A team of California-based researchers released in September the results of a study they say has succeeded in determining what was fueling deadly US wildfires—at least those in the Sierra Madre mountains—once the fires had ignited. Although the study’s authors acknowledge the role that climate change plays in increasing wildfire intensity, they suggest that two other culprits are mostly to blame. The first is the actual fuel itself: large trees whose particles were found in the team’s smoke specimens. The second culprit is the forest management practice that allows the accumulation and preservation of larger trees, as well as thick underbrush kindling. The researchers say their unique method of using a “ground-based mobile laboratory” at the site of the KNP Complex Fire (2021) helped them study the key fuel source that kept the wildfires blazing. The research team onsite in the mobile lab measured concentrations of “fine airborne PM (PM2.5)” during a 26-hour sampling period on October 2–3, 2021, amid ongoing fires from their outset of September 9. Based on their results, they were able to estimate that the mean age of fuels burned in the KNP Complex Fire was 40 years, with “a range of 29–57 years.” The authors concluded that their study provides “evidence for emissions originating from woody biomass, larger-diameter fine fuels, and coarse woody debris that have accumulated over multiple decades.” This, they added, matches independent field observations indicating that high fire intensity contributed to widespread death among giant sequoia trees, a revered species within the zone of the KNP Complex Fire (see image above). Not only did the team succeed in identifying important wildfire fuel sources in the region, but with the employment of prescribed fires in California already planned in the next ten years (to reduce wildfire impacts), they think their unique measurement methodology can potentially provide “regionally integrated estimates” of the effectiveness of future fuel treatment programs. Source: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/aced17

In 2023, Pew Research Center released a report on US attitudes toward climate change and found that age, among other things, will likely drive environmental action and awareness forward. Here are some takeaways from their research. According to Pew, about two-thirds (67%) of US adults want the country to “prioritize developing renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar,” over fossil fuels, 2% down from last year. Of US adults ages 18 to 29, 48% want the US to use renewables exclusively. However, 52% prefer the US to use a “mix of energy sources, including fossil fuels,” a view shared by a majority of all other age groups. Only 7% of US adults want the federal government to discourage the domestic production of renewable power, while 26% think it should stay neutral, neither encouraging nor discouraging it, which are decreases from 8% and 28%, respectively, from last year. Most US adults (58%) say state elected officials are not doing enough to address climate change. A similar majority (55%) say the same of the energy industry. Among US adults, 54% describe climate change as a “major threat to the country’s well-being,” down 4% from 2020. Only 37% of Americans say addressing climate change “should be a top priority for the president and Congress in 2023,” while 34% say it is important, but a lower priority. As a result, climate change ranks “17th out of 21 national issues included in a Center survey” from January 2023. Among US adults, 61% say global climate change “is affecting their local community either a great deal or some,” while 39% see “little or no impact in their own community.” While 74% say they support US participation in international efforts to reduce the effects of climate change, only 36% say the US is doing more than other large economies to mitigate the international impacts of climate change, up from 67% and 32%, respectively, from last year. Sources: https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/08/09/what-the-data-says-about-americans-views-of-climate-change/ https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/03/01/americans-largely-favor-u-s-taking-steps-to-become-carbon-neutral-by-2050/

First Step in TEPCO’s Long-term Strategy Garners Approval, Condemnation Japan’s now-defunct Fukushima Daichi nuclear facility, destroyed during the catastrophic 2011 tsunami that struck the nation’s northeast coast, recently reported its first-ever release of treated, radioactive wastewater into the nearby Pacific Ocean. Tokyo Electric Power Company Holdings (TEPCO), the plant’s operator, said that it had completed the release of 7,800 tons of treated water from ten tanks in a discharge that spanned seventeen days, beginning on August 24. Despite safety reassurances by the plant’s operator, scientists, and the International Atomic Energy Association (IAEA), the move was condemned by Japanese fishermen, environmental activists, and the Chinese government, which responded by banning imports of Japanese seafood. However, Prof. Jim Smith, an environmental scientist at the UK’s University of Portsmouth who specializes in the consequences of radioactive pollutants in the environment, was quoted in a news brief by NPR, saying, “I would call it not a risk at all.” “We've got to put radiation in perspective, and the plant release—if it's done properly—then the doses that people get and the doses that the ecosystem get just won't be significant, in my opinion,” Prof. Smith said. Less optimistic is Edwin Lyman, a nuclear power safety expert at the Union of Concerned Scientists in Washington, D.C. The “current plan, unfortunately, is probably the least bad of a bunch of bad options,” he says. Japanese fishermen are adamantly opposed to the release, based on its feared impact on their livelihoods, even if it is safe. Not long after the release began, they filed suit in Fukushima District Court to halt it, according to AP World News. This first release, part of a long-term strategy, is not likely to be the last. US News and World Report says more than 1.25 million tons of radioactive wastewater are stored in nearly 1,000 tanks at the facility. According to the IAEA, TEPCO evaluated potential exposure of the public, assuming two possible accident scenarios: “one where about 10,000 m3 of undiluted treated water leaks from 1 tank group into the sea accidentally over 20 days, and one where about 30,000 m3 of undiluted treated water is accidentally discharged over one day from 3 tank groups.” The radiation dose calculated for an adult, says the IAEA, is “in the range of 0.0002 (2E-04) mSv to 0.01(1E-02) mSv” for both accident scenarios. In both, TEPCO “conservatively assessed all exposure pathways, and confirmed that the exposure of the representative person living near the power plant would be well below 5 mSv per event,” which is consistent with the established international safety standards in the event of an accident.

