowledge animals as sentient beings in the law and not treat them as property. As a society, we need to work out the conflicts of interests that will arise with this recognition.” But, she said, society should not be “too hasty” to conclude that it knows what the correct ethical course of action is before it understands what matters to different animals. What matters to a giraffe? ©Pixabay "If we don't try to see things from the animals' perspective first, we risk the mistake of anthropocentric thinking. Our interests are not all animals' interests. And with more research, we might also discover that what matters to the birds differs radically from what matters to the bees,” she said. What Does the Future Hold? Professor Andrews said she hopes two things will change because of the declaration’s signing. “First, I hope that the declaration will shift the question from ‘Are animals conscious?’ to the question, ‘How are animals conscious?’ “Second, I hope that the declaration will shift our thinking about all the animals around us, including the flies and ants and bees in our gardens, and that our welfare protection policies will be extended to include these invertebrate animals.” Do chickens have consciousness? Baby chickens in a “broiler house.” ©Wikimedia *Mark Smith   is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

Using One Artificial Tree for Years Deemed More ‘Green’ Than Buying Fresh Trees Every Year   The famous Christmas tree, with its ornaments, lights, a star on top (and perhaps presents underneath), signals the joyous festivities associated with the holiday season. In preparation for the upcoming celebrations, below are some facts on real and artificial Christmas trees.   According to the US Department of Agriculture, the US cut more than 14.5 million Christmas trees  in 2022, with an additional 3 million imported.   There are about 16,000 tree farms across all 50 states, where trees typically grow for seven years  in the field.  According to Michigan State University , real Christmas trees typically include the fir, pine, and spruce varieties. For example, the Fraser fir, blue spruce, and Scots pine have stiff branches suitable for hanging ornaments.  Real Christmas trees can be reused or recycled  through methods such as curbside pick-up, yard waste, mulching, nonprofit pickup, planting it in one’s yard, and soil erosion barriers.   Artificial Christmas trees typically include  the PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or PE (polyethylene) variety. PVC trees have PVC needles made to look like real pine trees, while PE trees are made from plastic injected into molds.  The PVC and PE make artificial Christmas trees unrecyclable and they end up in a landfill. However, artificial Christmas trees can be reused, sold, or given to others over many years.  A 2017 life cycle assessment   by the American Christmas Tree Association found that, after myriad costs were calculated for about five years, using an artificial tree was more environmentally friendly than purchasing multiple real trees.    Sources:   https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/chart-gallery/gallery/chart-detail/?chartId=110530    https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/choosing_the_right_christmas_tree    https://realchristmastrees.org/All-About-Trees/How-to-Recycle/    https://www.cybermondaychristmastree.com/pvc-vs-pe-christmas-trees/   https://static1.squarespace.com/static/6272fe70ef0c091e820f4ac3/t/635833efdc3cc409cbf3670c/1666724850060/2018+ACTA.pdf

DNA (animation). Wikimedia /brian0918 (Public Domain) Imagine if scientists could use AI to manipulate the genetic makeup of a single type of cell without affecting other cells in the body. A new technological method appears to be opening a way to allow precise activation—or precise repression—of genes in specific tissues. This could revolutionize gene therapy and biotechnology, said   researchers from The Jackson Laboratory (JAX), Harvard University, Yale University, and the Broad Institute of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in a new report. JAX is a leading biomedical research institution in Bar Harbor, Maine, with the mission of discovering genomic solutions for diseases, including how to prevent and treat cancers. The new finding “creates the opportunity for us to turn the expression of a gene up or down in just one tissue without affecting the rest of the body,” said senior co-author Ryan Tewhey, PhD, about the JAX report, which was published in an Oct. 23 advanced online issue of  Nature .   “Although every cell in an organism contains the same genes, not all the genes are needed in every cell, or at all times,” the report said. The core of the report revolves around the human body’s natural gatekeepers called cis-regulatory elements (CREs). “CREs themselves are not part of genes, but are separate, regulatory DNA sequences—often located near the genes they control,” the JAX release explained. “CREs help ensure that genes needed in the brain are not used by skin cells” or that genes needed for toddler development “are not activated in adults,” it added. Tewhey and his colleagues broke new ground by designing synthetic CREs. Senior co-author Dr. Pardis Sabeti , a core institute member at the Broad Institute and professor at Harvard, developed a platform called CODA (Computational Optimization of DNA Activity). It “used their AI model to efficiently design thousands of completely new CREs with requested characteristics, like activating a particular gene in human liver cells but not activating the same gene in human blood or brain cells,” the JAX report said. Tewhey, an associate professor at JAX, is excited that these “synthetically designed” switches “show remarkable specificity to the target cell type they were designed for.” The group tested several synthetic CRE sequences in zebrafish and mice, “with good results,” the Jax release said. “One CRE, for instance, was able to activate a fluorescent protein in developing zebrafish livers but not in any other areas of the fish.” There have been advances in gene editing in living cells. But prior to these researchers’ breakthrough, altering certain genes within targeted cell types or selected tissues had been difficult. This is because computer models were incapable of searching every possible combination of sequences in a typical human CRE, the JAX report said. “[W]ith no straightforward rules that control what each CRE does, this limits our ability to design gene therapies that only affect certain cell types in the human body,” said Rodrigo Castro, PhD, a computational scientist in the Tewhey lab at JAX and co-first author of the new paper. “This project essentially asks the question: ‘Can we learn to read and write the code of these regulatory elements?’” said Steven Reilly, PhD, assistant professor of genetics at Yale and one of the senior authors of the study. “If we think about it in terms of language, the grammar and syntax of these elements is poorly understood. And so, we tried to build machine learning methods that could learn a more complex code than we could do on our own.” "Natural CREs, while plentiful, represent a tiny fraction of possible genetic elements and are constrained in their function by natural selection," said study co-first author Sager Gosai, PhD, a postdoctoral fellow in Sabeti's lab. "These AI tools have immense potential  for designing genetic switches that precisely tune gene expression for novel applications, such as biomanufacturing and therapeutics, that lie outside the scope of evolutionary pressures," Gosai said.   