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Investigating the Intelligence and Social 'Conversations' of an Extraordinary Bird By Jana Perez-Angelo* Crows congregating on a pine tree. Vitalii Petrushenko/iStock Across North America, ribbons of crows stretch over highways, rivers, and neighborhoods, converging with uncanny precision on favored roosts. They arrive in waves, first a dozen, then hundreds, then thousands, until entire trees seem to pulse with life. The air fills with a chorus of caws, clicks, and rattling calls.   To the human ear, it borders on overwhelming. To the untrained eye, it appears chaotic. But this apparent disorder conceals structure.   The timing of these gatherings is not coincidental. As winter transitions into spring, large communal roosts begin to disperse. According to the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, crows move from communal living to territorial pair bonding. By April and May they are engaged in nest building, egg incubation, and raising young. Before the isolation of nesting, there is a congregation. Before reproduction, there is an assembly. Whatever unfolds within these roosts may quietly influence what comes next.   Cognition beyond Expectation Crows, particularly the American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos), are among the most cognitively sophisticated birds studied to date. Published research highlights advanced reasoning and problem-solving in corvids (a family of birds that includes crows, ravens, magpies, and nutcrackers), demonstrating abilities once thought unique to primates. This is bolstered by findings that crows can apply flexible statistical reasoning when foraging, using probabilistic information based on experience to guide decisions, something previously seen mostly in humans and some mammals.   But cognition isn’t only behavioral. Crows recognize individual human faces.   For instance, University of Washington Professor John Marzluff conducted an experiment with wild crows. It began with the professor and others putting on a “dangerous face” mask and then trapping several crows at five different sites. The researchers put leg bands on all the birds and released them.   For almost three years, Marzluff and his colleagues would periodically wear the same scary mask while walking around campus, sometimes feeding the local crows. “After trapping, crows consistently used harsh vocalizations to scold and mob people of different sizes, ages, genders, and walking gaits who wore the dangerous mask, even when they were in crowds,” Marzluff wrote in the 2010 study in Animal Behaviour.   Even more remarkably, this recognition spread to crows that had never encountered the person directly, which indicates a level of social transmission and culturally shared knowledge, the study said (see video below). A carrion crow scavenging on a beach near Canford Cliffs, Poole, Dorset, England. Ian Kirk/Wikipedia Do Crows Communicate Information? Scientific evidence strongly supports the idea that crow vocalizations are structured and meaningful rather than random noise. A comprehensive review of corvid vocal communication finds that calls often encode ecological and social information across species, including predator type, food availability, and individual identity, and play roles in group cohesion and social interaction.   The Audubon Society notes that these vocalizations vary not only by situation but also across populations, suggesting the presence of dialects within crow communities. In practice, what sounds like an undifferentiated chorus to human ears may, in fact, be a layered exchange of information.   Researchers have identified several broad categories of crow calls: Alarm calls that differ depending on the type of threat Social calls used in close-range interactions Contact calls that help maintain group cohesion.   Taken together, these patterns suggest that crow communication is both expressive and functional, capable of directing attention, coordinating behavior, and transmitting information across individuals. A pair of crows chases away a red-tailed hawk from their nest. NikkyPA1/Wikipedia Roosts and Mobbing To better understand the purpose of large crow gatherings, it’s essential to ground speculation in expert insight. One central question is whether large crow roosts primarily serve deliberation, information exchange, or social bonding. “Certainly,” Marzluff tells The Earth & I, these assemblies promote “social bonding, as those seeking mates may find them in gatherings. Also, they serve to reduce the risk of predation and to allow communal feeding at locations where food is unlimited or indefensible.” Crow vocalizations convey specific information about threats, including the discrimination and memory of individual human faces. Scientific evidence supports the idea that crow vocalizations convey specific information about threats, including the discrimination and memory of individual human faces. Threats can be met by what is known as mobbing, as when a group of crows harass a predator into leaving the vicinity of a nesting area. “The mobbing call,” Marzluff says, “brings individuals together around a perceived danger. New dangers can be learned by joining mobs and by mobbing. This was demonstrated in our work that documented learning of dangerous people.”   In Marzluff’s view, crows learn about dangers “at a place where danger occurs, through mobbing,” not in roosts.   This distinction is subtle but important. While roosts may not operate as deliberate “briefing centers,” they exist within a broader system in which information is actively shared, especially in moments of urgency. Crows learn directly from environmental cues and social interactions, reinforcing both survival and collective intelligence within the flock.   The idea that communal roosts function as information-sharing and vocal communication hubs has long been explored in behavioral ecology, including studies published in the journal Animal Behaviour. Even without explicit conversation, information can move through a group simply by being witnessed and observed.   Decoding the Soundscape Understanding crow communication has become one of the more technically ambitious challenges in animal behavior research. Scientists, including Marzluff, increasingly rely on combinations of acoustic recording, movement tracking, and computational analysis to decode what was once dismissed as noise.   Resources from the Cornell Chronicle demonstrate how varied and context-sensitive vocalizations can be. Although some interpretations in popular media suggest the presence of human-like language, current evidence supports a more grounded conclusion: Crow communication is structured and flexible, shaped by ecological and social needs rather than grammar as humans define it.   The intelligence of crows is rooted in a brain that is both different from and comparable to the human brain. Unlike mammals, birds do not possess a layered neocortex. Instead, their cognition arises from brain structures like the nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL), which functions as a kind of avian “central executive” by encoding sensory and cognitive variables during complex tasks. Crows do not simply learn as individuals; they learn as a society. Knowledge about threats, food sources, and behavior can spread through groups and persist across generations. Studies of neural processes, including those underlying tool use and working memory, show that birds engage circuits analogous in function to mammalian prefrontal regions, supporting advanced cognition such as planning, abstraction, and behavioral flexibility. Culture and Collective Intelligence Crows do not simply learn as individuals; they learn as a society. Knowledge about threats, food sources, and behavior can spread through groups and persist across generations, forming what researchers increasingly describe as cultural transmission. In large flocks, this individual intelligence scales into something broader. Unlike insect swarms, where coordination emerges from simple rules, crow groups consist of thinking individuals whose interactions shape collective outcomes. The result is a form of collective intelligence, fluid, adaptive, and responsive to change.   Cities have become unexpected arenas for this intelligence to unfold. As noted by the Audubon Society, crows have adapted remarkably well to urban life. They exploit traffic patterns, adjust their calls to compete with noise, and take advantage of human-generated food sources. In doing so, they reveal not just resilience but the capacity to learn from and respond to rapidly changing environments. This BBC video depicts the remarkable session in which a crow solves an eight-step puzzle task that involves analysis, abstract thinking, strategic planning, and visual-spatial processing. AI and the Hidden Patterns in Crow Vocalizations As researchers grapple with the complexity of crow communication, some teams have turned to the same tools humans use to understand large, noisy datasets: artificial intelligence. One public example, a collaboration between the Earth Species Project and two researchers from Spain’s University of Leon, illustrated in this YouTube video, involved feeding thousands of hours of crow vocal recordings into machine-learning algorithms designed to detect patterns beyond human perception.   While much of the sensational interpretation has been exaggerated, the core finding is intriguing: AI can detect repeated acoustic patterns associated with specific events, such as human presence, food discovery, or the approach of danger.   For a vivid illustration, see Scientists Used AI to Decode Crow Sounds, which explores how algorithmic listening reveals structured vocal patterns in crow communities. The video is produced by Nature Video, a YouTube channel owned by PBS.   The algorithms identify recurrent sequences of notes corresponding to specific contexts, reinforcing that crow vocalizations carry contextual information shaped by social and ecological pressures.   Crow Intelligence in Action Crows are astonishingly intelligent, with cognitive abilities often compared to those of a 7-year-old child. They remember faces for years, hold “funerals” for their dead, use and create tools to solve complex problems, and drop nuts in traffic to crack them open. If wronged, a crow may hold a grudge and communicate that knowledge to others. Their intelligence extends further: They can mimic human speech, understand traffic signals, deceive observers, cooperate to drive away predators, and pass knowledge across generations.   Additionally, Why Crows Are as Smart as 7 Year Old Humans—a video from Real Science, an educational YouTube channel that focuses on biology, oceanography, and general science topics—shows problem-solving experiments and tool innovation that rival primate intelligence. Observing these behaviors in both lab and field settings underscores that crows are capable of abstract reasoning, planning, and social learning, qualities that put them among the most intelligent animals on Earth. Recognizing the advanced intelligence in urban wildlife like crows challenges the traditional human–wildlife hierarchy and shifts our relationship from one of “pest management” to one of ethical coexistence. Recognizing the advanced intelligence in urban wildlife like crows challenges the traditional human–wildlife hierarchy and shifts our relationship from one of “pest management” to one of ethical coexistence, according to former ecology professor Marc Bekoff in a conversation with environmental educator Julie Morley.   Ethically, this realization opens the door to nonlethal management, Morley intimates in a 2023 interview in Psychology Today. If a crow, for example, can remember a human face for years or communicate a specific threat to its kin, lethal culling becomes not just a population control measure, but the elimination of a sentient, social being. Such a new understanding suggests the need for a transition toward “shared space” ethics, where urban planning accounts for the cognitive needs of nonhumans.   Ecologically, acknowledging crow intelligence highlights their role as a cultural keystone species. Crows don’t just fill a niche; they navigate it with intent. As such, it would seem they should be cherished—even though they lack fur and four legs.   This shift in perspective forces us to ask: If we are being watched and understood by the wildlife around us, does that change the way we behave in our own backyards? *Jana Perez-Angelo is a Denver-based writer and multidisciplinary creative and digital strategist passionate about brand storytelling and purpose-driven content. Her work has been featured in Relevant Magazine, Medium, and Faithful Life.