Try these global recipes—from pumpkin bowls to muffins that ‘pop’ By Julie Peterson* Pumpkin is truly a global favorite for its deep cultural roots, thick creamy texture, earthy taste, and nourishing, calming touch. Ready for pumpkin immersion? It’s all here, cucurbit lovers. Why Pumpkin Says ‘Autumn’ Nothing says “fall is here” more than a variety of pumpkins arranged on the porch, in the entryway, as a table centerpiece, or piled up at a farmer’s market. But—to no one’s surprise—pumpkins are not just for décor. Properly stored, many varieties of pumpkins can be kept for three months to a year, giving one the opportunity to use this beneficial food well into the new year. Cultivated and available globally, pumpkin is a tasty and nutritious food. Botanically categorized as fruit, pumpkins are part of the Cucurbitaceae family, along with other squash like zucchini and butternut. There are about 150 varieties of pumpkins, so put aside thoughts that orange jack-o-lanterns are THE pumpkin. Pumpkins come in many shapes, sizes, and peel colors that can range from white, beige, pink, orange, green, blue, or black, along with multi-colored varieties with stripes, spots, and splotches. The peel can also be smooth, ribbed, nubbly, warty, blistered, knobby, or veined and pumpkin seeds vary in size and texture, as well. Throw in the colors, flavors, and textures of the inner flesh of pumpkins, and it’s little wonder that pumpkin offers a multitude of global culinary delights. Delicious and Good for You The bright orange flesh of pumpkins carries lots of beta-carotene, which is an antioxidant that the body converts to vitamin A. This essential vitamin helps fight infections, keeps skin and bones healthy, preserves vision, regulates cell growth, and reduces inflammation. One cup of pumpkin provides more than 200% of the recommended daily allowance. Other immune-boosters that pumpkin provides include vitamin C, vitamin E, iron, and folate. And pumpkin is also loaded with potassium, which has been shown in studies to regulate blood pressure, and lower risk of stroke, kidney stones, and type 2 diabetes. Bowl Them Over with Pumpkin Besides the classic pumpkin pie and roasted pumpkin seeds, recipes abound for pumpkin that is pickled, candied, pureed, fried, stewed, and baked. Whole pumpkins, seeds removed, can be filled with a wide variety of ingredients and then baked, providing a charming presentation in a pumpkin bowl. Try this meal in a pumpkin recipe for starters and then imagine the soups, rice dishes, and casseroles that could be baked in—and served in—a scrumptious pumpkin. Cheesy spinach and pasta in a pumpkin bowl screams appétissant! in this French onion gruyere bake. Another delightful way to serve pumpkin bowls is to bake the pumpkin first and then serve it hot or chilled, depending on what it will hold. Take A Global Pumpkin Recipe Tour Since pumpkin is enjoyed worldwide in a variety of daily and holiday dishes—from full meals to side dishes to desserts—come take a trip around the globe to sample some pumpkin delectations! Armenia Ghapama is a stuffed, baked pumpkin filled with buttery rice; dried plums, apricots, and cherries; raisins; cinnamon; honey; and nuts. It’s a festive dish that is filled with heartwarming nutrients. China More pumpkins are grown and eaten in China than any other country. Pumpkin dumplings, pumpkin fried with salted egg yolk, and the crunchy and gooey dessert of fried pumpkin cakes are just a few ways pumpkin makes it to the table in China. India India is the second largest producer of pumpkins and they are used as an important staple in Indian cuisine. A key ingredient in many holiday dishes, pumpkin also finds its way into every day dishes such as pumpkin flatbread, curries, fritters, and pumpkin sabzi, which is slow cooked with spices and has many variations. Japan These uniquely spiced Curry Kabocha Crumble Muffins have Japanese curry powder in addition to cinnamon and nutmeg and a crumbly crisp topping that includes oranges, coconut, and brown sugar. Truly a sweet and savory treat. Mexico The smell of this candied pumpkin dessert slow cooking in a large pot on the stove for hours promises to warm the heart and create anticipation for the sweet treat to come. South Africa Made as a dessert with cinnamon and sugar or as a savory dish with venison or ham, these pumpkin fritters are a comfort food that combines sweet and spicy. Two Simple Side Dishes It’s also fine to simply cook and eat the pumpkin! It works great as a side dish or a simple lunch. Roasted Pumpkin Cut a pumpkin in half and scoop out the seeds. Slice pumpkin into wedges and drizzle with olive oil, season with salt and pepper, and roast in a 400 ⁰F oven for about 25 minutes or until tender. Don’t forget to save and roast the pumpkin seeds because they are packed with protein, fiber, minerals, and healthy fats. Roasted Pumpkin Seeds Scoop out pulp, stringy fibers, and raw seeds from a pumpkin. Place in a colander and separate seeds from pulp (as much as possible). Place seeds between towels to remove excess moisture. Toss the seeds in a bowl with olive oil and seasonings of choice. (Popular seasoning combinations include salt, garlic powder, and paprika; or spice it up with salt, pepper, and chili powder; or go sweet with maple sugar and cinnamon.) Spread the seeds evenly on a lightly greased cookie sheet and roast at 350 °F for about 15 minutes, stirring the seeds now and then for even browning. They are done when golden brown. (Note that large seeds may take twice as long to get crispy. When in doubt, take one out, cool it a bit, and taste test!) In 2022, researchers from around the world published a review summarizing the relevant literature that highlights the health benefits of pumpkin including the seeds, flesh, and peel. See the article from the National Library of Medicine for a deep dive into the Nutritional Value, Phytochemical Potential, and Therapeutic Benefits of Pumpkin. Soon, the sight of a beautiful pile of pumpkins in all sorts of shapes and colors can take on a whole new meaning: Don’t just think décor, think dinner! *Julie Peterson is a freelance journalist based in the Midwest region of the US who has written hundreds of articles on natural approaches to health, environmental issues, and sustainable living.