Sources: https://www.jax.org/news-and-insights/2024/october/researchers-flip-genes-on-and-off-with-ai-designed-dna-switches https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08070-z https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/10/241023130924.htm

*By Julie Peterson Vegan “cheesecakes” with cacao, fruit, nuts, and seeds are a sweet creation.  @Martin Gaal/ Shutterstock There is something about the end of a meal that begs a touch of sweetness. While some people reject desserts for fear of added pounds—or blood sugar spikes—others won’t leave the table without a treat. Perhaps there is a better way to serve desserts so that guests feel great and grateful with no regrets.   Come explore alternatives to refined white sugar on this tour celebrating the sublime and divine. Get the current scoop on nutrients, environmental impact, taste profiles, uses, and more.   The Story of Sugar Sugarcane was once a wild perennial grass. Around 10,000 years ago, it was domesticated  in New Guinea for use as animal fodder and human consumption. Sugar was initially extracted from sugarcanes by chewing and extracting fluids via water. About 2,500 years ago, the first chemically refined sugar appeared in India. The process gradually spread to China, Southeast Asia, and eventually the world over.   Today, sugarcane is the world’s largest crop, with 1.86 billion metric tons produced in 2021, according to Statista.com. Most of it is grown in tropical regions like Brazil, India, China, Pakistan, Mexico, and Thailand. Sugar beets are also used to produce refined white sugar. They are easily grown in temperate climates such as France, Germany, and the United States. Farmed sugarcane plants.  Photo: Pexels The purification process to make granulated white sugar is lengthy, and the sugar—whether it comes from cane sugar or beet sugar—is stripped of fiber, minerals, and vitamins.     Not only is sugar non-nutritive, large amounts of sugar in one’s diet is linked to adverse health consequences, such as obesity, tooth decay, inflammation, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes. As a result, the American Heart Association  recommends limiting daily added sugar intake to 25 grams (6 teaspoons) for women and 36 grams (9 teaspoons) for men.    The purification process to make granulated white sugar is lengthy, and the sugar—whether it comes from cane sugar or beet sugar—is stripped of fiber, minerals, and vitamins.   The bad news is that sweetened foods are undeniably delicious and hard to resist, plus they stimulate the appetite and cause cravings for more sweet foods (i.e., sugar is addictive).   The good news is that anyone can limit the super-processed white sugar when they cook by substituting sweeteners that are more sustainably produced, less processed, and closer to the natural source.   Let’s break them into two categories: (1) nutritive and (2) non-nutritive. (1) Natural Nutritive Sugar Substitutes Oatmeal cookies sweetened with bananas.  ©ALLEKO/ iStock Fruit:  Naturally sweet and full of nutrients, apples, bananas, berries, dates, and other fruits can be substituted for sugar in many dishes. Ditch the table sugar and top cereal with natural sugar in the form of strawberries and blueberries and get antioxidants at the same time. Applesauce and mashed bananas can often replace sugar and oil in cookie and quick bread recipes (try these Oatmeal Cookies  using banana as the sweetener). Finally, when craving sugar, eat a piece of fruit and see if it satisfies. The natural sugar in fruit is absorbed more slowly by the body than white sugar because fruit also has fiber. Try baking sugar-free sweet potato brownies. Photo: Pexels Vegetables:   They aren’t called sweet potatoes for nothing! Beets, butternut squash, carrots, and sweet potatoes pack a sweet punch. They can be grated and used in sauces to balance acidity in place of  white sugar; they can also be blended into breads, layered into lasagna, or eaten as dessert. Oven roast any of these vegetables to bring out the sugars and munch a treat while getting in one’s daily dose of veggies. If a chocolate treat is desired, try baking these simple sugar-free brownies  that use sweet potatoes. Raw Honey: Bees make honey using nectar from flowers. Raw honey retains small amounts of vitamins and minerals and holds antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. It’s a great substitution for white sugar in coffee or tea, and it doesn’t increase blood sugar quite as much as sugar. It has been used for medicinal purposes through the ages, and some say eating local honey can help with seasonal allergies. Honey is one of the most sustainable natural sweeteners because it can be produced on one’s own property. But if beehives in the backyard aren’t on the bucket list, the best choice is buying raw honey from a local, small-scale producer. Local, raw, organic honey is one of the most sustainable natural sweeteners.  Photo: iStock   Maple Syrup or Coconut Sugar:   How are these two the same, one might ask? They are both made from tree sap. Maple syrup pours readily from maple trees and is boiled down to that thick delicious pancake topping. Coconut sugar is dehydrated coconut sap (and no, it does not taste like coconut). Both options are considered whole food sweeteners with vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. They are also very sweet and have more calories, carbs, and sugar than dieters will likely want to grapple with; however, its glycemic index—a measure of how food affects blood sugar levels—is lower than white sugar. Tip: Pour a bit of molasses over buckwheat pancakes.  