Scholar Examines the Transformation of Language for Better Earth Care By Becky Hoag* Words like Friluftsliv shape a way of being that is aligned with living outdoors in nature. Pexels Language does more than describe reality—it shapes it.   For example, Scandinavians use the word “friluftsliv” (pronounced free-loofts-liv) to convey “getting out into nature.” Friluftsliv translates to “open-air living.” In Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark, people can friluftsliv—walk or camp—pretty much anywhere, as long as they respect nature. Corporate culture maintains an expectation that people should have time to get outside during work hours. To encourage friluftsliv, companies in Sweden and Finland can even get tax breaks for outdoor sports activities and equipment. Friluftsliv is often accompanied by the word “allmansrätten,” which means the “right to roam.” Access to nature is an expected part of the culture, so natural spaces are a must. Plus, Sweden has a phrase that says, “There’s no such thing as bad weather, only bad clothes.” That phrase removes the negativity associated with certain weather conditions like rain, encouraging people to enjoy being out in all weather. The English language doesn’t typically have words or phrases like these. Instead, many Americans grew up hearing the myth that they’ll catch a cold being out in the rain. This gap in vocabulary matters. It shapes how people prioritize being out in nature, how they view the natural world, and how they deal with ecological issues. “These kinds of words show us that, for other people, there are other ways of representing our relationship with nature,” explains Dr. Cristina Soriano, a senior linguistic researcher at the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences at the University of Geneva. Adopting Words from Other Languages Soriano studies how language and metaphors evoke emotion and span across cultures. She and her colleague, psychologist Tobias Brosch, contributed to a 2023 climate change exhibit at Geneva’s Natural History Museum called Tout contre la terre (or Close to the Earth). While the exhibit covered climate change science, it was specifically designed to evoke visitors’ emotional responses. “I had looked at language for emotion, but not at language for emotion in the context of the climate crisis,” Soriano tells The Earth & I. “I learned a lot of useful things, not only about how the language we use will influence our emotions—which in turn influences our behavior in the crisis—but also the words that have come to exist to talk about our emotions in the climate crisis.”   Soriano fell in love with several words and phrases, like the Scandinavian ones mentioned above, that present a different way of looking at the human-nature relationship. Another phrase she found powerful came from the Mexican Rarámuri tribe: “Iwígara” (pronounced ee-WEE-ga-ra). Iwígara represents a familial way of viewing non-human entities in nature. Rarámuri woman braiding with palm tree leaf. istock Iwígara represents a familial way of viewing non-human entities in nature, such as other animals, plants, and even landscapes. It goes beyond phrases in English like “Mother Earth” and represents the interconnectedness of all these natural forms. Ethnobotanist Enrique Salmón helped popularize this word in the English-speaking world through his 2020 book Iwígara: The Kinship of Plants and People. “It is alien to us [English-speakers]!” Soriano says. “We can kind of do it metaphorically—“mother nature”—but it is not quite as engrained as [in] these other communities.” By using words already developed by other cultures, English speakers can learn to conceptualize their feelings and thoughts better. English is already such a hodgepodge of different languages, she notes, why not add a few more? Expanding the English Lexicon Having words to describe something provides an opportunity for more emotional regulation and to develop personal and societal frameworks around it. For example, the term, “ecocide,” which means the destruction of the environment by humans, was first used in 1969, according to Merriam-Webster. Ecocide has now become a formal legal term in many countries and is being considered for a new crime prosecutable by the International Criminal Court. In addition, the term “eco-anxiety” defines a specific form of anxiety that is driven by climate change concerns. This term allows psychologists to develop modalities and strategies to help patients manage. Central European deforestation as seen from Space. Wikimedia Eco-philosopher Glenn Albrecht continues to introduce new terms, such as in his 2019 book Earth Emotions: New Words for a New World, to help people describe what humans are doing to the planet and how it makes them feel. These words include “the Symbiocene” (described below), “solastalgia” (the distress or homesickness caused by environmental transformation, degradation, or loss), and “terrafurie” (Earth anger/rage). “I do this because the world is rapidly changing in powerful and novel ways,” Albrecht explained to Dr. Marc Bekoff in a 2019 Psychology Today article. “Novel global contexts require new concepts, new words.” The Symbiocene is his suggested follow-up to the Anthropocene, a term describing our current geological age or epoch. The “anthro-“ prefix refers to humans (think anthropology). The word describes an era in which humans began to affect the planet enough to impact how its global systems operate. While there’s disagreement amongst geologists on whether the term is formal or not, and when the Anthropocene began, many geologists think Earth transitioned from the Holocene to the Anthropocene during the Industrial Revolution, when human activity began to drastically accelerate the amount of greenhouse gases spewed into the atmosphere. The “symbio” in Symbiocene comes from the word “symbiotic.” Albrecht believes Earth will have transitioned from the Anthropocene to the Symbiocene when humans have switched from having a destructive, extractive relationship with nature to a mutually beneficial one. While this feels like a far-off goal, developing the word now gives people something to strive for. Albrecht believes Earth will have transitioned from the Anthropocene to the Symbiocene when humans have switched from having a destructive, extractive relationship with nature to a mutually beneficial one. Words to Shape a Positive Future New words like the Symbiocene allow people to express current emotions and problems as well as an opportunity to dream of a positive future. “Solarpunk”—a futuristic society that plays off the ideas of “steampunk” and “cyberpunk,” where societies are based on steam or computers, respectively—envisions a world built on sustainability, technology, infrastructure, and practices in tune with the natural world. Solarpunk worlds can already be seen in films like Studio Ghibli’s 1984 film Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Marvel Studio’s 2018 film Black Panther. Solarpunk may take practical inspiration from Earthships, which are an example of sustainable architecture. Wikimedia While new words can catch on and help develop human consciousness around different environmental topics, they also risk being jargony. Soriano stresses that words won’t click if they sound too scientific, are too hard to pronounce, or if their meanings are too difficult to parse out. “If we are demanding society adopts these new words,” Soriano says, “it needs to serve a proper function.” That’s one of the reasons she likes the idea of working with words from other cultures and languages. The words already exist because they are relatable and valuable. “I do think it might be enough to look outside of our language and see what other cultures use to represent things,” Soriano suggests. “I do think it might be enough to look outside of our language and see what other cultures use to represent things.” A positive-framing, non-English word she enjoys is the Spanish word “ilusión.” While it can directly translate to “illusion” in English, the meaning of the word goes far beyond that. “You feel ilusión for something in the future, irrespective of the odds of it being true,” Soriano explained. “It could be ilusión like looking forward to something certain or looking forward to something that I hope will happen. It’s the same word. [Either way] you rejoice in it, and you inhabit the joy of what it would be like if or when it happens. “And I think we need that because we could just get lost in the [negative] numbers. If we run the numbers, they’re kind of pessimistic to be honest. It’s unlikely that things turn out well; however, we need to go all in because doing nothing, and therefore resulting in nothing, that’s just too hard a loss.” In a way, ilusión is a similar idea to “radical optimism.” This is not the British singer Dua Lipa’s album (though that also encompasses positive vibes) but the philosophy of actively and consciously trusting that positive outcomes are possible even when they don’t always feel possible. Radical optimism is more of an active, evidence-based choice than simply hoping. Soriano says that while radical optimism is similar, ilusión gives deeper meaning to the native Spanish speaker. Ilusión brings more guttural joy; it’s a way of envisioning one’s existence in a positive future that has the ability to fuel real change, as documented in a 2023 Argentinian study. “The odds, the numbers, should not factor into your anticipatory joy and that way you can fuel your internal motivation,” Soriano says. *Becky Hoag is a freelance environmental reporter. You can find her work on her site beckyhoag.com and through her YouTube channel https://youtube.com/beckisphere.

How Juunoo is Turning Interior Walls into Circular Assets By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe* The iconic Refinery at Domino, Brooklyn, New York. Wikimedia Juunoo’s modular office installations for Two Trees at Refinery at Domino. Courtesy of Juunoo Commercial buildings are often seen as long-term assets—but their interiors are not. That’s because modern office spaces are in constant flux: Companies will typically do a full renovation every decade with additional changes every three to five years, design companies say. Each year, millions of square feet of interior space are renovated or torn out, generating large volumes of construction and demolition waste. While office-specific figures are limited, renovation projects such as tenant improvements and interior demolition contribute significantly to the roughly 600 million tons of construction and demolition waste produced annually in the United States. In 2025, a notable shift occurred: Office conversions and demolitions surpassed new construction for the first time in years. At the same time, vacancies reached record highs, with nearly 19% of office space sitting empty. These trends are forcing a rethink, not just of where people work but how offices are built and rebuilt. Modular interior systems are emerging as one response. Designed to reduce waste and allow flexible layouts, they offer a pathway toward circular construction. In a sector responsible for nearly 40% of global carbon emissions, rethinking interior spaces may be as important as improving building envelopes or energy systems. Building for Change, Not Disposal Belgian-founded Juunoo is among those companies reimagining office interiors. Its modular systems replace traditional drywall with easy-to-configure demountable walls, glass partitions, and soundproof pods that can be installed quickly and removed without generating waste. [Juunoo’s] modular systems replace traditional drywall with easy-to-configure demountable walls, glass partitions, and soundproof pods that can be installed quickly and removed without generating waste. A Juunoo office pod installation for Lantis in Antwerp. Courtesy of Juunoo The company’s approach reflects a broader shift toward designing buildings for change rather than permanence. Instead of treating renovations as a cycle of demolition and replacement, modular systems allow materials to be reused across multiple life cycles. Juunoo aligns its work with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly those focused on infrastructure and sustainable cities. “We design systems that separate what changes from what doesn’t,” Maxime De Scheemaeker, Co-CEO at Juunoo, told The Earth & I. In practice, this means structural components are built for durability and repeated use, while finishes can be updated to match evolving design trends. Even finishes are reused or repurposed when possible. “Without restarting from zero every time—that’s where sustainability and design finally align,” said De Scheemaeker. Breaking the Build–Demolish Cycle Traditional construction follows a familiar pattern: build, use, demolish, repeat. This linear model generates waste and locks in emissions each time materials are discarded and replaced. Modular construction offers prefabricated systems that can be installed faster, with less disruption and waste. More importantly, they allow spaces to evolve—without being torn apart. Modular office systems like Juunoo’s can be installed quickly. Courtesy of Juunoo With modular interiors, companies can reconfigure offices quickly—sometimes within days or even over a weekend—while keeping the workspace operational. This reduces downtime and allows organizations to respond to changing needs without major construction. That flexibility is increasingly important. Office use patterns are shifting, and interiors usually change far more frequently than buildings, which may last more than 50 years. “[Renovation] is a big piece of global embodied carbon pollution and waste, especially since many spaces are turning over quickly as companies and workers are weighing the pros and cons of work from home versus a central office,” Kjell Anderson, Principal at LMN architects, told The Earth & I. "[Renovation] is a big piece of global embodied carbon pollution and waste." Measuring What Matters The environmental promise of modular construction is linked to reducing Scope 3 emissions, which refer to a company’s indirect emissions—particularly those tied to materials and supply chains. Scope 3 emissions account for a significant share of the built environment’s climate impact. They include emissions from: Manufacturing and transporting building materials Construction and renovation activities Waste generated during demolition The full life cycle of products used in a building In construction, Scope 3 emissions are closely tied to “embodied carbon” or the emissions produced during the extraction, production, transport, and disposal of materials. Modular interior systems aim to reduce Scope 3 emissions by extending the life of materials.  