Coral Reef Study Reveals Surprising Findings An ambitious, two-year study of coral ecosystems known as the Tara Pacific expedition was recently completed, offering a new look at the biodiversity of coral reefs and a reference point for studying the biology of coral reefs during the modern period of the Anthropocene. The study’s findings were published in June 2023 in Nature Communications. The project’s extensive sampling and research were conducted aboard the Tara, a schooner after which the expedition was named. While at sea, the team sampled the coral ecosystems of thirty-two islands in the Pacific Ocean and ocean surface waters at 249 locations. This resulted in the collection of nearly 58,000 samples, using “various approaches.” As reported by Phys.org, a team of seventy scientists from eight nations were involved in the study with the project’s scientific coordinator, Dr. Christian Voolstra, professor of genetics of adaptation in aquatic systems at the University of Konstanz. The team reported a surprising conclusion from their findings: “We have been completely underestimating the global microbial biodiversity,” says Dr. Voolstra. Indeed, the current estimate of planetary microbial biodiversity—of around five million bacteria—is underestimated by nearly a factor of ten, he says. In other words, the planet may have ten times more biodiversity than previously thought. How can this be? According to the Phys.org news brief, coral reefs are the most “biologically diverse marine ecosystem on Earth.” Even though they cover just 0.16% of the world's oceans, they house about “35% of known marine species.” By using a “genetic marker-based data set,” the Tara Pacific researchers discovered that “all of the globally estimated bacterial biodiversity” can be found in the microorganisms of coral reefs.

USGS Geologist Lays Out the Unprecedented Challenges Ahead By Gordon Cairns* A devastating chain of events—believed to have started with strong winds toppling over electric power lines onto a section of overgrown land on the Hawaiian island of Maui—has caused the US’s deadliest fire in over a century, as well as the potentially disastrous contamination of a pristine coral reef. Yet the groundwork for Lahaina’s August inferno was started a long time ago, due to human intervention in a natural paradise. When the Kingdom of Hawaii became a sovereign state at the end of the 18th century, this historic coastal town was called the “Venice of the Pacific.” An abundance of water flowed through the area’s streams, waterways, and canals from the nearby West Maui Mountains, where as much as 375 inches of rain falls every year. But in the intervening years, massive pineapple and sugar cane plantations were established, not only stripping out the biodiversity of the island but also diverting the plentiful water sources to hydrate the thirsty crops. Meanwhile invasive guinea grass was introduced to feed the growing herds of imported livestock that filled land not taken up by crops. Eventually these vast plantations closed, leaving behind a dry and barren landscape, a quarter of which is now covered by invasive grasses that can serve as kindling for the spread of fires. The August wildfires were the deadliest yet, turning more than 2,200 buildings into burned-out shells, tragically taking at least 98 lives and leaving thousands of residents homeless. But while wildfire destruction is becoming more common around the world, the situation in Lahaina is uniquely tragic. Close to the shore sits a tropical coral reef, which is at risk of contamination from toxic runoff from the debris of a modern town reduced to cinders. Ash tainted with contaminants, such as asbestos, lead and arsenic, is blowing into the ocean. USGS Priorities: Townsfolk Before Reefs The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is one of many government agencies coming to the aid of the islands in the aftermath of the disaster. USGS research geologist Curt Storlazzi stresses the importance of prioritizing the needs of the townsfolk before the coral reef: “First and foremost, we have to worry about the town rebuild, and then the next most important thing we have to think about is the reefs and what they mean to the people.” “First and foremost, we have to worry about the town rebuild, and then the next most important thing we have to think about is the reefs and what they mean to the people.” “It might be very minor compared to the loss of lives and housing,” he tells The Earth & I. “But after that, [the reef] is the next most important thing to the local community and that’s why they have asked us to come and help them.” He outlines the problem for the reef—an organism which thrives on purity—situated close to a source of pollution. The chemicals and metals released by the burning buildings, vehicles, boats, and modern human accessories entered the clear waters of the ocean. “Coral reef usually grows in clear, oligotrophic—or nutrient-poor—water, and now a lot of structures were burned and so there’s a lot of nutrients, there’s a lot of contaminants, there’s a lot of material, there’s a lot of ash that has gotten into the coastal ocean, making it very turbid,” Storlazzi says. “The water is now no longer clear, no longer oligotrophic—it’s now nutrient-rich, and there is a lot of contaminants in there. These are all things which will stress the near shore coral reef ecosystem.” Impacts on Livelihoods and Food “Not only will [the contaminants] stress the ecosystem—a lot of local folk fish those waters, and those nutrients and contaminants can get up into the food chain,” Storlazzi says. As part of the short-term disaster relief effort, the USGS sent out equipment, such as active sensors, to measure how nutrients are affecting the pH levels of the ocean, as they can cause coastal acidification and make the reef dissolve. While the vessels that went down in the harbor and just offshore are being recovered by the U.S. Coast Guard and the State of Hawaii, an ocean cleanup is a far more difficult task. The pollutants in the water cannot simply be scooped out but will have to be cleansed by nature, gradually: “Basically, the ocean will flush out the reefs, but it takes time, as we have just put a massive input of new material in,” Storlazzi says. [T]hey cannot rely on historical data and so are still in the very early stages of their work. This will take time: Contaminant analysis is expensive and turnover time in laboratories can take months. As far as Storlazzi is aware, a land-based runoff of sediments, nutrients, and contaminants impacting a coral reef is unique in US history. The current catastrophe can only be compared to events in World War II when tankers and ships were torpedoed in Hawaii, Guam, and the Florida Keys, causing great destruction. Meanwhile, other marine scientists, such as Andrea Kealoha of the