Photo: Pexels Blackstrap Molasses:   A byproduct of the white sugar purification process, molasses contains iron and B vitamins. The thick texture of molasses can add moisture to baked goods, and its flavor adds depth to sauces. It is a bit high in calories and carbs, but it falls in the middle of the glycemic index, which means it’s better than white sugar. Molasses definitely has a niche as a sugar substitute and in a recipe like Boston Brown Bread , where molasses and raisins provide the sweetness, cooks may find blackstrap molasses a pantry staple. (Molasses fan hint: try just a little on buckwheat pancakes.) (2) Natural Non-Nutritive Sugar Substitutes Monk Fruit:   Also known as Luo Han Guo, monk fruit is crushed and the juice dehydrated to result in a dried powder. It’s a natural calorie-free sweetener with a glycemic index of zero, so it doesn't raise blood sugar levels. This is because monk fruit contains mogrosides, a natural compound that the body doesn't recognize as sugar or carbohydrates, and yet it’s about 200 times sweeter than table sugar.   It can be used in baked goods, beverages, and other foods; however, it should not be used for canning due to the lack of research on how the sweetener will affect the pH of canned goods.    Be sure to look for pure monk fruit sweetener [because] many monk fruit products contain additional ingredients, such as dextrose or erythritol, to balance the sweetness, but they can have adverse effects on health.   Be sure to look for pure monk fruit sweetener .  Many monk fruit products contain additional ingredients, such as dextrose or erythritol, to balance the sweetness, but they can have adverse effects on health. Erythritol and xylitol are manufactured “sugar alcohols” (neither sugar nor alcohol) that can cause  gastrointestinal irritation. More concerning are recent studies that suggest that erythritol may cause increased risk  of blood clotting, stroke, heart attack, and death in people at an elevated risk for developing heart disease.   The only drawback to pure monk fruit sweetener  is perhaps the cost. It is difficult to grow, expensive to import, and not readily available on grocery shelves. For a sugar-free dessert made with monk fruit sweetener, these Blueberry Cheesecake Bars  use just one bowl and seven ingredients. Sugar-free blueberry cheesecake bars can be made with monk fruit sweetener. Pexels Stevia:  Stevia is made from the South American plant Stevia rebaudiana. It is 200 to 400 times as sweet as sugar, so only use a tiny amount to sweeten foods. It's also calorie-free and safe  for people with medical conditions like high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes.   It’s popular as an addition to dressings, drinks, marinades, and sauces. Some people report that stevia leaves a bitter aftertaste in baked goods, even though there are stevia products specifically for baking. When cooking with stevia, look for recipes that are developed with measurements for stevia, such as these chocolate brownies .   As with monk fruit, stevia often has other chemical sweeteners (such as erythritol) added to it that may cause health issues.   Stevia is a fairly low-impact crop as it requires less land and processing than sugarcane. That being said, China is the biggest producer, and production methods there are not well documented. It is known that sustainable agriculture is not widespread  in China. Yacon syrup with tubers.  Photo: iStock Yacon Syrup:   Native to South America, yacon syrup comes from a root vegetable. The syrup is low-sugar and low-glycemic while containing nutrients and prebiotics. It is said to taste something like honey, with less sweetness. Yacon syrup makes a great substitute for table sugar or honey and only has about 20 calories per tablespoon compared to honey’s 64. The fiber in yacon can help relieve constipation and, alas, this means it can cause diarrhea in some people (especially those with irritable bowel syndrome or disease). Because the fiber is not digestible, it can also cause stomach upset and gas. Before becoming concerned about the side effects , though, consider that yacon syrup may be difficult to find and expensive.  Allulose:  Allulose  is derived from plants such as figs, kiwis, and raisins. It’s found in very small quantities, so it is rare; however, new technology is being developed to extract this sweetener on a larger scale.   Allulose doesn’t cause blood sugar spikes and can be used in recipes for baked goods, drinks, and frozen desserts without the increased calories of white sugar. Allulose doesn’t cause blood sugar spikes and can be used in recipes for baked goods, drinks, and frozen desserts without the increased calories of white sugar. Additionally, allulose does not have any of the unpleasant aftertastes associated with other natural sweeteners like stevia.   Unfortunately, human brains don’t know the difference between non-nutritive, nutritive, chemical, or any other sweetener. They just light up with the ding-ding-ding of the sugar reward and cause the desire for more sweets later.   But who says diners need a cookie or cake to call it dessert? Sun-dried persimmon is a naturally sweet snack in Asian cuisines and Nice Cream is a personal favorite dessert. Sliced persimmons from Vietnam. Pexels Strawberry-Banana Nice Cream Ingredients: 1 large banana 1 cup strawberries Directions: Cut the banana and strawberries into chunks and freeze. Once frozen, pulse in a food processor until smooth, scraping the sides when necessary. Pour into dishes and enjoy. Most any fruit works well with bananas in Nice Cream, a favorite at the author’s house.  Photo: Pexels For alternative or substitute sweeteners, try them in small amounts to be sure they agree with the body. Follow recipes created for sugar substitutes instead of doing a 1:1 replacement. As always, look for organic products to ensure purity. The Fairtrade  Mark is the only label that indicates a product  is certified by the most recognized ethical labeling system in the world. Overall sustainability is a little more difficult to ascertain, but one can start looking at how foods affect the environment and people at sites like Food Print  or Sustainable Brands .   Since humans probably won’t lose their affinity to sweets any time soon, new natural sweeteners will likely continue being found and developed. As plants are further explored and identified, there may be sweet and sustainable ingredients at the local market that haven’t been dreamed of yet. Perhaps there will be a candy mushroom or some sort of delectable seaweed discovered that revolutionizes the sugar industry. People can already grow their own herbs and spices at home; imagine being able to grow one’s own source of the perfect alternative sugar—wouldn’t that be sweet? *Julie Peterson   writes science-based articles about holistic health, environmental issues, and sustainable living from her small farm in Wisconsin.