While modular systems are still relatively new, experts see strong potential. “As none of the modular systems available today have a very long track record, it's hard to tell [what their impact will be]; however, I think there is a high potential to reduce emissions,” University of Washington Professor Kathrina Simonen, founder of the Carbon Leadership Forum, told The Earth & I. Juunoo uses life cycle assessments to evaluate impact across a product’s full lifespan. "They tell the full story, covering not only production but the entire lifespan," said De Scheemaeker. Still, trade-offs exist. Modular systems often rely on transportable components, but larger prefabricated units may increase emissions due to shipping. “In some cases, [prefab units] save embodied carbon, but in others, they add embodied carbon since they need to be transported as a unit,” said Anderson. “In some cases, [prefab units] save embodied carbon, but in others, they add embodied carbon since they need to be transported as a unit.” Design firms are already experimenting with ways to reduce these impacts. LMN Architects has incorporated reuse and material recovery into its projects, including its own renovation in 2015, which later inspired Metropolis Magazine’s Interiors Embodied Carbon Toolkit. LMN’s more recent renovation of Hines Seattle Headquarters was designed to push the envelope on in-place reuse, salvage, and reuse. LMN’s recent renovation of Hines Seattle Headquarters. ©Benjamin Benschneider Courtesy of LMN Offices and Beyond Juunoo began with office interiors, where change is frequent and the benefits of reuse are immediate. The company is now expanding into the education and residential sectors, where similar principles can apply. Its reusable drywall system, DryClick, offers a cost-neutral alternative to conventional materials—an important factor in encouraging adoption. Detail of Juunoo’s DryClick drywall joinery. Courtesy of Juunoo “Ultimately, this model can scale anywhere interiors are built and rebuilt,” De Scheemaeker said. For that to happen, however, circular construction must be economically viable. “It has to. Otherwise, it won’t scale,” De Scheemaeker said. “We believe the idea of a ‘green premium' should disappear,” he added. Juunoo’s model emphasizes residual value: Materials retain worth after use and can be redeployed rather than discarded. The concept is straightforward—more like LEGO than landfill, to paraphrase Juunoo’s Founder, Chris Van de Voorde, in an interview with Kamp C. The Barriers to Circularity Despite its promise, circular construction faces significant challenges. Regulations, market structures, and industry habits still favor linear systems built around single-use materials. “We currently live in the least circular economy that humans have ever been part of, and our laws, policies, and practices have been built around cheap, single-use items,” Anderson added. “We currently live in the least circular economy that humans have ever been part of, and our laws, policies, and practices have been built around cheap, single-use items.” One major obstacle is the lack of infrastructure for reused materials. Unlike new products, salvaged components are harder to source, store, and certify. There is no consistent supply chain, and maintaining inventory requires storage space. Reused materials may also lack warranties, making them less attractive to buyers. Lease agreements can further complicate matters. Many require tenants to return spaces to a basic “grey shell,” encouraging demolition rather than careful removal. “Since they are moving out, they have no desire to do anything but demolish everything in the space as cheaply as possible,” said Anderson. Deconstruction—removing materials for reuse—also takes more time and effort than demolition. “It happens when there is a ready market for materials, but the market doesn’t (yet) exist for most products/materials,” said Anderson. Navigating Trade-offs and Standards Sustainability in construction is rarely straightforward. Certification systems such as LEED, WELL, and BREEAM help guide decision-making but can be complex to navigate. “There can always be unintended trade-offs,” Simonen said. Transportation impacts, durability, and energy use all influence whether a modular system delivers net environmental benefits. Inspection and regulatory systems can also create friction. Prefabricated components may not align with local codes or inspection practices, slowing adoption. Efforts to standardize these processes have had mixed success. For example, the ICC/MBI 1200 Standards Adoption Bill, which has been adopted in Virginia, was proposed in Washington State, but did not pass in its latest review. Ultimately, the environmental impact of modular construction depends on how often systems are reused. “The modular system might actually be more durable than standard construction but [it’s] less flexible,” said Simonen. Closing the Loop Having recently secured $6.6 million in funding and a New York expansion, Juunoo has positioned itself as both a climate solution and a capital efficiency offer.  Juunoo modular system at 6 West 66th Street, Manhattan, New York. Courtesy of Juunoo Under Juunoo’s buy-back warranty—designed to keep materials in circulation—components can be returned, reused, or resold. The warranty allows clients to recover 10% to 30% of the original value, creating a financial incentive for reuse. In practice, many clients simply reuse the materials themselves. Office pods, for example, are often relocated with the company. “That’s when you know it works—when circularity becomes the obvious, practical choice,” said De Scheemaeker. Buy-back and product-as-a-service models could become standard across the industry. “We see Interface carpets being able to beneficially recycle their own carpet tiles into new backing,” says Anderson. “This addresses the issue that most companies are heavily incentivized to make poor quality products since [their products] are likely to be removed and landfilled quickly,” Anderson added. *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 14 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences. Editorial notes Sources: Interview with Maxime De Scheemaeker, CO-CEO at Juunoo Interview with Kathrina Simonen, Professor at the University of Washington and Founder of the Carbon Leadership Forum Interview with Kjell Anderson, Principal at LMN

Lakeside ‘City-Within-a-City’ Offers Residents Eco-friendly Lifestyle By Robert Selle* Young families enjoy the sun in one of the many communal courtyards among Aspern Seestadt’s residential buildings.  ©Luiza Puiu Imagine a city where daily errands are a delightful stroll or a quick bike ride away, where lush green spaces are abundant, and where the air is noticeably fresher and cleaner. This isn’t a distant utopia; it’s the lived reality in Aspern Seestadt, also known as Aspern Lakeside City. This visionary northeast Vienna development, with a large man-made lake at its center, is being built  on the site of Vienna’s long-disused first airport and is even repurposing a huge mass of materials from the old airfield in its construction. The city-within-a-city—which boasts a broad mix  of multi-story apartment buildings, condo blocks, towers and street-level shops—aims to provide residents with an enjoyable urban lifestyle  while prioritizing convenience, community, and environmental responsibility.  Vienna’s old airport (left), upon which the Seestadt city-within-a-city (right) is being built.  Wikimedia Commons ©I. Wirthi (left) and ©Wien 3420 (right) Here, amenities are thoughtfully integrated, ensuring a high quality of life for residents. Seestadt dwellers can reach nearly 80% of essential destinations within 15 minutes on foot, by bicycle, or via efficient public transportation. The design drastically reduces reliance on private vehicles, cutting down on urban emissions and congestion. Residents enjoy easy access  to medical facilities, post offices, grocery stores, and educational institutions, including a university campus.   One of the key amenities is the beach around portions of the district’s central lake. ©Luiza Puiu Beyond the practical, Aspern Seestadt , spanning 660 acres and under development since 2007, boasts a diverse range of recreational amenities, fostering a strong sense of community and well-being. The residential buildings are arranged to provide spacious public courtyards where individuals and families can gather, relax, talk, and play together. The district is one of Europe’s largest urban development areas and is expected to house 25,000 residents and provide over 20,000 jobs and training positions by 2030.  ‘Rebuild, Reuse, Repurpose’ Trend The growing Vienna quarter is not only a test bed for new architectural, energy-saving, and community-building approaches, it is a pioneering district that embodies  the principles of circular construction  and urban mining .   Peter Hinterkörner is head of planning and quality management for Seestadt’s construction. ©Luiza Puiu When Seestadt development began, the two airport runways were still intact. But, using the principles of urban mining, the airfield concrete was recycled onsite and used as construction material for roads and pathways, according to Peter Hinterkörner, head of planning and quality management for the district’s construction. Even some 600,000 tons of material from excavating the lake and building plots were not transported away but instead stored within the district and reused as construction material and terrain modeling. For example, Hinterkörner said in an email interview with The Earth & I , “the first local recreation area—the Aspern Terraces—was formed using the lake excavation material. Altogether, this mass management has saved around 7.5 million truck-kilometers and avoided approximately 8,400 tons of CO₂ emissions, as of fall 2024.”  The worldwide building sector is responsible for about 40% of global CO2 emissions and at least a third of the world’s waste material. The worldwide building industry’s environmental impact generally flies under the radar of popular consciousness. Yet, the sector is responsible for about 40%  of global CO2 emissions and at least a third  of the waste material generated in the EU. As cities everywhere grapple with the consequences of climate change, nature-minded urban planners and architects are rethinking construction methods and city design. “The building sector represents 40% of Europe’s energy demand, 80% of it from fossil fuels,” said Inger Andersen , executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme. The UN agency predicts raw resource use will double by 2060, with steel, concrete, and cement already major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions.   Blossoms in one of the green spaces beckon to a young Seestadt resident. ©Luiza Puiu The Urban ‘Mining’ Model   Across the globe, visionary architects, innovative city planners, and environmentally conscious citizens are beginning to challenge the traditional linear model  of “take, make, waste.” They see the inherent value locked within existing urban infrastructure and view cities not just as devourers of raw materials but as storehouses of building resources waiting to be rediscovered and repurposed.  One of the cornerstones of this approach—vividly illustrated in Aspern Seestadt’s urban mining—was pioneered by Professor Anja Rosen, a leading expert in circular construction  at the University of Applied Sciences, Münster, Germany. Prof. Rosen’s notion of urban mining sees demolition debris and discarded materials not as refuse to be landfilled but as valuable raw materials for future construction. She has even developed a sophisticated Urban Mining Index  to quantify the potential for material recovery within urban areas, providing a crucial tool for assessing and maximizing resource reuse.  The significance of urban mining becomes even clearer when considering the concept of gray energy . This refers to the embodied energy—the energy consumed in the extraction, processing, manufacturing, and transportation of materials—already locked within existing buildings. Traditional sustainable construction often focuses on optimizing the operational energy efficiency of new buildings, such as heating, cooling, and electricity use. However, by prioritizing the reuse of existing building materials, urban mining actively conserves  this substantial gray energy, potentially greatly reducing the overall environmental impact of new construction. As Prof. Rosen aptly puts it , “With the Urban Mining Index, we aim to guide building materials into loops that are as closed as possible and make the quality of the reuse of value and waste materials in buildings measurable.”  To “mow” the lawn in the Aspern Terraces area, the Seestadt governing body rented a flock of sheep and goats.  ©Luiza Puiu Energy Sources in Aspern Seestadt   Aspern Seestadt’s primary energy sources for the district are heavily weighted toward renewable options , with solar energy harnessed through photovoltaic panels and geothermal energy explored for heating and cooling. Currently , 70% of Seestadt’s energy comes from renewable sources, and the goal is to be completely emission-free by 2030.   Currently, 70% of Seestadt’s energy comes from renewable sources, and the goal is to be completely emission-free by 2030. Waste management in the district benefits directly from the city of Vienna’s system, according to Robert Grüneis, a member of the district’s executive board, in an email exchange with The Earth & I . It emphasizes comprehensive source separation programs to maximize recycling and divert waste from landfills, transforming it into valuable resources. City authorities are also planning to build a state-of-the-art recycling center within Seestadt in the coming years.  An aerial view of the district’s newly built and soon-to-be-opened geothermal plant.  ©Wien 3420 “There are no gas-fired individual heating systems or other fossil fuel-based heating systems in Seestadt,” Grüneis said. “At the same time, more and more projects using alternative energy sources were introduced—some of which are already largely energy self-sufficient. The range of energy solutions in use includes solar energy/photovoltaics, waste heat recovery from appliances and occupants, and geothermal energy.” Robert Grüneis is a member of the district’s executive board.  ©Luiza Puiu In 2028, Vienna’s first deep geothermal plant is scheduled to go into operation on the Seestadt site. The 40-megawatt plant , drilled down to a depth of 3,000 meters (about 1.8 miles) to tap into the heat of a natural hot water reservoir beneath Vienna, is expected to supply heat for 20,000 households.  Lessons Learned So Far   As Aspern Seestadt continues to evolve, valuable lessons are being learned from the extensive planning and construction process that began 18 years ago. One key takeaway is the crucial importance of early and continuous stakeholder engagement, focusing on “a dedicated development company as a central platform,” Hinterkörner said. This allows for “developing a vision, translating it into clear quality standards, and integrating development, sales, planning, marketing, and communications” all at once. The unity and active collaboration of all stakeholders over time also allow for agile work in an interdisciplinary team, including quick decision-making, which saves money. Moreover, this administrative seamlessness lends credibility to the brand and to the site itself through maintaining clear and ambitious quality standards. Such teamwork, Hinterkörner said, makes it easier to continuously question established processes and practices and to break out of administrative silos.  Grüneis agrees. “Investment costs, which the developers initially expected to be very high, can be minimized through a closely guided dialogue process on an expert level. This approach leads to more cost-effective and environmentally friendly energy solutions in operation,” he says. “From our perspective,” he adds, “the more ecologically sound solution is usually also the more economically beneficial in the long run.”  The journey toward a truly eco-friendly urban future will undoubtedly be complex and require a concerted effort from policymakers, industry leaders, and individual citizens. However, the tangible progress being made in places like Aspern Seestadt offers a beacon of hope.   By embracing the principles of urban mining, prioritizing sustainable transportation and energy systems, and fostering a culture of reuse and resourcefulness, cities can begin to be rebuilt into resilient, vibrant, and environmentally responsible ecosystems for generations to come. The future of urban centers, and indeed the planet, may very well depend on builders’ ability to see the potential not just in the new but in the valuable resources that already exist.  *Robert Selle is a freelance writer and editor based in Bowie, Maryland.