University of Hawaii's oceanography department, are working hard to understand the impact of an urban fire on coral reef health. As far as they are aware, this has never occurred before, and they cannot rely on historical data and so are still in the very early stages of their work. This will take time: Contaminant analysis is expensive, and turnover time in laboratories can take months. Lessons from Hurricane Maria Although the Lahaina disaster is unprecedented, possible solutions have been applied elsewhere in the world. Storlazzi explains: “Coral reefs have been smashed before, and other countries around the world have looked to nature-based solutions to better provide services to local communities in the aftermath.” Puerto Rico’s response to the damage caused by the storms of 2017 may be relevant to Lahaina’s plight: “The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) just awarded Puerto Rico $38.6 million to restore and even improve those reefs which were damaged in the tropical storms of 2017 to provide coastal protection, making those coastal communities more resilient to increased storminess and sea level rise,” Storlazzi says. FEMA officials say the Puerto Rico hazard migration grant was the first time money has been allocated as part of a federal disaster risk reduction policy to restore a natural resource to protect survivors after a disaster. The work is painstaking. Scientists extract living coral fragments 10-to-15 feet below the surface, clean the damaged pieces, and store them in an area free of sand and rocks for six months. The restoration team then prepares a special cement epoxy that is carried in buckets to the sea floor by divers to glue the cleaned-up coral to the reefs. The results are worthwhile—this project will shelter 800 buildings on the shore, as well as protect endangered sea turtles that lay their eggs on the beach in nesting season. Storlazzi thinks a similar approach in Hawaii would be equally positive, supported by the scientific knowledge of the USGS. “This is one thing the State of Hawaii may look to do, not only to bring those reefs back to where they were, but in the longer term enhanced to provide coastal protection, to act like a submerged break water,” he says. The longer-term role will be to provide guidance so that the investment and rebuilding can be done as cost-effectively as possible: “Can we do that in a way that is safer, works better with nature, is increasingly resilient to future storms and sea level rising?” Prepping for Future Resilience Storlazzi was on one of the writing teams of the 5th National Climate Assessment for the Pacific, which is scheduled for publication in Fall 2023. One of the concerns examined is how to make villages, towns, and cities safer in a future where the possibility of these kinds of events are on the increase due to decreasing rainfall, increasing lightning, and climatic changes affecting vegetation. “We don’t want these things to happen, but one of the missions of the USGS is to learn from these events to prepare for the future. If we don’t learn, it makes the disaster even worse.” He says: “The projections are there is more likely to be more fires in the Pacific islands in the future. Anything we can learn here will not only help now but also will be increasingly important down the road.” He stresses: “We don’t want these things to happen, but one of the missions of the USGS is to learn from these events to prepare for the future. If we don’t learn, it makes the disaster even worse.” Unfortunately, the Lahaina fire is only the latest risk to the islands’ coral reef. As well as making wildfires more likely, climate change has also had a long-term impact on coral reef decline. Since 2009, the United Nations-supported Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network has found that 1% of coral reef are lost each year—14% across the globe have disappeared—and the reefs off West Maui haven’t been spared. Coupled with this, in 2015, almost half of the coral here was lost to coral bleaching. Of course, coral reefs are more than beautiful buffers around a shoreline. “Coral reefs are extremely important to the local economy of Hawaii, and this is mainly driven by tourism—they want to snorkel in those reefs, they want to sit on those beaches on sand generated by those reefs, they want to go fishing in the waters of those reefs,” Storlazzi says. One of the most important things the coral reefs do is protect those coastal communities, and that provides tens of millions [of dollars] throughout the State of Hawaii, over $800 million a year in protection, he adds. “The reefs are part of the Hawaiian creation story, the social fabric of the place.” It seems clear that the reefs will not only be central to the creation story but also to the future narrative of Hawaii, providing safety, pleasure, and prosperity—this time aided by human intervention. Our islands need healing, our islands need cleansing of the land, our people need healing, our children need healing. Aloha, true pure Aloha will bring true healing to overcome this tragedy. Aloha kekahi i kekahi, Aloha ʻāina, Aloha i ka wai [Love for and to each other, Love of the land, Love for the waters]. —Kahu Pohāleo Lokoʻolu Quintero *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

The Congressional Research Service (CRS), which conducts nonpartisan policy research for the US Congress, issued a report in mid-2023 called "Wildfire Statistics." The CRS defines wildfires as “unplanned fires, including lightning-caused fires, unauthorized human-caused fires, and escaped fires from prescribed burn projects.” Using data from the National Interagency Coordination Center (NICC), the CRS report shows the number of annual wildfires, though variable, decreased slightly over the last 30 years. Meanwhile, the affected acreage increased annually. It should be noted that acreage burned “does not indicate the severity of a wildfire” or its impact on forests and soils. From 2000 to 2022, an average of 70,025 wildfires have burned an average of 7.0 million acres (about the area of Belgium) annually. That is more than double the average annual acreage burned in the 1990s (3.3 million acres). However, the 1990s averaged more fires annually (78,600). In 2022, 68,988 wildfires burned 7.6 million acres. More than 40% of those acres were in Alaska (3.1 million acres). By June 1, 2023, about 18,300 wildfires had burned over 511,000 acres (about half the area of Rhode Island) in the US. About 89% of the average number of wildfires from 2018 to 2022 (or about 52,600 fires) were caused by humans. Wildfires caused by lightning burned 53% of the average annual acreage affected from 2018 to 2022. In 2022, 52% of US acreage burned by wildfires was on federal lands (4.0 million acres). However, wildfires on state, local, or privately owned lands accounted for 83% of total fires. In 2022, over 2,700 structures were burned in wildfires, most of which were in California. Of the 1.6 million wildfires since 2000, 254 burned over 100,000 acres (about half the area of San Antonio, Texas) and sixteen burned more than 500,000 acres (about the area of Yosemite National Park). Source: https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10244