As Deaths From ‘Superbugs’ Rise, Health Authorities Float Multiple Strategies   *By Richard Park Overuse  of antibiotics in animal agriculture can lead to anti-microbial resistance (AMR) in humans. istock   Antibiotics are among the greatest medical advances of the 20th century. Their widespread use has revolutionized healthcare, increased life expectancy worldwide, and saved countless lives by effectively treating bacterial infections that were once fatal.   However, this progress is threatened by the rise of “superbugs”—antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and, more broadly, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among various microscopic pathogens, including viruses and fungi.   As a result, medical researchers, drug developers, and pharmaceutical companies are joining with health authorities and NGOs to find effective approaches for controlling AMR. Their strategies include developing new treatments, encouraging the prudent use of antibiotics, and finding ways to stop the spread of resistant pathogens.   History of Antibiotics For millennia, diseases and life-threatening conditions caused by bacterial infection, such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, sepsis, and meningitis, were often deadly. In the mid-1300s, bubonic plague caused by the bacterium, Yersinia pestis , led to the Black Death , a pandemic that killed 75 million to 200 million people worldwide. But in the 20th century, these lethal diseases were turned into treatable conditions. The modern era of antibiotics began in 1928 with the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming. This event marked the beginning of a new class of drugs capable of effectively and selectively killing bacteria or inhibiting their growth.   By the 1940s, antibiotics had become widely available. Penicillin dramatically reduced mortality rates from wound infections during World War II and successfully treated the ancient disease of gonorrhea . In addition to curing existing infections, antibiotics enabled major medical advancements, such as safer surgeries and complex medical procedures, by greatly reducing the risk of post-surgical infections. Because of their remarkable effectiveness and cheap manufacturing costs, antibiotics have also become widely used in agriculture to improve animal health and productivity.   The World Health Organization (WHO) now lists germ resistance as one of the world’s leading health challenges, and millions of deaths are already attributed to microbial pathogens that do not respond to the classes of drugs that once destroyed them.   By the mid-20th century, antibiotics were hailed as miraculous wonder drugs. However, their overuse and misuse paved the way for the dangerous rise of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria or superbugs. The World Health Organization (WHO) now lists  AMR as one of the world’s leading health challenges, and millions of deaths are already attributed to microbial pathogens that do not respond to the classes of drugs that once destroyed them.   Development of Antibiotic Resistance The struggle over antibiotic resistance was not unexpected.   The first widely recognized instance of a superbug was the emergence of penicillin-resistant strains of the bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus , shortly after the mass use of penicillin during World War II. In 1959, a groundbreaking new antibiotic, methicillin, was developed to combat penicillin-resistant bacteria. But by 1961, strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus  (MRSA) were already identified. These sobering developments demonstrated the uncanny ability of bacteria to rapidly adapt to antibiotics and highlighted the necessity of cautious use and continued development of new treatments. Scanning electron micrograph of a human neutrophil ingesting MRSA. NIAID/ Wikimedia Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria—through genetic mutation, natural selection, and transfer of genetic elements—develop mechanisms to survive the drugs designed to kill them. The more antibiotics are used, the greater the selective pressure on bacteria, thereby accelerating their ability to develop resistance.   Eventually, the antibiotic eliminates the original bacterial strain, but the mutant bacteria that are impervious to the antibiotic remain and continue to multiply uncontrollably. When that happens, the once-miraculous antibiotic is no longer effective. A harmful bacterium that becomes resistant to several antibiotics has become a superbug.   Looming Global Health Crisis The increasing prevalence of AMR and superbugs poses a serious global health crisis because it could return humanity to a situation in which common infections could again be life-threatening.   According to a study published in 2022 in The Lancet and referenced in the CDC's 2019 Antibiotic Resistance Threats Report , bacterial AMR was estimated to have directly caused 1.27 million deaths globally in 2019.  Another study published in The Lancet  in 2024 found that, worldwide, an estimated “4.71 million deaths… were associated with bacterial AMR” in 2021 alone.   Although the 2024 study found that AMR-linked deaths fell by 50% among children under age 5 from 1990 to 2021, the death rate during the same period rose by more than 80% for adults 70 years and older.    Deaths from MRSA have doubled since 1990 to about 680,000 in 2021, the 2024 Lancet study said. “Resistance to carbapenems [broad-spectrum antibiotics] increased more than any other antibiotic class,” it added.   In 2016, the Review on Anti-Microbial Resistance projected that AMR deaths could surpass 10 million annually by 2050.   In 2016, the Review on Anti-Microbial Resistance  projected that AMR deaths could surpass 10 million annually by 2050 if the threat is not fully addressed. In addition, the World Bank estimates that AMR could reduce the global GDP by nearly 3.8% by 2050​.   