How an Italian Startup Creates Luxury from Orange and Cactus Waste By Gordon Cairns* Sicilian prickly pear cacti stand as the sun sets behind Mount Etna. Istock In Sicily, where citrus groves glow under the shadow of Mount Etna and prickly pear cacti dot the landscape, agricultural waste has long been part of the scenery. Each year, more than a million tons of orange peels, pulp, and cactus by-products are left behind—too often discarded, overlooked, or treated as a burden. But in this corner of the Mediterranean, a quiet transformation is underway. What was once waste is being given a second life—one that feels, quite literally, luxurious. The story unfolds not just in a laboratory but in the rhythms of the land itself. Here, three founders—a textile designer, an engineer, and a chemist—began with a simple question: What if the materials we throw away are not the end of a story, but the beginning of another? Their answer became Ohoskin, a material crafted from the remnants of Sicilian oranges and cactus plants—soft, durable, and refined enough for fashion, interiors, and even automotive design. Ohoskin CEO and co-founder Adriana Santanocito. ©Ohoskin Yet this is less a tale of invention than of rediscovery. “We didn’t start from the idea of replacing leather, we started from the idea of valorizing what already exists,” CEO and co-founder Adriana Santanocito tells The Earth & I. “Ohoskin is the result of transforming that resource into a material that combines performance, aesthetics, and meaning.” Sicily, Soul of the Product Sicilian oranges. istock Sicily is not just the source of the raw ingredients—it is the soul of the product. The island’s extremes have always demanded adaptability, and its ecosystems have adjusted in ways both subtle and striking. Even the deep red color of its oranges, Santanocito notes, is impacted by the temperature shifts caused by Mount Etna’s presence. “This is a resilient land, shaped by extreme conditions and unique biodiversity,” she explains. “That same territory, where agriculture, nature, and adaptation coexist, defines our approach.” In that sense, each sheet of material conveys more than texture or strength—it conveys a place. “We don’t just create materials; we translate a place into a product,” she says. “Every square meter of Ohoskin carries a story of Mediterranean identity, transformation, and innovation rooted in a landscape that has always turned challenges into value.” From Familiar Fruit to Unexpected Beauty Ohoskin has nautical interior applications. ©Ohoskin There is something quietly disarming about the idea that a handbag or car interior might begin with an orange. That familiarity is part of the magic. “Storytelling is fundamental,” Santanocito says. “When consumers understand that a material comes from something as familiar as an orange, it creates an immediate emotional connection. Design then translates that story into a tangible experience, through texture, color, and quality.” That connection has already drawn the attention of international brands such as GANNI, Moea, and Monica Zuccheri. Companies like these are looking for alternative materials that enhance their products and align with their values. Ohoskin has automotive interior applications. ©Ohoskin Rethinking Luxury For Ohoskin, the transformation is not only physical—it is philosophical. “For us, luxury is no longer about exclusivity at any cost but about the freedom to enjoy what you love without compromising your values,” Santanocito says. “It is the luxury of not having to choose between aesthetics, performance, and respect for nature and animals.” Indeed, traditional leather production is not only resource-intensive, it’s chemically complex. Ohoskin’s process—collecting agricultural residues, transforming them into proprietary bio-polymers, and maintaining traceable supply chains—demonstrates how various stakeholders, including agriculture, materials science, and manufacturing, can intersect to form new green industries. Two examples of Ohoskin’s leather alternative lines. ©Ohoskin “It’s no longer just about how something looks or feels,” says Santanocito, “but also about where it comes from, how it’s made, and the impact it generates. True luxury today is conscious, measurable, and aligned with a new generation of values.” The Journey from Peel to Product Citrus and cactus remnants are first stabilized, then combined with bio-based or recycled polymers. The resulting material is layered onto a textile backing and tested for strength, durability, abrasion resistance, and color fastness—ensuring it performs like the materials it seeks to complement or replace.   Ohoskin product is layered onto textile backing. ©Ohoskin “This is a key point,” Santanocito explains. “Sustainability without performance is not viable at scale. We use second-generation polymers—bio-based or recycled—to ensure durability, flexibility, and resistance over time, while reducing dependency on virgin fossil resources.” “This approach also enables industrial scalability. By working with established technologies and advanced formulations, we can guarantee consistency across large volumes, [which is] something essential for sectors like automotive and fashion. It’s a pragmatic approach: enabling transition, not compromising performance, and making innovation scalable.” The result is a material with a carbon footprint of about 2.57 kg CO₂ per square meter—far lower than traditional leather and conventional synthetic alternatives. Traditional leather can be nearly 10 times higher, with more than two-thirds of this figure attributed to upstream farming and slaughtering. New Life from Old Beyond design and performance, the story circles back to where it began: the land and its people. By purchasing agricultural by-products, Ohoskin creates new income streams for local producers and reduces the need to dispose of organic waste. Ohoskin rescues orange rind waste. ©Ohoskin Ohoskin shreds the rinds before processing. ©Ohoskin “We take a linear waste stream from the agri-food sector and transform it into a high-value input,” Santanocito says. “At the same time, we enable brands to integrate circular materials into their products without compromising on quality or performance.” “This strengthens local economies and introduces a more resilient, diversified model for agricultural regions, especially in Southern Italy.” To achieve this, says Santanocito, “we have not focused on biodegradability as a primary goal, because today it often comes with trade-offs in durability and performance that are not compatible with industrial applications. Instead, we focus on increasing the bio-based content of our formulations, reducing fossil inputs, and improving overall material efficiency and longevity.” She adds: “We believe that creating long-lasting, high-performance materials with a reduced environmental footprint is currently the most impactful direction for large-scale industries.” The Real Transformation Like any good Cinderella story, the transformation here is not just about appearance—it is about perception. “Ohoskin helps shift the perception of what materials can be. It shows that what was once considered waste can become something desirable, high-quality, and valuable. This changes how both industries and consumers think, moving from a culture of extraction to one of transformation, where materials are designed with purpose and responsibility from the beginning.” And perhaps that is the deeper narrative: not simply that waste can be turned into something beautiful but that beauty itself can be redefined—rooted not in excess but in care, ingenuity, and a willingness to see value where others do not. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English at the Forest Schools, based in Scotland.