Plastics Comprise 85 Percent of Trash Accumulating in the Earth’s Oceans By Cassie Journigan* Marine litter—first recognized, anecdotally, in the 1960s—has been a serious environmental concern since the 1980s, according to the 2015 book, Marine Anthropogenic Litter. But while today’s sources of litter are many and its effects are still growing, major efforts are underway to address the issue. Individuals, organizations, communities, and nations can all lend a hand. What is Marine Litter or Debris? Marine litter (or marine debris) refers to objects made of anything manufactured. It includes small pieces of trash, like cigarette butts, grocery bags, and plastic bottles, and massive items, like construction waste, commercial fishing tackle, and even ships. In the U.S., marine debris is legally defined as “any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or the Great Lakes” (33 U.S. Code § 1956). The vast accumulation and ongoing supply of debris presents a threat to oceans and other water bodies. It can wipe out the lives of all kinds of marine life, from individual mammals, fish, and plants to entire ecosystems, as emphasized by Stephen Guertin, deputy director at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior, in 2019. The loss is not only felt in the natural world; it also impacts the livelihoods and lives of those who live, work, or play on or near the water. Sources of Marine Litter Marine litter finds its way into the planet's oceans and beaches through many avenues, such as being blown in by winds, being deliberately abandoned in the water, pumped in as sewage, and as river trash carried oceanward by stormwater. Natural events like hurricanes or tornados contribute to loads of marine litter ending up in the oceans. About 80% of ocean plastic pollution is from land-based sources, while the remaining 20% is from water-based sources, including offshore industrial operations, offshore drilling, and aquaculture, as well as shipping containers or vessels themselves. The three major sources of marine debris are, therefore, land, water-based sources, or a natural disaster, such as a major weather or geological event. The biggest type of marine debris is plastics, which account for 85% of all marine waste, according to the United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) 2021 report. About 80% of ocean plastic pollution is from land-based sources, while the remaining 20% is from water-based sources, including offshore industrial operations, offshore drilling, and aquaculture, as well as shipping containers or vessels themselves. Debris arising from seagoing activities can include large shipping containers that fall or get blown off seagoing cargo vessels. Other types of debris are the nets, lines, floats, buoys, and crab pots familiar to fishing enthusiasts, and items also seen with land-based activities, including plastic containers and other common, everyday household items. How Ocean Plastics Can Affect Marine Life Ocean plastics are grouped according to size. Macroplastics float on the surface or sink to the ocean floor. Animals can ingest macroplastics or become tangled up in ropes, fishing lines, and plastic bags. Marine habitats and individual plants suffer, too. Mangroves, the shrubs and trees in coastal, brackish water, and plants from the wetlands edging the oceans can be damaged by debris carried in ocean currents as it brushes up against them. Coral reefs can be broken apart or smothered by plastic sheeting and bags that come to rest on them. Oyster beds, seagrass beds and deep-water habitats are subjected to a similar fate. Plastic debris creates an environment favorable for algae blooms, which can be economically damaging and biologically deadly. Ocean plastics are so pervasive that they have created their own microbial habitat: the plastisphere. Ocean plastics are so pervasive that they have created their own microbial habitat: the plastisphere. Microplastics (typically less than 5 mm (0.2 in) in size) are carried along water currents where they are eaten or absorbed. Some can introduce heavy metals in aquatic environments. Much to the harm of all, plastics break down, releasing the chemicals used to manufacture them. Ocean plastic has become so prevalent that vast amounts have merged and grown into aptly named ocean “garbage patches” —gigantic trash collections. Among these is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP), which is mostly composed of microplastics but still can cause entanglement, ghost fishing, ingestion, and transport of non-native species. Neither are people immune from harm. They can ingest phthalates and bisphenol when they eat fish or other sea life that consumed microplastics. Continued exposure to such toxins can damage reproductive systems, promote metabolic diseases like diabetes, harm the thyroid, induce breathing problems, and decrease the body's response to vaccinations. Hope on the Horizon Once it became obvious in the 1980s that marine debris was creating problems, scientists, researchers, environmental advocates, marine and other business owners, and concerned citizens began taking action. For example, a global assessment of solutions was conducted in 2021 to provide recommendations for the prevention, monitoring, and cleanup of marine litter worldwide. New developments in the U.S. include eight programs recently instituted to answer the issues created by marine litter. Several of them are funded in part or whole by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The Clean Water Fund with its “ReThink Disposable” program, for example, aims to reduce the single-use packaging waste generated by food and beverage operations. Then there is the Ocean Conservancy's project designed to initiate preventative practices for the food service and convenience outlets in Miami-Dade County in Florida. Another program funds the Parley Foundation so they can organize cleanups along Hawaiian beaches. Other organizational programs cover a range of activities: The U.S. EPA's Trash Free Waters spreads knowledge of marine litter issues. It also supports installing litter capture devices and improved solid waste management globally. The Commission for Environmental Cooperation developed a program to help find local solutions to marine litter. They wrote a guide called “Reducing Marine Litter Through Local Action: A Toolkit for Community Engagement.” It's intended to help North American communities ensure that their trash does not become marine debris. NOAA’s Marine Debris Program, created to manage issues related to ocean pollution, provides a website with emergency response guides, a blog, and newsletters. The site contains booklets, activities, and guides for educators, schoolkids, and the general public. Funding is also available. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, or UNESCO, lists 13 private and nonprofit organizations active in solving issues related to marine debris. For example: The Public Benefit Corporation 4Ocean is a Certified B Corp that employs individuals to clean marine litter. (Public benefit corporations exist “to generate social and public good” in a sustainable manner. They include both governmental agencies and corporations operating for profit.) As its name implies, the Coral Reef Alliance is a nonprofit dedicated to saving the world's coral reefs. Their work aims to limit threats and promote solutions worldwide. The Ocean Cleanup puts its engineers, researchers, scientists, and others to work on removing plastics from the world's oceans. The previously mentioned Ocean Conservancy also works on programs that cover trash-free seas, encourage sustainable fisheries, protect regional locations such as the Arctic, and address issues like climate change. Everyone Can Help With plastics composing most of marine litter, individuals can take steps to help make a difference, such as those suggested by the Oceanic Society: Reduce the use of single-use plastics, and recycle plastics when possible (See The Earth & I, August 2023) Support legislation that limits the use of plastics Participate in clean-up projects Avoid products containing microbeads Spread awareness of the issue and its causes Support organizations addressing the issue The Problem of Marine Litter Is Not Irreversible People's actions on or around the seas have created many problems that affect marine life and those who live on the land. But while the situation is dire, there are solutions. Become informed, spread the word, and take action before it is too late. *Cassie Journigan is a writer who lives in the north-central region of Florida in the United States. She focuses on issues related to sustainability. She is passionate about numerous topics, including the Earth's changing climate, pollution, social justice, and cross-cultural communications.

A new study of the global presence of landscape-fire air pollution (PM2.5 particles and ozone) in 2000–2019 found that its “population weighted” concentrations were highest in certain African nations. According to the study’s authors, a landscape fire is any fire in “natural and cultural landscapes, for example natural and planted forest, shrub, grass, pastures, agricultural lands and peri-urban areas.” This includes both wildfires and planned or controlled fires. According to the study, the African continent had the highest average number of days exposed to substantial fire-sourced air pollution (SFAP) per person per year (32.5 days per person per year during 2010–2019), “despite a significant decrease since 2000–2009.” Europe, on the other hand, had the lowest average number of days exposed (about 1 day per person per year). Asia had the greatest annual population size exposed to at least 1 day of SFAP (803.1 million people per year during the period 2000–2019, or 36.8% of the global total). The five nations with the highest in population-weighted average fire-sourced concentrations of PM2.5 were the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the Central African Republic, Angola, Congo, and Zambia. The five nations with the highest annual average number of days exposed to SFAP per person were Angola, DRC, Zambia, Congo, and Gabon (each over 115 days per year during the period 2010–2019) Notably, globally, the US rose from eighth in the total number of exposed people in 2000–2009, to second in 2010–2019. The authors concluded that billions of people were exposed to substantial landscape fire smoke (LFS) air pollution, with the exposure levels being highest in several “hotspots” (Central Africa, Southeast Asia, South America, and Siberia). Sources: https://phys.org/news/2023-09-alarming-results-world-first-decades-global.html https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06398-6

David Christopher Shares His Family’s Pioneering Work with Whole Herbs, Part One Here we present part one of The Earth & I’s exclusive interview with David Christopher, son of pioneer American herbalist and founder of the School of Natural Healing, John R. Christopher. The Earth & I: David, can you start us out with the basics? Why should we be interested in herbalism? David Christopher: Herbs have been around for so long. They were created before we were. The plants were here for our benefit and are time tested. Herbs have been used for medicine since the beginning of time. E&I: How would you distinguish an herb from other plants? David Christopher: A botanical definition would be any plant that does not have a woody stem above ground. Some of them have woody stems below ground, but not above ground. An herb is a plant that would die down in the wintertime. It may come back up again the next year, but it dies down each year. Our definition, of course, would be any plant structure that would be medicinal. E&I: Do you think most plants would meet your definition and we just don't know it—yet? David Christopher: When I was very young, I used to say that all plants have a purpose. Of course, they do. We know that 25,000 have been identified as medicinal plants. And of those 25,000 medicinal plants, there are about 400 that are used today; not that the others are not valuable. “We lay people did not care for plants that were very dose dependent, that you could hurt somebody with. So, I think we narrowed it down to the 400 safest, most reliable, effective herbs. That is where we stand today. About 400.” I believe when the medical profession stopped using medicinal plants—that would have been in the early 1900s (they took it out of the curriculum in the 1930s)—then lay people had to take up the burden of herb information and herb usage. We lay people did not care for plants that were very dose dependent, that you could hurt somebody with, so I think we narrowed it down to the 400 safest, most reliable, effective herbs. That is where we stand today. About 400. E&I: When your father—pioneer American herbalist John R. Christopher—started out, he did not have all the technology and equipment available today. How did he develop his herbal formulas in his early days? David Christopher: Do you see the books behind me? A lot of those were in his library. I inherited his library and then built my own to go with it. He was very good at studying. Every morning, no matter what, he would get up early and study his herbs. He knew his herbs very well. When he was younger, he