Strategies to Deal with AMR In response to the burgeoning threat to humanity posed by AMR, a concerted global effort is underway. Various strategies have been implemented to combat this crisis, ensuring the continued efficacy of antibiotics and preserving public health. These strategies include:   Antibiotic stewardship. Antibiotic use is optimal when prescribed only when necessary to treat a known infection. Education and training for healthcare professionals can counter attitudes about prescribing antibiotics unnecessarily and encourage patient follow-up to ensure dosage compliance and track treatment outcomes. Surveillance and monitoring. Surveillance systems are necessary to track current antibiotic-resistant infections and to monitor trends over time. The WHO and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have established extensive surveillance networks. Development of new antibiotics. Given the rise in resistance, there's an urgent need for new classes of antibiotics. However, the pace of antibiotic discovery has slowed in recent decades, partly because antibiotics are less profitable for pharmaceutical companies compared to other drugs. Governments and health organizations need to incentivize antibiotic research and development through grants, subsidies, and public-private partnerships. Research and development of novel therapies. Alternative treatments to fight bacterial infections are being explored. Some of these include antimicrobial peptides, immunotherapies, and phage therapy, in which key viruses are deployed to attack certain bacterial pathogens. Reducing agricultural antibiotic use. Stricter regulations on the use of antibiotics in agriculture are essential. Policies should include improving animal welfare and hygiene to prevent infections and reduce the need for antibiotics. Global collaboration. AMR is a global issue requiring international cooperation. Global efforts, like the WHO’s Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance, can help combat resistance on an international scale. Global Efforts Underway This year, the WHO designated a full week  in November to AMR awareness and to sound warnings about the threat  of AMR.   Meanwhile, other global gatherings have been convened this year to address the AMR threat:   United Nations General Assembly High-Level Meeting (HLM) In September, the United Nations General Assembly  held the second High-level Meeting (HLM) on Antimicrobial Resistance. Nations committed to reducing the global number of deaths associated with bacterial AMR (4.95 million deaths in 2019) by 10% by 2030. The main thrust of the HLM’s “political declaration” was to set targets, such as “strengthening governance mechanisms for the response to AMR, using a One Health  approach, addressing AMR in human, animal and plant health.” “There is a great appetite to address the slow global, regional and national response that needs to be accelerated to address AMR and its dire effects on the One Health ecosystem,” said Dr. Mirfin Mpundu, director of ReAct Africa , at a UN plenary meeting held in February.     “There is a great appetite to address the slow global, regional and national response that needs to be accelerated to address AMR and its dire effects on the One Health ecosystem.” AMR global abundance map. Wikimedia World AMR Congress Also in September, the World AMR Congress  was held in Philadelphia, with speakers from government, science, and industry addressing AMR mitigation strategies “from fundamental research to commercial production.” Speakers included representatives from the US CDC and Department of Health and Human Services, as well as the AMR Action Fund , and CARB-X . ReAct Africa Regional AMR Conference In July, ReAct Africa co-hosted  the 2024 regional AMR annual conference in Zambia, under the theme “Global Accountability for AMR response: Investing in priorities for Africa.” The conference, funded in part by Wellcome Trust  and the Ministry of Health Zambia, facilitates cross-learning to strengthen “the development and implementation of AMR National Action Plans (NAPs)” in African nations. BEAM Annual AMR Conference In March, BEAM  (Biotech companies in Europe combating Antimicrobial Resistance) held its 8th Annual AMR Conference 2024, calling its gathering “the one-stop shop to catch up with the latest trends in the development of AMR products, by covering scientific, regulatory, financial and policy topics.” The BEAM conference typically brings together over 70 small to medium-sized European biotech and diagnostics companies that work to develop innovative products that fend off antibiotic-resistant pathogens. In addition, the BEAM Alliance supports “policies and incentives in antimicrobial research and development in Europe.” Such international collaboration, exemplified by global action plans and high-level commitments, underscores the recognition of AMR as a shared health challenge that transcends national borders. With millions of lives already affected and projections warning of increasing AMR-associated mortality rates if left unchecked, the need for a unified global response is called for. By implementing prudent antibiotic stewardship, developing novel treatments, administering stricter agricultural policies, and fostering strong international cooperation, there is real hope that the AMR crisis can be effectively mitigated. *Richard Park   has 29 years of experience as an infectious disease scientist in academia and the biotechnology industry. He received his Ph.D. in Biology from Johns Hopkins University, and has held academic positions at Johns Hopkins University, Cornell University, and Yale University. Dr. Park was also Director of Research at Nuclixbio, Inc. He is currently a junior research faculty member at Yale University.