Objectively Assessing the Economic Worth of Ecosystems By Rick Laezman* Without honeybees and other insects to provide “free” pollination, wheat harvests would be meager. Vitalii Stamat/iStock Imagine a local government weighing two futures for a 100-acre plot of pristine wetlands. On one hand, a developer offers a $50 million subdivision, promising immediate property taxes and housing. On the other hand, the existing marsh sits quietly, apparently “worthless” on a balance sheet. However, that marsh acts as a sponge; during every major storm, it absorbs millions of gallons of runoff, each time preventing $80 million in potential flood damage to the surrounding town. Without the marsh, the town must build an expensive concrete levee—costing taxpayers millions more in construction and maintenance than the subdivision would ever have generated.   For too long, global markets have seemingly operated under the delusion that if a tree isn’t cut into lumber or a wetland isn’t paved into a parking lot, it has no economic value. Society treats the “services” nature provides—clean air, storm protection, and crop pollination—as free, infinite gifts. But new efforts to calculate the costs of development on nature suggest the costs will be high—even into the trillions of dollars.  Researchers are trying to move beyond simple aesthetics to calculate the cold, hard cash value of the natural world. Enter the emerging frontier of environmental valuation, a field that seeks to put a literal price tag on what are now being called the ecosystem services that sustain human life. Researchers are trying to move beyond simple aesthetics to calculate the cold, hard cash value of the natural world. By understanding these metrics, conservation becomes not just a luxury but a vital economic necessity for a stable future.   While society slaps a price tag on a man-made barrel of oil or a new sedan, it treats the very air we breathe and the soil that feeds us as if they are worth zero on the open market.   While society slaps a price tag on a man-made barrel of oil or a new sedan, it treats the very air we breathe and the soil that feeds us as if they are worth zero on the open market. But environmental valuation theorists argue that nature isn’t just a backdrop for people’s lives; it’s the very skeletal framework of the economy. Thus, when an ecosystem fails, the shockwaves ripple through markets and into everyone’s homes, these researchers say.   One example of this is the overplowing of native grasslands for decades in the central United States, leading to topsoil erosion and collapse of agricultural land productivity. This opened the door, together with drought, to the Dust Bowl of the 1930s. In the absence of grassland resilience, crop yields collapsed across millions of acres, thousands of farms failed, and food production disruptions contributed to broader economic stress during the Great Depression. All of this led to mass migration (the “Okies”), rising food prices, and federal intervention programs. The loss of soil as a natural asset translated directly into incredible economic losses in terms of household hardship, unemployment, and national economic strain.   To fix societies’ broken planning process, there needs to be a yardstick. Environmental valuation is intended to provide that metric, translating the complex wonders of nature into the language of economics so business and political leaders can make smarter, more sustainable choices.   What Is Environmental Valuation? The practice of assigning value to the environment is relatively new. According to Stephen Carpenter, professor of limnology and zoology at the University of Wisconsin, “We know that ecosystems do these things for us and we know that we currently undervalue them in the marketplace, and this is a frontier of research right now.”   In a 2020 article published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Francisco Guijarro of the Polytechnic University of Valencia and Prodromos Tsinaslanidis of the University of Western Macedonia describe environmental valuation as “a variety of techniques to assign monetary values to environmental impacts, especially non-market impacts.”   They add that the field has experienced “steady growth” over the last three decades, noting that the term first appeared in a study in 1987. Dr. Gretchen Daily says in this 2025 video that “if we don’t put a price tag on nature, we are effectively saying nature is worth nothing.” Ten years later, a group of ecologists led by Stanford University Professor Gretchen C. Daily authored a paper in Issues in Ecology, a journal published by the Ecological Society of America. Entitled “Ecosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems,” the 1997 paper notes that in addition to the basic raw materials derived from nature, like seafood and timber, society also benefits from other “fundamental life-support services” that natural ecosystems perform. These include such noncommoditized essentials as the purification of air and water, detoxification and decomposition of wastes, regulation of climate, regeneration of soil fertility, and the production and maintenance of biodiversity.   All these essentials provide sustenance to various markets, including agricultural, pharmaceutical, and industrial. However, they have never been measured in terms of dollar value because they are not bought and sold. In fact, the paper argues that historically they have largely been ignored until they begin to fail.   One such failure is the Chesapeake Bay ecosystem on the US East Coast, which underwent a multidecade ecological breakdown driven by nutrient pollution (nitrogen and phosphorus from agriculture, sewage, and runoff), overharvesting of key species, and habitat loss. Oyster populations fell to less than 1% of historical levels. Striped bass and blue crab populations experienced major declines. These species weren’t just “resources”—they were ecosystem engineers and economic drivers.    Oysters once filtered the entire bay in days; their collapse led to murkier, oxygen-poor water. Loss of habitat and water quality reduced fish and crab populations. Excess nutrients fueled algal blooms and “dead zones.” The oyster fishery—once the backbone of the bay economy—collapsed in the 20th century. Thousands of watermen across Maryland and Virginia lost livelihoods. Crab and fish industries became highly volatile, with bad years hitting incomes hard. All of this produced rising costs for water treatment and infrastructure, along with higher taxes, utility bills, and public spending burdens—essentially replacing lost “free” ecosystem services with costly engineered solutions. In addition, the tourism industry was hurt badly, and even waterfront property values were affected. Moreover, there were public health and other hidden costs from the algal blooms and contaminated waters.   The negative consequences of the strains human society has placed on natural systems are now apparent, Daily believes, and a method for ascertaining the value of these systems has become an imperative. She admonishes that “if we don’t put a price tag on nature, we are effectively saying nature is worth nothing. Nature scores a zero.”   Daily and her colleagues concede that quantifying the value of ecosystem services and measuring their worth against other possible uses is “no simple task.” It often involves a choice or comparison between short-term economic gains to a limited group of individuals, like landowners and businesses, on the one hand, and long-term benefits to the community or society overall.    Put another way, they argue that the question should be posed as: “Which is greater, the economic benefits of a particular development project or the benefits supplied by the ecosystem that would be destroyed, measured over a time period of interest to people concerned about the well-being of their grandchildren?” “Free” water for irrigating crops comes from nearby waterways or deep-underground aquifers, but if human activity pollutes or overuses those sources, the cost of farming and food can soar. French Sweetie/Pexels In the same year that Daily’s article was published (1997), Robert Costanza, professor of ecological economics at the Institute for Global Prosperity at University College London, published a study with a team of scholars in the journal Nature entitled, “The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital.”   They took the concept of ecosystem services one step further, from definition to measurement, and attempted to calculate an actual dollar value for ecosystem services. The authors acknowledged that the exercise is “difficult and fraught with uncertainties.” Despite these challenges, they felt it must be done, adding that “one choice we do not have is whether or not to do it.”   Costanza makes the case for this exercise in actual economic terms. He explains that “the current economic model does not achieve real economic efficiency. A new, sustainable ecological economic model would measure and include the contributions of natural and social capital and could better approximate real economic efficiency.”   In their Nature article, Costanza and his team explain that various methods have been used to try to assign value to ecosystem services, and most of these employ a concept utilized in economics known as willingness to pay. It refers to the maximum amount of money a consumer is willing to pay for a product or service.   Nature’s annual “work” was valued at $33 trillion—nearly double the entire world’s economic output at the time—and they added that this was almost certainly a vast underestimate.   The price of a forest’s carbon-absorbing power won’t appear on a receipt for two-by-fours at the hardware store, but Costanza’s team worked to make that invisible value visible. After analyzing 17 different categories of ecosystem services, such as the regulation of atmospheric gases, pollination, and soil and oxygen for food production, their final tally was staggering: Nature’s annual “work” was valued at $33 trillion in 1994 US dollars—nearly double the entire world’s economic output at the time—and they added that this was almost certainly a vast underestimate.   In 2014, Costanza published a significant update of his work in the journal Global Environmental Change titled “Changes in the global value of ecosystem services.” This study revised the 1997 estimates, accounting for land-use changes and updated unit values. The 2014 update estimated the value at $125–$145 trillion per year (in 2007 US dollars). Then, in reviews in 2020 and 2021, Costanza and various international teams have continued to refine these models, often focusing on the progress made since the 1997 publication and integrating the UN's Sustainable Development Goals.   Multiple Methods of Measurement Since these groundbreaking studies, several methods have emerged to calculate nature’s worth based on context: Deliberative Methods: Use focus groups and democratic deliberations to uncover deeply held values, especially in developing regions where cultural or language barriers exist. Benefit Transfer Method: A time-saving approach that applies data from one site to a similar location, though its accuracy depends on how well the sites truly match. Revealed Preferences: Uses human behavior to determine value. This includes hedonic pricing (e.g., measuring how proximity to parks raises home prices) and replacement cost evaluations (calculating what it would cost to build a water treatment plant to replace a natural wetland). Damage Avoidance: Estimates value by the cost of harm prevented, such as a wetland’s role in stopping flood damage. While economic tools are effective, they often miss nonmarket factors. Consequently, newer models incorporate cultural implications—like spiritual inspiration and identity—and the psychological impacts of nature, including the healing benefits of ecotherapy. These diverse metrics ensure that nature’s “hidden” benefits are finally accounted for in global markets. France’s Saint-Alban nuclear power plant draws vital water from the Rhone River to cool its reactor. Without the “free” water, the multibillion-dollar plant, which provides millions of dollars of electricity and incalculable comfort and convenience to 6 million households, would shutter. Pilat Oueb/Wikipedia Implementation As the study of ecosystem services has become more sophisticated, its implementation has also expanded. In fact, there are many examples of governments and other, nongovernmental organizations applying various metrics to policy- and decision-making.   For example, the US Geological Services (USGS), part of the Department of the Interior, is applying various methods of ecosystem services valuation to their assessment of natural resources. Scientists at the USGS’s Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center (GECSC) developed a tool called Social Values for Ecosystem Services. It assesses the social values and, in particular, the cultural values of ecosystem services. The tool is used to aid in natural resource management. At the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area on the US East Coast, for example, GECSC conducted surveys of visitors to determine what portions of the reserve had the greatest emotional appeal. This guided the park to alter nature trails accordingly.   GECSC scientists are also developing methods to assess the impact of landscape change on ecosystem services. For example, energy development, like a new geothermal power plant, can have a significant impact on the surrounding environment. Similarly, urban growth, like adding a new subdivision, can also impact the ecosystems it encroaches upon.   As scientists and economists get better at pricing nature, these experts believe society will stop flying blind. Instead of guessing, planners will finally have the data to see how every acre of forest or wetland directly impacts communities’ bottom line.   Putting a price on nature isn't just about carbon credits or emissions. It’s about recognizing that everything from the bees pollinating crops to the mental peace found in a park has a measurable, essential worth.   As the study of these impacts evolves, appropriate measures are also becoming more effective. In the words of Gretchen Daily, “Our economic systems are blind to the values of nature. We could assume that nature was infinite and that’s what was assumed for the most part. But now, everybody’s waking up to reality.” *Richard Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has been covering renewable power and other related subjects for more than 10 years.