had a photographic memory. Later, he was in an automobile accident where he was thrown through the windshield. He recovered his health, but lost that photographic memory. In fact, he was enrolled to go to law school prior to the accident. I'm glad it worked out the way it did. Today, John R. Christopher formulas are probably the most widely used herbal formulas in the United States. Anyway, he seemed to not be able to remember things anymore, except for herbs. Herbs clicked with him. When he would read something about herbs, he would remember it. That's the field he went into because that's kind of where he was directed. E&I: You have created herbal formulas, as well. What role does intuition play? Or is it based solely on thorough study and reasoning? I have often been asked, “How did your father know that?” He knew his herbs and was able to see that a particular herb needed help from something else and knew the herb to put with it. With all that knowledge, he always mentioned in his writings, “We did this and we did that,” and people would ask, “Who were you with?” And he’d say, “God.” He really relied on inspiration from his Creator. Once when he was lecturing in Snowflake, Arizona—to give you an example—someone raised their hand and asked, “What do you do for the plague?” He was taken aback. “Are you talking about the plague in the 1300s?” And the person said, “Yeah, we've had a breakout here in Arizona. The animals were having a problem with it and then it spread to humans.” I didn't know this, but I guess wild animals have carried the plague since the 1300s. Anyway, the person asked, “So, what to do?” My father didn't know, so he took a minute and said a quick prayer, and then he gave a formula to write down, a fairly detailed formula with quite a few herbs in it. It wasn't already being manufactured; he just offered it. “With all that knowledge, he always mentioned in his writings, 'We did this and we did that,' and people would ask, 'Who were you with?' And he’d say, 'God.' He really relied on inspiration from his Creator.” He later found out that the students had made the formula and had used it successfully. At about the same time, I came down with a bad case of the flu. I was in bed for two weeks and wasn't getting better. One of my dad's local students made up that formula and brought it over to me. I'd never tried it; it wasn't being manufactured. I took a swig of it, shivered, and said, “This is horrible.” I finished about a four-ounce bottle that day. The next day I was out of bed, going to work, going to school, and getting things back to normal. It became the “anti-plague formula” until the FDA got involved and said you can't call it that. But I think you asked about my formulas. One of them would be the Immucalm formula with two herbs. E&I: Just two? David Christopher: It has astragalus and marshmallow. I've had a number of calls from people saying, “ Why are you putting astragalus into a formula where the immune system is overactive?” And I’d say, “That's the whole point of doing a formula.” Astragalus is a very good herb for strengthening the immune system, but you have to explain what you mean by strengthening. When we are strengthening, we are making the immune system more capable of working, but not stimulating it. Astragalus is also one of our best tonics; it tones and strengthens the immune system. By adding marshmallow, that made it more calming. So those two together have a different effect than either one of the herbs separately. That's how a formula comes about. There are different approaches. The Asian way has your royalty herb, then your prince herbs, and then your magistrate herbs, and these all help the one. A lot of people who have applied to our school have gone to a school teaching traditional Chinese medicine and it was too complicated for them. They said, “I need something a little simpler.” They came to our school and found great satisfaction in the way we teach, what we teach, and how practical it is. The Herbalist’s Friend: The Internet I have one advantage over my father—the internet—which has so much information, perhaps too much contradictory information. It should be used with discernment. I think discernment comes with a connection with your Creator. And sometimes you have to go a step further and make sure it wasn't just your personal feelings coming through. I've had so many people call me and say, “I heard that this herb is very dangerous,” And then I'd find out where the information came from and think, “They've drawn up a case study here, but I don't think it's correct.” So, I'd go back to see who the writers were, and they were all medical doctors. Sometimes they get it right and sometimes they don’t. Like I said earlier, we're down from 25,000 down to about 400 medicinal plants that are used today and they are all time tested, safe and effective. And so, usually when I read that an herb is dangerous, I have to look into it more. These herbs today aren't dangerous. Do you know how many people die from taking herbs? E&I: I'm going to guess it's pretty close to zero. David Christopher: It's zero. An agency keeps those figures. You can call Poison Control; it says zero people have died from taking herbs. E&I: Impressive. It sounds like a lot has changed since you entered the field. David Christopher: Things have changed a lot. We were all small companies, working out of garages. We were all starting out and probably making mistakes, but that's changed, and now the herb industry is pretty big. E&I: I know from my own experience how thoroughly some of those 400 herbs have been researched. There are many journal articles on herbs from scientists all over the world. David Christopher: The National Institutes of Health commissions a lot of studies and keeps track of a lot of studies. You can find a lot of good information from them. PubMed is another place to get really good information. Creating Formulas Today When I'm creating formulas now, I usually look up the disease and treatments, then think about the herbs that would best fit and study them more. One of our newest formulas that I created was for repairing nerve sheath. Nerve sheath is like the outer coating of an electrical cord to an appliance. What keeps electricity flowing to the appliance is the coating material used to insulate the wire so that electricity follows the correct path. Your nervous system is like this. It has nerves with a protective coating that carry the message. That coating is the nerve sheath. When that is worn away, it is like the rubber coating wearing away on an appliance cord; those electric signals can be sent out any place. You can touch the cord in the wrong place and get shocked. That kind of happens with the body. These nerve impulses go awry, and then you can get all kinds of jerks and motions. A lot of people's problem today