Arctic Sea Ice Volume and Area on Downward Trends Since 1980   As one of two poles contributing to Earth’s magnetic field and the unofficially recognized home of Santa Claus, the North Pole is part of the arctic, with its tundra, polar bears, and marine life. Below are some facts on this mysterious, icy pole.   The North Pole is warmer than the South Pole partly due to how the North Pole is surrounded by land (North America and Asia), while the South Pole is completely surrounded by water, allowing for a persistent circumpolar current  that blocks it from warmer waters. However, the North Pole still has average temperatures  of 32°F in the summer and -40°F in the winter.  At the North Pole, the sun rises and sets once a year —leading to six months of continuous daylight (midnight sun) and six months of continuous night (polar night).  According to National Geographic , no one lives in the North Pole, but drifting stations (such as by Russia) are sent every year for research. One discovery from these drifting stations was the Lomonosov Ridge, an underwater mountain chain from Siberia to Ellesmere Island, Canada.  Polar bears rarely migrate to the North Pole, given its unpredictable habitat. There were about 26,000 bears  in 2023, living primarily above the Arctic Circle.   According to the Polar Science Center   of the University of Washington, arctic sea ice volume at the end of 2023 was 14,122 cubic kilometers (about 3,388 cubic miles). This was still higher than the 2017 low point of 12,800 cubic kilometers (about 3,070 cubic miles).  NASA  reported that the annual September “minimal arctic sea ice area”—a term for the extent of summer sea ice—has been decreasing by 12.2% per decade. In 1980, the area was 7.54 million square kilometers (about 2.91 million square miles); in 2024, it was 4.28 million square kilometers (about 1.65 million square miles).   Sources:   https://climatekids.nasa.gov/polar-temperatures/     https://www.americanoceans.org/facts/north-pole-vs-south-pole/     https://nsidc.org/learn/parts-cryosphere/arctic-weather-and-climate     https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/north-pole/     https://www.fws.gov/species/polar-bear-ursus-maritimus     https://psc.apl.uw.edu/research/projects/arctic-sea-ice-volume-anomaly/    https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice/?intent=121

Civil Initiative Leads Efforts to Restore These Clear, Freshwater Ecosystems *By Yasmin Prabhudas River Bure in Norfolk County, England.  Photo: National Trust, Justin Minns Southern England is home to unique freshwater ecosystems known as chalk streams. The name is derived from the rivers’ unusual chalk bedrock, formed during the Cretaceous period .    Teeming with flora and fauna, England’s chalk streams are at risk from pollution, runoff, and other kinds of degradation. However, initiatives such as the Catchment Based Approach (CaBA) Chalk Stream Restoration Group  is meeting the challenge of restoring these rare ecosystems.   Origins of Chalk Streams Charles Rangeley-Wilson , chair of the CaBA Group, notes how chalk “accreted” or accumulated on the bed of the ocean over 60 million or 70 million years in very warm seas. A tiny, single-celled creature called coccolithophores , a type of phytoplankton, became encased in plating of calcium carbonate known as coccoliths .   These creatures “rained down onto the floor of the sea and formed a sort of deep porridge-like ooze, … and then that became chalk when the sea level retreated. … And then, by various forms of plate tectonic activity, those beds of chalk were forced to the surface,” he explains.                                                                                                 While some limestone may have been formed in a similar way, older forms have been buried under subsequent layers of geology, making it much harder as it comes under pressure, says Rangeley-Wilson. The UK is home to chalk formations such as Hooken Cliff.  ©Andrew/ Flickr  ( CC BY 2.0 ) “Chalk is very, very soft,” he states. “And it’s almost completely soluble. If you put a piece of chalk into a bucket of water, let it soak through, and then took it out and just exerted the tiniest pressure on it, it would just crumble to nothing. So, the glaciers obviously destroyed most of the chalk and washed it away, leaving behind the chalk hills that form our chalk streams.”   This makes chalk useful as a writing tool for chalkboards as well as in agriculture to change the soil’s acidity and as a construction  material.   England’s Unique Chalk Streams There are about 300 chalk streams in the world, about 85% of which are in southern England, says Stewart Clarke , PhD, who is with the National Trust, a CaBA Group partner, and is a specialist on national freshwater, catchments, and estuaries.   There are about 300 chalk streams in the world, about 85% of which are in southern England, says Stewart Clarke, PhD.   He credits the climate in the south of England and other parts of northwestern Europe, like northern France and Denmark, for creating the ideal conditions for chalk streams.   “You can go to lots of parts of the world where there is chalk, but the valleys tend to be dry,” he explains. Chalk streams emerge when “there’s enough water around during the winter months to give you that groundwater,” he says. “So, it’s a particular set of circumstances the chalk geology gives you in ... southern England, northern France, that creates this unique habitat, and that’s why they’re so rare globally.”   Havens of Biodiversity Chalk streams have a distinct ecology. “In a natural situation, there’s this steady flow because the water coming out of the bedrock, [meaning] they tend to have a very even temperature regime,” says Clarke. As chalk streams are cool in summer but warm in winter, they can support certain species.   Clarke adds: “The filtering process also means that the water comes out very, very clean and very clear because it’s been forced through very tiny pores in the chalk bedrock.”   Because the water is clear, “lots of light gets to the bottom of the stream; we get plants like water crowfoot […] and now those plants growing submerged in the chalk stream create a set of habitat conditions in the river as well,” he says.   Salmon, brown trout and grayling, chub, barbel, roach, as well as the white-clawed native crayfish can all be found in chalk stream rivers. The habitat is also ideal for mammals, such as the water vole, otter, and beaver.   Clear, clean gravels are important for fish spawning and for invertebrates, like mayflies. Salmon, brown trout and grayling, chub, barbel, roach, as well as the white-clawed native crayfish can all be found in chalk stream rivers . The habitat is also ideal for mammals, such as the water vole, otter, and beaver. A water vole.  