Anna Heringer Says Sustainability Is Synonymous with Beauty  By Yasmin Prabhudas* The Modern Education and Training Institute (METI) Handmade School “cave” in Bangladesh encourages student relaxation while studying. ©PMK Bauerdick Anna Heringer, architect, author, teacher, and winner of multiple awards, has discovered a secret to beautiful and sustainable building: Form follows love. As a young adult, the German-born Heringer  spent a year in Bangladesh, where she was involved with a nongovernmental organization, Dipshikha . It was there that she learned about sustainable development, traditional building techniques, and local materials. Since then, Heringer has used “low-tech, high-impact solutions”  on three key projects in a village in the Dinajpur district of Bangladesh. The first was the Modern Education and Training Institute (METI) Handmade School ,  which was built in 2005 and won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 2007. Next was the DESI Vocational School , constructed in 2008, and then the Anandaloy Building , a center for people with disabilities that is combined with a textile studio, which was completed in 2020. A key feature of these projects was the use of clay in a technique known as cob  (which combines local subsoil, with straw and water). When used along with bamboo, local craftspeople can create durable, innovative buildings. The Anandaloy Building , which has a textile studio,  was created as a center for people with disabilities. ©Stefano Mori An embroidered masterplan of the Anandaloy Building made by local crafters. ©Günter König Some of Heringer’s other projects include bamboo hostels in China ; an Ayurveda center in Germany , which is made of timber, earth, and willow; and the Don Bosco Earth Campus  in Ghana, constructed of soil. Love, Not Fear Heringer’s approach is to improve lives by emphasizing love in architecture. “I realized, especially working in Europe, that a lot of decisions are based on fear, liability,” she tells The Earth & I . “That led to a lot of thoughts—who wants to live in neighborhoods and buildings that are built out of the notion of fear? That results in an overuse of materials, because you want to be on the extra-safe side. So, you put in more steel, you put in more cement, and you take all sorts of paint and varnish to make it look perfect. “The only thing that is stronger than fear is love,” she explains. “It's easy, and so if we start building out of love and respect towards others and towards our beautiful planet, sustainability happens in a completely natural way.” “If we start building out of love and respect toward others and toward our beautiful planet, sustainability happens in a completely natural way.” This approach means looking at what resources are present and recognizing their potential rather than relying on imported goods and materials. It also means taking local skills into account and shaping architecture so imperfections are accepted and improvisation can take place. Joyful Living and Inclusivity Tied to the idea of love is joyful living. Heringer comments: “I think the biggest joy is when […] people came together and helped build each other’s homes.” She adds: “Our projects, quite basically, are involving other people, locals, and, using a very inclusive material like earth, you could have kids help in building the school in Bangladesh […] and even people with disabilities. When you have a material where you need sophisticated tools that can harm you, it's not really inclusive. If you have materials that are toxic, it's not inclusive. So, through working with earth, we have this inclusivity, and we can bring back the joy and the community bonding effect.” Sustainability Sustainability is a synonym for beauty , claims Heringer. “ Beauty ,” she says, “is really when something is deeply in harmony, not just on a formal level, but also on a social level, and in harmony with nature.” The structure should also be replicable and consist of the same materials that local people use at home. To ensure the structures stand the test of time, Heringer’s team creates strong  foundations and roofs, so the earth is protected from the elements. A Heringer team planning meeting at the Anandaloy Building. ©Benjamin Stähli  Her flagship project, the two-story METI school , demonstrates this principle. It offers ground-floor classrooms with “thick earth walls” that open to a system of “caves” and an upper floor consisting of bamboo walls with a vibrant sari-canopied ceiling. The traditional materials are reinforced by foundations  built from brick masonry and finished with a cement plaster, a damp-proof course made of polyethylene film (available locally), and a corrugated iron roof, supported by bamboo rafters, providing optimal runoff.  The two-story METI school is Heringer’s flagship project. ©Benjamin Stähli Every project is evaluated to determine its environmental impact ,  and efforts are made to enhance the local ecology. Learning from the Material Heringer describes how the METI project   has influenced her. The caves, she says, arose out of the “material language,” while the “bending strength” of the bamboo gave the caves their final shape. “You can trust in the material. And you know when you use beautiful materials, then there can also be some imperfection, which is beautiful.” “You can trust in the material. And you know when you use beautiful materials, then there can also be some imperfection, which is beautiful. […] Earth is an element. It's not just a building material, and you feel it. So, I know, as an architect, I can lean a bit back and don't have to do such a bold thing, because I know that the material itself has already a beautiful voice,” she says. The METI school in Bangladesh strives for beauty. ©B.K.S. Inan—Aga Khan Award for architecture Workers at the Don Bosco Earth Campus finish classrooms ©Studio A. Heringer One of Heringer’s current projects is the Don Bosco Earth Campus  in Tatale, Ghana. The school aims to prevent an exodus from the countryside to cities by providing training in sustainable construction techniques, agriculture, and electrical work. It will also offer student and teacher accommodations, a community hall, and library. Heringer is taken aback by the beauty of the orange soil from which it is being built. “Every moment in a day, when the light is changing, it looks completely different. And sometimes you have the feeling, even when the sun goes down a bit, it starts glowing on its own,” Heringer says. “It's an incredible effect, but you feel like real nature is a cooperator here. It's not you creating something out of nature. No, there is a voice there too, and you are just a part of it. And it is also a humbling experience to say, ‘OK you don't have to do the whole drama on your own.’” Workers at the Don Bosco Earth Campus prepare earth floors. ©Studio A. Heringer “Architecture has always been a community. […] No one can build the house alone. It's always a team effort.” The women participating in the build were using the atakpame technique , which caught Heringer by surprise. It involves shaping the earth with their hands rather than tools, resulting in curved rather than straight windows. Heringer believes this will lead to greater authenticity, which can be enhanced and exaggerated. “These,” she says, “are the things that are happening on the site out of the process when you’re working together.” The Don Bosco Earth Campus team, including Anna Heringer (red top). ©Studio A. Heringer Anna Heringer. ©Gerald v. Foris The processes of building are just as important as the outcome, Heringer says. “There is so much social power in those processes that we completely neglect, and we see how dramatically we drift apart as a society. […] Architecture has always been a community. […] No one can build the house alone. It's always a team effort.” Clay Storming At the University of Lichtenstein, where Heringer teaches, she tries to communicate this message to her students. Together with Martin Rauch , she has developed “ clay storming , ” which involves designing directly onto a model. The approach emphasizes intuition rather than analytical planning and can be used while working alone, in a team, or with clients. She has also drawn up the Laufen Manifesto , a set of guidelines for creating a “humane” design culture. “ It's not a question of money, in the end,”  Heringer concludes. “I t's a question of care and love and respect for the material.” *Yasmin Prabhudas   is a freelance journalist working mainly for nonprofit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

How Aquaculture in Water-Scarce Locales Can Tackle Food Insecurity By Mark Smith* At the University of Maryland Baltimore County's Aquaculture Research Center are fish tanks filled with jostling gilthead seabream (above), Atlantic salmon, and tilapia. Photo courtesy of Professor Yonathan Zohar Picturing a desert typically conjures up images of sand dunes, rocks, blazing sun, and maybe some palm trees or cactus. But one image that probably doesn’t come to mind is flourishing marine life. Yet in hot, arid southern Israel, tons of fresh fish flow from the desert to the dinner plate. This kind of aquaculture in freshwater-scarce locales is viewed as a significant solution to food insecurity. For desert regions in particular, the model offers the possibility of transforming arid landscapes into unprecedented hubs of food production. Fish Farms in the Negev Israel’s sprawling Negev Desert covers roughly 13,000 square kilometers (5,000 square miles) and features striking rock formations, craters, and canyons. With temperatures often exceeding 40°C (104°F) in the summer and with some areas receiving less than 100 millimeters (4 inches) of rainfall a year, the Negev Desert is not somewhere you would expect to find any kind of marine life—much less the type found on dinner plates. And yet several species of fish are being bred here on an industrial scale. Aquaculture in Israeli deserts  has been developed since 1979. Today, scientists, entrepreneurs, and industrialists have collaborated to build land-based fish farms in the desert  using advanced recirculating aquaculture systems  (RASs) that allow precise control over things like water quality, salinity, and temperature. [The geothermal water] was extracted and used to farm warmwater species, such as barramundi, also known as Asian sea bass. But where does the water for raising the fish come from, especially considering the amount of water needed? That problem was solved by drilling deep into the Negev bedrock south of the Dead Sea, which found artesian wells of slightly brackish geothermal water. The water, around 37°C (99°F), was extracted and used to farm warmwater species , such as barramundi, also known as Asian sea bass, which thrive in temperatures between 26°C (78.8°F) and 32°C (89.6°F). By adjusting and stabilizing the geothermal supply, farmers can create ideal growing conditions year-round. These systems are closed-loop, meaning they recycle most of what they use.  The Negev Desert of southern Israel, seen here with a group of Nubian ibexes, is characterized by arid hills and canyons. ValerijaP/iStock Unlike traditional open-water fish cages, where waste flows directly into surrounding seas, RASs can operate with minimal discharge. Small amounts of nutrient-rich excess water can be used to irrigate nearby crops, such as olives or date palms. Land-Based Aquaculture Progress Renowned Professor Yonathan Zohar, chair of the Department of Marine Biotechnology at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, and an aquaculture leader in the Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, said RASs are benefiting from technological advancements. “We made a huge amount of progress in the science and technology of land-based RASs that can be located anywhere while having total control of the environmental conditions, such as salinity and temperature,” he said. The systems allow fish to be grown in freshwater or artificial saltwater, at virtually any salinity or temperature required. “They recycle and reuse their water,” Zohar said, “and, as such, are easy to tailor the farming conditions—cold, warm, fresh, or salt water—to the species of interest to enable optimal performance. Plus, they generate very minimal environmental waste, thus being ecologically responsible.”  He adds that if operated optimally, growth rates can be faster, stocking densities higher, and feed efficiency improved compared with many open-water systems. The work taking place in the desert is the latest in a long list of achievements for the professor. Over a career spanning more than five decades, he also helped overcome one of the aquaculture industry’s most challenging biological bottlenecks: the inability of many fish species to reproduce in captivity. In the wild, fish rely on subtle environmental cues—changes in temperature, salinity, day length, and water depth—to trigger spawning. In captivity, those cues are often missing or incomplete. The professor found that the brain hormone gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) was not being properly released in farmed broodstock. His team developed synthetic versions of the hormone and incorporated them into biodegradable, slow-release implants that successfully induce spawning. The breakthrough helped transform aquaculture from a system dependent on wild-caught juveniles into one capable of closing the full life cycle in captivity. Problems and Solutions But the RAS technology is not without its critics or challenges. Building a large-scale RAS facility requires significant upfront investment —perhaps $10 million to $20 million for a medium-sized system producing 500 tons of fish per year. Energy consumption can also be substantial, particularly for pumping, filtration, and temperature control, which has prompted debates about overall energy footprints. Moreover, while water use may be minimal, electricity demand can be high. But the professor says taking certain measures can help offset this aspect. “Renewable energy, such as solar, is integrated, and we convert solid organic waste to bioenergy. These systems have a lower carbon footprint, as they can be built anywhere, near major markets, airports, or highways,” he said. “Compare this to the high energy needed for floating netpens [cages] with using boats, fuel, etc., for daily operations,” he added.   