is that their nerve sheathing has deteriorated, or isn't there, or doesn't function as well as it should. We have herbs that are specifically for the nerves, but there wasn't anything yet for the sheathing, which is different than the nerve cells themselves. Surprisingly, the number one substance the body has in order to make that sheathing is cholesterol. “[I]in studying the journal articles on nerve sheath, I found that there are a lot of other substances that have to be present, even in small amounts, such as uridine and lithium, to make a nerve sheath. So I had to find herbs that had those substances in them.” However, in studying the journal articles on nerve sheath, I found that there are a lot of other substances that have to be present, even in small amounts, such as uridine and lithium, to make a nerve sheath. So I had to find herbs that had those substances in them, reviewing works like Dr. James Duke's The Green Pharmacy, which would give you the substances you're looking for and the herbs they're found in. His database is online. And so, I put hops in the formula, which has uridine. The herb we use that has lithium is cayenne pepper. Cayenne is something we'd want to use anyway, because it seems to stimulate other herbs to work better. [See The Earth & I, April 2021] Then there is iron; we put raw cacao in for the iron. That's why James Duke's website is really important. You can ask, “Well, what herbs have lithium?” You can find that out. But we couldn't get everything we needed, so we recommend any of these formulas be used with a good diet, eating whole foods. Then it's going to be much easier to get that nerve sheath repaired. E&I: I think you started to answer my next question: How can people maintain health at a high level, in ways that don't harm the environment? David Christopher: One of the first things I talk about—when people call me about their situations—is food. They sometimes say, “I called an herbalist, not a foodist.” I say, “Well, you don't understand. Even though the herbs are really high in minerals, vitamins you're finding more in foods.” You do find vitamins in herbs, but you're going to find a higher concentration of vitamins in the foods eaten. It's really important to get those vitamins, and they're not going to come from highly processed foods. A lot of those vitamins are processed right out. So, the best way to stay healthy is to have a wholesome diet. And that’s “wholesome,” with a “W.” About David Christopher: Having been raised in the simple ways of natural health, David's interests grew beyond his university study. In 1974 David Christopher, MH, took his place by his father's side at The School of Natural Healing. David's book, An Herbal Legacy of Courage is a loving tribute to his father. In 1979 he became a Master Herbalist and the director of The School of Natural Healing. Today, thousands safely apply the Christopher methodology thanks to his directorship. David is an international lecturer and has been instrumental in helping to establish Herbal Schools in England and Ireland. David and his wife Fawn host “A Healthier You“ podcast. He has generated new ideas on the management of high blood pressure, diabetes, and auto-immune diseases, and was one of the first to discourage the use of Prozac in favor of natural methods. David Christopher’s goal in life is to help others learn to benefit from a healthier lifestyle. Editor's Note: For The Earth & I, Jerry Chesnut spoke with David Christopher.

The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) uses its Food Price Index (FPI) to measure monthly changes in global prices of food commodities, such as cereals, dairy, and meats. According to the FAO, its Food Price Monitoring and Analysis (FPMA) Tool can help identify “market imbalances” that might lead to increased food insecurity. August’s FPI declined to 121.4 points from a revised 124.0 for the previous month. This decline reversed a rebound in prices in July, sending the index 24% below its peak in March 2022. The overall drop in prices was due to declines in the price indices for dairy products, vegetable oils, meats, and cereals. In contrast, the sugar price index “increased moderately.” The FAO Cereal Price Index for August stood at 14.1% below its value a year ago. The FAO Dairy Price Index was down for the eighth consecutive month in August, 22.4% below its value last year. Global dairy price declines were led by declines in whole milk powder prices. However, the FAO Sugar Price Index in August was up by 34.1% from a year ago. The increase was mostly triggered by concerns over the impact of El Niño-related weather on global production. The FAO Meat Price Index in August was down by 5.4% from its value a year ago. All global meat types fell in August, led by ovine (sheep) meat, due mostly to a surge in Australian exports and weaker demand from China. Sources: https://www.fao.org/prices/en/ https://www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/foodpricesindex/en/

Key Report Highlights Overall Global Health Progress, Areas of Concern In the introduction to its World Health Statistics Report 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) cites key global health improvement statistics for the new millennium—as well as rising areas of concern—as they pertain to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Global life expectancy rose from 67 years to 73 years from 2000 to 2019. However, according to the WHO, 99% of humanity breathes “unhealthy levels” of fine particulate matter. The percentage of annual deaths caused by non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as cancer, has risen to 75% and is expected to reach 88% by 2048 “if the trend continues.” Globally, the greatest declines in deaths from NCDs between 2000 and 2019 were from chronic respiratory disease (down 37%), cardiovascular disease (down 27%), and cancer (down 16%). Deaths from diabetes, however, rose by 3% during the same period. Men have a greater chance of premature death from NCDs worldwide than women. Major behavioral risk factors for NCDs include alcohol abuse, tobacco use, physical inactivity, and an unhealthy diet. Top metabolic risk factors for NCDs include elevated blood pressure, being overweight/obese, hyperglycemia (elevated blood glucose levels), and hyperlipidemia (elevated levels of fat in the blood). UN SDGs seek reductions of the global maternal mortality ratio to below 70 maternal deaths for every 100,000 live births by 2030. Between 2000 and 2015, the global maternal mortality ratio fell by a third, from 339 deaths per 100,000 live births to 227 deaths per 100,000 live births. Global neonatal mortality rates were 18 per 1,000 live births in 2021, down by 43% from 31 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2000. Source: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240074323