Photo: Peter Trimming ( CC BY-SA 2.0 ) Chalk streams are also carbon stores. The flood plains create the perfect conditions for the formation of peat , the remains of dead vegetation.   If peat dries out, carbon “gases off into the atmosphere,” but if it remains wet, carbon stays trapped within the peat, Rangeley-Wilson says.    Pollutants Endanger Chalk Streams This rare ecosystem is in danger, however. Water companies are guilty of abstraction, which involves draining the rivers for purposes such as irrigation and drinking water.   Pollution is another problem. Clarke states: Treated and untreated sewage from water companies “is one part of a bigger picture around sewage. In rural areas, lots of people are not on main drainages.” Thus, the septic tanks that people have in their homes “can be contributing, if they’re close to the river,” he says.   As reported by BBC  earlier this year, there are major concerns about sewage pollution in the River Kennet, one of England’s most important chalk streams and one of the largest tributaries to the Thames River.   Other pollutants, such as nutrients and sediment from agriculture as well as herbicides, also cause problems.   According to charity Wildfish Conservation’s 2021 Riverfly Census Report , about 26,200 tons of phosphorus are lost into the aquatic environment each year. Chemical pollution can form “an unknown, poisonous cocktail which can devastate freshwater biodiversity,” the report says. Sediment can also clog gills of fish, kill invertebrates and fish eggs, block out light, and bind to chemicals, causing them to remain in rivers for longer.   But that’s not all. Over time, rivers have been straightened and deepened, which means habitat variability has declined. Clarke says if rivers are altered, “you’ve effectively got a straight channel, just with water in it; you’ve got less opportunity for plants to take up and soak up nutrients.” And water is carried away much faster.   River Restoration Work The CaBA Group has established an agreed -upon set of actions to tackle these problems in Norfolk and Lincolnshire. The communities, water companies, industry, the government, environmental regulators, and individuals are all involved.   Rangeley-Wilson claims: “The restoration work has to be three-dimensional. … You’ve got to address the water quality, the pollution, … the over-abstraction and … the fact that we’ve changed the rivers physically.”   Rangeley-Wilson claims: “The restoration work has to be three-dimensional. … You’ve got to address the water quality, the pollution, … the over-abstraction and … the fact that we’ve changed the rivers physically.” River Stiffkey in 2016.  © Hugh Venables  ( CC BY-SA 2.0 ) For instance, in Norfolk, long sections of rivers like the Nar and Stiffkey have been moved from their channels and re-established as meandering rivers across the flood plain. In collaboration with Norfolk Rivers Trust, a 2-kilometer section  of River Stiffkey was reunited with its floodplain in 2023, and results have shown improved numbers of fish and a diversity and abundance of insect and plant life.   Restoration work on the River Bure , also in Norfolk, included working with farmers to create a track to redirect silt-laden water into a silt trap. They then clean water through the installation of dams and an outfall pipe to collect and hold water, so sands and soil can “drop out . ” Deadwood and overhanging vegetation were also removed to provide wildlife and plant habitat.   Silvergate  stream runs through the Blickling Estate before joining River Bure. Photo: National Trust, Justin Minns Elsewhere,  Chalk Streams of Lincolnshire have been improving rivers around the Lincolnshire Wolds . The River Rase had been widened and diverted to power a water mill. Silt had eroded the banks, and there were overhanging trees. Recent restoration work involved narrowing the river by repairing the banks and protecting them with coir (fibrous material from coconut husk) matting, and introducing a chalk lining, along with a mix of gravel.   Volunteers Play a Key Role Volunteers help create new channels using diggers, monitor water quality, and collect samples to build up a picture of the species living in the river—for example through the Riverfly Monitoring Initiative.   Volunteers help create new channels using diggers, monitor water quality, and collect samples to build up a picture of the species living in the river—for example through the Riverfly Monitoring Initiative . Jade Oliver , who has volunteered at the Lincolnshire Chalk Streams project, says mornings consisted of conducting a Riverfly survey  at one of the chalk streams in the Lincolnshire Wolds.   She adds: “Waders on, it’s time for a kick sample, after which we identify the invertebrates found to use as a guide to the chalk stream’s health.” A volunteer takes a sample collection from River Bure.  Photo: Natural Trust Oliver also logs in to images from night vision cameras to establish the whereabouts of mammals, such as the water vole and otter.   “One of my favorite things about volunteering is learning all about the amazing local wildlife found around our rare and beautiful chalk streams, teaching other people to love it too, and getting hands on and out and about in this incredibly varied and rewarding volunteer role,” she concludes. *Yasmin Prabhudas  is a freelance journalist working mainly for non-profit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

Smackover Formation’s 5+ Million Tons Could Exceed Global Demand USGS . Public Domain A potential “ game-changer ”   lithium reserve has been discovered in southwestern Arkansas, says a recent US Geological Survey (USGS) study. There are an estimated 5 million to 19 million tons of lithium reserves in the Smackover Formation, a Jurassic-era limestone and dolomite area that stretches across six states from Texas to Florida. If commercially harvested from the Smackover oilfield brines, the lithium would contribute greatly to US domestic energy resources, the USGS  said. “Using these predicted lithium maps with reservoir parameters and geologic information, we calculated that there are 5.1 to 19 million tons of lithium in Smackover Formation brines in southern Arkansas, which represents 35% to 136% of the current US lithium resource estimate,” wrote Katherine J. Knierim, lead author of the USGS study published in Science Advances  in September. The discovery also has global implications. “The low-end estimate of 5 million tons of lithium present in Smackover brines is also equivalent to more than nine times the International Energy Agency’s projection of global lithium demand for electric vehicles in 2030,” the USGS  said. According to Statistia.com , global demand for lithium is projected to rise “from 720,000 metric tons in 2022 to 3.1 million metric tons” in 2030. Much of this growth is due to the market for electric vehicles batteries. The new lithium discovery, which was done using a combination of water testing and machine learning, was described as a “ treasure trove ,” by industry newsletter Supply Chain Dive . It could also be “a game changer” for the US domestic production of lithium, the newsletter said. Currently, 60% of the world’s lithium  is produced in Chile, Argentina, China, and in Nevada’s Clayton Valley in the US. Currently, the US relies on imports for more than 25% of its lithium. Lithium and Brine According to the study, the Smackover lithium reserves are dissolved in brine at concentrations as great as 400 milligrams of lithium per liter of brine, or more. The lithium was brought to the surface within brines that were produced as waste streams from oil, gas, and bromine operations. The researchers calculated that 5,000 tons of dissolved lithium were brought to the surface within brines in 2022, citing the opportunity of potentially extracting a valuable commodity from a waste stream. Though lithium recovery technologies from brines are still in the testing and implementation phase , Metal Tech News reports that Mobil Lithium (a division of ExxonMobil), Albemarle Corp. (the world's largest lithium producer), and Standard Lithium Ltd (a US Department of Energy grant recipient for its South West Arkansas lithium project), are all working to develop the commercialization of direct lithium extraction technology . Albemarle Corporation Lithium Operation at Silver Peak, Nevada.  © Wikimedia /formulanone ( CC BY-SA 2.0 ) "We have the technology that can extract lithium with fewer carbon emissions,” said Patrick Howarth, lithium global business manager at ExxonMobil Low Carbon Solutions. Stanford Direct   reported  in August 2024 that Stanford University researchers had developed  a lithium extraction method that promises to be far cheaper and more environmentally friendly than current brine extraction methods using drying ponds. The USGS Study Backstory In the USGS-led study, the researchers used “published and newly collected brine lithium concentration data” to train a “ random forest machine-learning model ” and create a continuous spatial map of predicted lithium in Smackover Formation brines. These were then used “with geologic and reservoir characteristics—such as formation thickness, porosity, and water-to-oil ratios” to calculate the mass of lithium in the brines. Prior to the USGS-led study, scientists were already aware of the presence of lithium in oil field brine waste streams at various concentrations and volumes at locations within the Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania, for instance, and were aware that using   machine-learning models trained with “explanatory” geologic variables might help predict groundwater chemistry. There had also been investigations into how brine geochemistry can help predict lithium in the Smackover Formation, but, according to the USGS-led team, that investigation had “only predicted lithium at brine sample locations.” According to the team, two of the five most important variables for predicting lithium in Smackover brines were dissolved hydrogen sulfide (H2S) concentrations in the brines and the depth of the brine samples. They said other geologic information may become important for predicting lithium quantities and can be tested in future modeling efforts. Sources: https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/unlocking-arkansas-hidden-treasure-usgs-uses-machine-learning-show-large https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp8149   https://www.sciencealert.com/a-giant-hidden-source-of-lithium-was-just-discovered-in-arkansas https://www.foxbusiness.com/economy/massive-lithium-discovery-california-could-boon-us-supplyhttps://www.techspot.com/news/105252-massive-lithium-reserve-discovered-arkansas-could-power-global.html#:~:text=A%20joint%20study%20led%20by%20the%20US%20Geological,for%20lithium%20in%20car%20batteries%20nine%20times%20over . https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/unlocking-arkansas-hidden-treasure-usgs-uses-machine-learning-show-large https://www.sciencealert.com/a-vast-untapped-source-of-lithium-exists-in-the-us https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/lithium-smackover-formation https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/21fd/b1311d417523bd7e4fcd70bca39573688d23.pdf

Soil is essential for life on this planet by storing water and nutrients, providing habitats, and taking up and releasing gases (such as oxygen and greenhouse gases). In light of  World Soil Day  on December 5, first designated in 2014 to focus on the importance of healthy soil and sustainable management of soil resources by the UN General Assembly, below are some facts on this life-giving substance that covers 25% of the Earth.   Ideal soil  is said to be 50% pore space (for water and air), 5% organic matter (organisms, sugars, and plant matter), and 45% minerals (such as sand, silt, and clay).  Soil is considered a renewable resource but with an extremely slow formation rate—one inch of topsoil can take hundreds to over a thousand years  to form depending on the region.  Soil is categorized into six horizons  (layers) given by a single letter: O, A, E, B, C, and R. For simplicity, “O” is the organic layer (with humus), “A” is topsoil, and “R” is bedrock.  Earthworms  are beneficial to soil by increasing its porosity (for water), excreting materials with beneficial microbes, and consuming dry matter and mixing it with the soil.  The US Department of Agriculture has a Soil Textural Triangle  to help determine the type of soil based on percentage of clay, silt, and sand found once separated. For example, soil that is 30% sand, 35% clay, and 35% silt is clay loam.  To raise awareness about the importance of creating and maintaining healthy soil, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) established World Soil Day in 2014.  According to  the FAO, “33% of the Earth’s soils are already degraded and over 90% could become degraded by 2050.”    Sources:   https://digital-media.fao.org/CS.aspx?VP3=SearchResult&VBID=2A6XUVAWZV15&PN=1&WS=PackagePres    https://extension.sdstate.edu/what-makes-healthy-soil    https://www.soils.org/about-soils/basics/   https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/what-are-soils-67647639/    https://extension.psu.edu/earthworms   https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-11/Texture%20and%20Structure%20-%20Soil%20Health%20Guide_0.pdf    https://www.fao.org/about/meetings/soil-erosion-symposium/key-messages/en/