As food demand continues to rise alongside a growing global population, pressure on marine ecosystems has intensified. According to the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization, aquaculture now provides more than half of the seafood consumed worldwide. To help address this, land-based RAS farms are now operating in North America, Europe, Asia, and the Middle East, producing salmon, sea bass, shrimp, and other species. According to the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization, aquaculture now provides  more than half of the seafood consumed worldwide. Professor Yonathan Zohar by one of his fish tanks. Photo courtesy Yonathan Zohar So, the demand is there—as is the technology to meet the demands as they emerge. “The context is much broader—desert, cold climates, any climate,” said Zohar. “It is already happening.” Indeed, addressing food-security challenges was one of the main drivers of the professor’s career. “I wanted to work in a field that carries societal benefits, so that we can provide for the growing world population and meet the increasing demand of seafood through aquaculture rather than continuing to overfish and deplete our oceans,” he said. Looking to the future, Zohar believes land-based aquaculture systems have a sunny future. “RAS land-based platforms will gradually replace the current dominant practices of floating cages for optimally farming most commercially important fish species in environmentally responsible ways that are water-, energy-, and climate-smart,” he said. "It will take time, but this is the future of environmentally responsible fish farming." In a region so seemingly harsh, the sight of fish thriving in tanks beneath the desert sun challenges long-held assumptions about where food can be grown. But it may offer a glimpse of how technology and biology together can reshape the future of global food production. *Mark Smith   is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian , BBC, Telegraph , and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

Research Finds Horses Can Perceive and Interpret Human Feelings By Becky Hoag* Horses can feel people’s emotions. LSO Photo/iStock At least since 2,000 B.C., humankind and horses have traveled, worked, fought, and raced together. Modern research into animal behavior is now finding that these animals—from giant draft horses to miniature ponies—are emotionally complex and highly intelligent. “Horses are fascinating and deeply emotional beings. I often think of them as the definition of sentience—the ability to feel,” eminent animal researcher Dr. Marc Bekoff once wrote in Psychology Today. To better understand the environment and the creatures that inhabit it, scientists have long been studying animal intelligence. Researchers have already discovered that dogs, cows, and mice can distinguish human emotions through scent. Now, a peer-reviewed study, recently published in the online journal PLOS One, found that horses can perceive and interpret human emotions through facial expressions and vocal tones and also through chemical signals in human sweat. Studies like these raise the question: How many types of other animals can recognize, interpret, and react to cross-species cues? “Becoming aware of these sometimes unconscious processes helps us realize just how much we influence animals—and how much we are influenced by our contact with them,” said one of the PLOS One study’s authors, Dr. Léa Lansade. She is the research director at France’s National Research Institute of Agriculture, Food, and Environment (INRAE) and has studied horse behavior and sentience for years. “I have always been passionate about ethology [the study of animal behavior], horses, and the close relationships they share with humans,” she explained. “It therefore felt very natural for me to start studying them. This has been my profession for the past 20 years.” Dr. Marc Bekoff, author of The Emotional Lives of Animals. Michael Noonan/Wikipedia Her goal is to parse out the truths and myths about human–horse connections, and her research is making it clearer how strong that bond can be. This comes as no surprise to Bekoff, professor emeritus of ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Colorado and cochair of the Jane Goodall Institute’s ethics committee. He has studied and written about animal emotional intelligence for decades. One of his best-known books, The Emotional Lives of Animals (written in 2007 and revised in 2024), dives into a trove of studies on the topic. “This kind of chemical communication [in horses] is fascinating because we cannot see it or consciously perceive it.” “I added about 300 references [to the revised edition], and they were all supportive of the fact that a wide variety of animals have rich and deep emotions,” Bekoff told The Earth & I. “None of the studies said companion animals or wild animals didn’t have the emotions we thought they had or the emotional lives we thought they had. Every study said or implied we can always do more to increase their quality of life and their well-being.” Bekoff asserts that the research is so aligned on this point that assuming an animal is not emotional is antiscientific. Legislation and cultural norms still have a long way to go to match how humans act toward nonhumans with what the research shows, but Bekoff believes that communicating the research to the public and encouraging people to engage more with other animals is a step in the right direction. Horses Smell Our Moods For her study, Lansade and her colleagues had 30 human participants stick cotton pads under their armpits while watching either 20 minutes of the horror film Sinister or 20 minutes of wholesome clips. All participants made sure not to wear any fragrances or perfumes or eat any foods prior to the experiment that might impact body scent. After collecting the sweaty cotton pads, the researchers froze the samples for a few months. The scientists then exposed 43 horses to either a “fear” or a “joy” pad—or a neutral (unused) pad, used as a control. Reactions were documented when the horses were just roaming their enclosure, and then when they were being groomed, near a random human, surprised, or exploring an unknown object. In addition to documenting observable behavior, the researchers collected saliva samples from the horses and monitored their heart rates. They found that horses exposed to a “fear” scent grazed less, touched the random human near them less, were more easily spooked, and glanced at the random object more. Fear seemed to impact behavior more than joy when compared to the neutral scent. Lansade told The Earth & I she was surprised by how much the horses were impacted by the different odors. “These pads were frozen and tested with horses months later. And yet they still contained enough chemical compounds to influence the horses’ behavior. Imagine how strong the effect must be when we experience emotions in real time in front of horses—the impact is likely much greater,” Lansade said. “This kind of chemical communication is fascinating because we cannot see it or consciously perceive it, and it may explain many phenomena.” The study showed that humans who spend time around horses really can’t lie to them. How a caretaker or trainer feels can genuinely impact how a horse behaves or reacts. This might help people understand why a horse is more reactive during equestrian games, therapeutic riding sessions, or medical appointments. And maybe, if the world is causing more stress for humans, the horses can feel it too. A PLOS One study showed that, due to horses’ exquisite sense of smell, humans can’t lie to them. Emma Ted/Pixabay Seeing the World through a Pet’s Eyes Recognizing that there might be a deeper connection—or a strong potential for a deeper connection—with other animals can develop an important way for people to connect with the world around them. This is something The Earth & I has enjoyed exploring before. While it can be difficult for people to connect to wild animals, companion animals like cats, dogs, and horses can provide an important bridge for feeling more sympathy for other creatures. “I’m not saying [animals’] pain and suffering and joy is the same as ours, but they have their own pain and joy and positive and negative emotions.” “I’ve written a lot about ‘bringing it home’—thinking of companion animals as gateway species for what I call bridging the ‘empathy gap,’” Bekoff explained. “I’ll always point out that dogs are mammals, cats are mammals, horses are mammals, so all mammals have pretty much the same neuro-apparatus. I’m not saying all their pain and suffering and joy is the same as ours, but they have their own pain and joy and positive and negative emotions.” For example, as recounted in a 2024 Psychology Today article, Bekoff helped a lot of people in his home state of Colorado develop more sympathy for the wolves reintroduced in the west Colorado wild in 2023 and 2025 by comparing their emotional lives to those of domestic dogs. According to Dr. Marc Bekoff, it’s antiscientific to believe horses don’t understand human emotions. Rebecca’s Pictures/Pixabay Speaking of his pioneering animal psychology work, he said, “I’m very fortunate that I’ve made a living spending my time around a lot of animals, [which] most people don’t.” He recommends people start by just going to dog parks and watching the dogs’ behavior, even if they don’t have a dog themselves. Then people can expand this experience to wild neighbors by observing the behavior of the squirrels, birds, and even pollinating insects outside. “Just go watch them!” he encouraged. Getting kids involved in programs like his late friend Jane Goodall’s Roots and Shoots program is also a great way to jump-start the next generation’s interest in their animal neighbors. Indeed, the children can end up being a link to animals for the adults in their lives. Any method of bridging the empathy gap makes an important difference—and not just for the environment. Growing empathy for animals also increases empathy for other humans. Bekoff is intrigued by the One Welfare framework and research that highlights that connection. “How we treat nonhumans and the environment impacts how we treat others, and if you increase the well-being of nonhumans, you can also increase the well-being of humans,” Bekoff reasons. *Becky Hoag is a freelance environmental reporter. You can find her work on her site beckyhoag.com and through her YouTube channel https://youtube.com/beckisphere.

Why America’s Youth-Led Drop in Alcohol Use May Benefit Public Health and the Environment    By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe* A fall-off trend in alcohol drinking is being fueled by Gen Z and Millennials. Cottonbro Studio/Pexels Recent   Gallup polling  shows that alcohol consumption in the United States has dropped to its lowest level in nearly 90 years, with drinkers reporting they are drinking less—and less frequently. A record low of 54% of adults are now drinking in the US, down from 67% just a few years ago. Younger adults, aged 18–35, are driving this decline, as they increasingly prioritize their health. Discussions about declining alcohol use focus on personal health and cultural changes, but an important but less explored angle is the environmental impact of alcohol production and consumption. It begs the question: Could drinking less benefit both people and the planet? Health over Harm Although the scientific consensus on alcohol safety is currently evolving, human civilizations and cultures, with few exceptions, have embraced alcoholic beverages from ancient times to today. “Alcohol has been a ubiquitous presence across diverse societies, from ancient Mesopotamia, where beer was a staple, to the wine-centric cultures of Greece and Rome, and the sake traditions of Japan,” says CyAlcohol,  which publishes articles on the history and world of alcohol. Alcohol markets are all expecting more sales and consumers: The global beer market is expected to grow from $821.39 billion in 2023 to more than $1 trillion by 2030, according to a 2026 Gitnux marketing report . World wine sales, now valued at $71.44 billion, are also expected to grow to $81.69 billion by 2035, reports Business Research Insights , while the global spirits market is expected to increase from its current value of $424.82 billion to $641.84 billion by 2033, says Grand View Research. All these reports, however, note shifts in consumer interests, with rising concerns about health, calorie counts, and environmental sustainability. Meanwhile, public health officials are stepping up their warnings about alcohol intake. According to the World Health Organization , no amount of alcohol is considered completely safe for human consumption. Alcohol use is the primary cause of over 200 diseases and injuries and increases the risk of developing some noncommunicable diseases, including various cancers, cardiovascular strain , and chronic illnesses. It contributes to more than 20,000 annual cancer deaths in the US alone. “It is the most harmful drug—especially due to its vast social harm,” Maik Dünnbier, director of strategy and advocacy at Movendi International , an independent global movement for development through alcohol prevention, told The   Earth & I.   Gallup’s data show a rising public belief that even moderate drinking is harmful—an important social factor in consumption decline. “The changing conversation about alcohol, including the serious doubt that has been cast on decades of studies that claimed alcohol was good for heart health, is probably also having some influence,” Professor David Jernigan, Department of Health Law, Policy, and Management at the Boston University School of Public Health, told The Earth & I. Jernigan coauthored a study  published in 2020 in the  Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs  that examined the alcohol marketing landscape, including the industry’s size, structure, strategies, and public health response . Gallup’s data show a rising public belief that even moderate drinking is harmful—an important social factor in consumption decline. Alcohol’s Environmental Footprint There is now discussion about the alcohol industry’s links to environmental degradation. The processes required to produce the industry’s global alcohol output contribute  to carbon emissions, water depletion, habitat disruption, and waste, but more research is being called for. While the impact of the alcohol industry on the environment is relatively underexplored, what is known is that the alcohol industry is resource-intensive: from crop cultivation for ingredients to energy-heavy fermentation and distillation. “It is massive. A real and growing community concern. And extremely underreported,” said Dünnbier. A Manchester University   study , cited in numerous online sources, estimated that the global alcoholic beverage industry produces around 1.5 gigatons of greenhouse gas emissions annually—comparable to emissions from more than 200 million cars. In its  comprehensive report   on alcohol, Movendi International says that alcohol is an obstacle to sustainable development. Big Liquor ’s challenges are connected to the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals , particularly responsible consumption and production (#12), climate action (#13), and life on land (#15). But Movendi International says the impact is greater than that: “Alcohol harm affects 15 of 17 Sustainable Development Goals and all dimensions of development,” Dünnbier said. Waste from packaging and wastewater are also significant but unknown. “It’s a serious problem, but there’s too little documentation of cases in real life and too little scientific study,” Dünnbier said. Knowledge on whether lower consumption meaningfully reduces pressure on municipal waste systems and freshwater ecosystems is therefore not known. “There has been little systematic research on this,” Jernigan confirmed. What scientists do know is that litter from bottles and cans is substantial, particularly in high-drinking environments. Beer can litter can be substantial in high-drinking environments. Mabel Amber/Pexels Emphasizing the global threat posed by climate change,   scientists in a 2024 study  called for more research into the environmental impacts of alcohol production. They stated that, while investigations have been minimal, “the extent of the unfolding catastrophe behooves us to consider all available ways to mitigate unnecessary emissions, including from products such as alcohol.” And Dünnbier adds it’s logical that “reducing the population’s level of alcohol consumption means a reduction in alcohol production and thus a decline in environmental pressures” such as siphoning off groundwater and taking farmland to build breweries and distilleries. Youth Seek Other Drinks There has been a documented shift in attitude among younger people toward drinking alcohol. Gen Z and Millennials increasingly prefer drinking  exotic herb- or spice-infused libations, bottled sodas and teas that are overtly healthy and that may have prebiotics or probiotics added, and concoctions that mimic dessert flavors like pecan pie, tiramisu, or orange sherbet. The more unusual and visually appealing the better. A young woman enjoying a smoothie. Daniel de la Hoz/iStock As younger consumers opt for an alcohol-free lifestyle, this is having a knock-on effect on sales and the viability of large production facilities. Despite market predictions of industry growth, a staggering   $830 billion in market value has been wiped  from the world’s largest beer, wine, and spirits companies over the past four years—now standing at 46% below their June 2021 peak, according to a Bloomberg tracking index. Dwindling liquor consumption, high prices of products, household belt-tightening, and now even tariffs were just a few of the reasons for the downturn. “There is a structural change going on—people are drinking less,” Sarah Simon, an analyst at Morgan Stanley, said in the article in The Drinks Business.   In January 2026, renowned bourbon whiskey producer and 230-year-old industry stalwart  Jim Beam announced that it would be pausing production   at its main Clermont, Kentucky, USA, distillery for the entire year. This is a first cessation for the distillery in the modern era. Forbes blamed the industry decline on a “potent mix of trade tensions, oversupply, shifting consumer habits, and mounting health concerns.” US youth see alcohol use as a hindrance. Yan Krukau/Pexels The phenomenon sparking the alcohol consumption declines among younger generations has been given a name: the   “sober-curious” movement .   This trend is due in part to younger Americans spending more time alone on their phones and less time engaged with peers in behaviors such as drinking. The implications of having their lives captured on social media are also driving the cultural shift, as young people are aware of the reputational and career damage this phenomenon can cause. The fear of social sanctions for not drinking is also disappearing. “This young generation has a greater focus on doing what they can to cope, get and stay engaged, and contribute to change—and in this, they perceive alcohol to be a hindrance,” said Dünnbier. The fear of social sanctions for not drinking is also disappearing.   Environmental awareness and climate activism may also play a key role. “The data that I know shows that values of well-being—living healthy lives—and values of caring about the climate, nature, and the environment—living sustainably—intersect and amplify each other,” said Dünnbier.   Industries’ Big Marketing Influence People have a right to know—anchored in human rights treaties—about risk and harm exposure in their environments and communities. But to alcohol opponents, the alcohol industry works to keep people in the dark about the inherent risks and harm in its products.  In his coauthored study , Jernigan found that advertising expenditure is both high and widespread. Given the world's level of alcohol-related harm, the authors highlighted that, to guide policymakers in effective regulation, recommendations and best practices at global and regional levels are needed. In its   Big Alcohol Exposed Report 2024 and  update, the Big Alcohol Exposed 2025: A Web of Interference , Movendi International identified the alcohol industry’s impact on nature and the environment. “Because of these greenhouse gas emissions, we need to be careful and critical of the alcohol industry’s activity trying to appear responsible, caring, and a ‘good corporate citizen,’” Dünnbier said. Alcohol Production Innovations Striving for circularity  is not new to local or international brewing and distilling. Bridging the Gap , an environmental organization involved in local advocacy and volunteering work in Kansas City, sees area liquor businesses tackling the pollution, water use, and packaging impacts of the industry. Boulevard Brewing Co., for instance, is recycling and composting waste to become a zero-landfill brewing operation. The founders also established Ripple Glass to facilitate the recycling of glass bottles. On the international level, many alcoholic beverage producers have seen the writing on the wall and are taking steps  to address environmental concerns by making bottles lighter (with thinner glass), adopting recyclable packaging materials, using heat pumps for manufacturing needs, and relying on renewables-generated electricity in the production process. Heineken , for example, has made a policy decision to make sustainability the core of its procurement and supply chain systems. One final point emphasized by Movendi International is that the drinking public needs to become far more aware not only of the health consequences of consuming alcohol but of the environmental impact. And this can be done with the help of national-level health advisory groups. Movendi asks: Is there room to soon see environmental considerations integrated into public health guidance? And Dünnbier, referring to Mexican and Nordic dietary guidelines that already exist and that combine public health with environmental and sustainability considerations, said: “Yes, there is room, and it is already being addressed.” *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe   is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 10 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences.

More and more plastic is polluting the natural world. iStock In 2020, the Pew Charitable Trusts and SYSTEMIQ published Breaking the Plastic Wave , a pioneering report that detailed how global plastic pollution was projected to nearly triple by 2040 unless bold action was taken to significantly curb pollution. Five years later, Pew’s Breaking the Plastic Wave 2025  update offers a more complete picture of how plastics are impacting people, economies, and ecosystems worldwide. The new report revisits the original projections but expands the analysis beyond ocean pollution to include land, air, human health, and climate impacts. It also offers modeling of scenarios showing how ambitious, coordinated action could nearly reverse the trajectory of plastic pollution within a generation. Key Data from Breaking the Plastic Wave 2025 In 2025, approximately 130 million metric tons (Mt) of plastic polluted the environment—including on land, in the air, and in water. Without mitigation, this figure is projected to rise to 280 Mt per year by 2040—equivalent to dumping a garbage truck’s worth of plastic waste every second. Annual primary plastic production is expected to grow 52%, from about 450 Mt in 2025 to 680 Mt in 2040, far outpacing improvements in waste management.  Even with investments, waste collection and disposal capacity is projected to increase only 26% by 2040.  Thus, the proportion of uncollected plastic waste is expected to rise from 19% to 34% over the same period.  Health impacts associated with plastic production, use, and pollution are projected to increase by 75% by 2040 if no action is taken.  Annual government spending on plastic collection and disposal is projected to reach $140 billion by 2040—roughly 30% higher than in 2025. Annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the global plastic system could rise by 58% by 2040, totaling about 4.2 gigatons CO₂ equivalent.   Microplastics comprised 13% of global plastic pollution in 2025.  Key pollution sources include tire wear and paint (10 Mt each), agriculture (3 Mt), and recycling processes (2 Mt). Without intervention, microplastic pollution could rise from 17 Mt to 26 Mt annually by 2040. Important Takeaway: The 2025 update to Breaking the Plastic Wave  finds the plastic pollution problem is larger and more complex than previously quantified. Yet, the new report also shows that strategic, integrated action could drastically reduce pollution and unlock economic and social benefits if implemented swiftly and globally.

Ice lagoon at the foot of the Vatnajökull Glacier, Iceland, 2023. Wikimedia Glaciers—icons of the Earth’s climate crisis—are not just shrinking in volume; scientists have now forecast when the rate  of glacier disappearances will reach its zenith in this century. In a groundbreaking Nature  study, glaciologists have shifted focus from traditional mass-loss metrics to the number of individual glaciers vanishing each year under different climate warming scenarios. Their findings underscore a sobering reality: Without aggressive cuts to emissions, the world could witness thousands of glaciers disappearing annually by mid-century. This emerging narrative of a “ peak glacier extinction ” —when the annual count of disappearing glaciers is highest—reveals not only how much ice is lost but how rapidly these frozen landscapes could vanish as distinct structures. Beyond scientific metrics, loss of these glaciers carries cultural, ecological, and hydrological consequences for communities tied to mountain water resources and winter tourism. Highlights from the Nature study: The Nature study  analyzed more than 200,000 glaciers using the Randolph Glacier Inventory version 6.0, allowing projections of individual glacier “extinction” dates through 2100. Current modeled loss of glaciers is roughly 750–800 a year. Under different warming scenarios, the annual number of glaciers disappearing globally is expected  to reach its highest point between the early 2040s and mid-2050s. Annual disappearance rates  are estimated to be around 2,000 glaciers per year under a +1.5°C warming scenario and 4,000 glaciers per year under a +4.0°C warming scenario. Assuming  temperatures rise by +4.0°C, then about 18,000 glaciers would remain worldwide. On the other hand, warming capped at +1.5°C could preserve approximately 100,000 glaciers. Smaller glaciers—common in regions like the European Alps, the Caucasus, and the Andes—are projected  to disappear earlier (often before 2040), while larger glacier populations (e.g., in Arctic Canada and near Greenland) may peak later due to slower response times. After the mid-century peak, projected  annual glacier disappearances decline only gradually—but do not stop, indicating ongoing decline into the late 21st century and beyond. Why This Matters This new “peak glacier loss” framing provides a vivid indicator of how the climate crisis could be reshaping Earth’s cryosphere (portions of Earth’s surface where water is solid). It highlights a timeline of change—not just cumulative loss—and underscores the urgency of preserving these vital components of Earth’s water cycle and climate system. Limiting warming to the Paris Agreement’s targets could meaningfully reduce the number of glaciers that vanish before 2100, the Nature study authors wrote. Sources: “Peak glacier extinction in the mid-twenty-first century”— Nature Climate Change : https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02513-9   Nature “A stunning new forecast shows when thousands of glaciers will vanish”—ScienceDaily: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/12/251219030455.htm   ScienceDaily