*By Kelcie Ottoes Tap water is fluoridated in most US community water systems.  Photo: Margaret Barse/ Flickr  (Public domain) For decades, fluoride has been added to community water supplies to help prevent cavities. But since fluoride is also present in toothpaste and food, questions are emerging about its overexposure and potential health risks. Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., the Trump administration’s new secretary of health and human services, has long called for an end to fluoridation in public water systems, citing health concerns. In response, many medical health associations , including the American Dental Association, have decried Kennedy’s views and reminded policymakers that fluoridating public water is considered “ one of the 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century.” Meanwhile, new research is emerging to help policymakers decide whether fluoridation should remain a public health standard. For the public, understanding fluoride’s benefits and risks can help people make their own decisions about it. How Does Fluoride Protect Teeth? Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral found in soil, water, and certain foods like dairy, meat, and seafood. It plays a key role in oral health by strengthening tooth enamel, attracting calcium and phosphate  to rebuild weakened areas, and creating a more acid-resistant surface that helps prevent cavities. Fluoride can strengthen teeth through toothpaste and dental treatments. Children absorb it more than adults, making early intake especially impactful. However, naturally occurring “fluorine” in water was once an alarming dental concern. At high levels, the mineral permanently turned children’s and adult’s teeth brown, even to the point of being “the color of chocolate candy,” the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research said in an article  on the US history of fluoridation. By the 1940s, researchers figured out how to avoid both “fluorosis” and stained teeth. But they also saw there were fewer cavities in populations when there was a very low level of fluoride in the drinking water. In 1945, Grand Rapids, Michigan, became the first city to add fluoride —at tiny levels—to the public drinking water. For 80 years, fluoride has been added in controlled amounts to many public water supplies through a process called water fluoridation. Compounds like sodium fluoride, fluorosilicic acid , or sodium fluorosilicate  dissolve into the water supply, maintaining steady fluoride levels to help protect against tooth decay. Many countries, including the US, UK, and Australia , continue this practice due to its proven effectiveness in combatting tooth decay. A 2023 Environmental Research  review of Australian studies from 1960 to 2022 indicated that fluoridated water reduces cavities by 26% to 44% across all age groups. Black tea is a natural source of fluoride.  ©freefoodphotos.com  ( CC BY 3.0 ) Beyond water and dental care, fluoride is also present in certain processed foods (such as brewed black tea ), beverages made with fluoridated water, and dietary supplements designed for areas without fluoridated water supplies. A 2023 Environmental Research review of Australian studies from 1960 to 2022 indicated that fluoridated water reduces cavities by 26% to 44% across all age groups. As of 2020, 72.7%  of the U.S. population receives fluoridated water through community water systems. Regulatory Responses on Fluoride A boy with skeletal fluorosis of the legs.  © Flickr /India Water Portal ( CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 ) While water fluoridation is a major source, toothpaste ( especially when ingested ) and certain foods may contribute significantly to overall fluoride intake, particularly in areas where people drink less tap water. This can lead people to worry that they may be consuming more fluoride than necessary. Besides dental fluorosis , which causes brown-stained teeth (a cosmetic issue), overexposure has been linked to a rare condition called skeletal fluorosis , in which bone structure changes to become more brittle and less elastic , potentially leading to joint pain and bone damage. There are also studies  pointing to lower IQs and other cognitive harms in children who ingest too much fluoride. The US federal government‘s National Toxicology Program  began studying published research on fluoride in 2015. In January 2025, it concluded, “ with moderate confidence, that higher levels of fluoride exposure, such as drinking water containing more than 1.5 milligrams of fluoride per liter, are associated with lower IQ in children.” Its research was published on January 6, 2025, in JAMA Pediatrics . In response to these concerns, health and environmental agencies have introduced guidelines and limits to help regulate fluoride exposure while trying to maintain its dental benefits. Regulatory Action and Recommendations 1986 : The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)  set a legal fluoride limit of 4 mg/L in drinking water to prevent bone disease and dental fluorosis. 2011 : The EPA and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services proposed lowering fluoride concentration to 0.7 mg/L to balance cavity prevention with the risk of fluorosis. 2013 : The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)  recommended a daily intake limit of 0.05 mg/kg body weight per day for children and adults. 2015 : The US Public Health Service (PHS)  lowered its recommended level from 1.2 mg/L to 0.7 mg/L due to increased fluoride exposure from multiple sources. The 0.7 mg/L recommendation was finalized  but remains optional for states. September 2024: A federal judge ordered the EPA  to reevaluate fluoride regulations in drinking water due to concerns about its effects on children's intellectual development. As research continues, policymakers are re-examining fluoride standards to ensure public health safety. Policy Shifts to Balance Benefits and Risks While major health organizations continue to support fluoridation, some countries and US regions are reconsidering their approach. Countries like Germany, Sweden, and Switzerland  have discontinued water fluoridation but still promote fluoride use through fortified salt and targeted dental programs. Meanwhile, several US cities and states, including Lebanon, Oregon , and Arkansas , have moved toward reducing or eliminating fluoridation. Florida’s State Surgeon General has also questioned the necessity of fluoridated water , citing the need for further evaluation of its long-term effects. “The difference in dental health outcomes between non-fluoridated and fluoridated waters in an urban setting with access to dental care and a community where folks actively visit dentists for preventative care would be minuscule.” “The difference in dental health outcomes between non-fluoridated and fluoridated waters in an urban setting with access to dental care and a community where folks actively visit dentists for preventative care would be minuscule,” says Rohini Agarwal, a dentist at Smilecloud Family Dental in Dallas, Texas, “The more pronounced impact is in areas where families are not actively invested in oral health.” So, families regularly visiting the dentist and prioritizing tooth health may want to find ways to reduce their fluoride exposure. Toothpaste and mouthwash typically contain fluoride unless specified otherwise.  ©geckophotos/ iStock How to Reduce Fluoride Exposure Those who are worried about fluoride intake can limit exposure while keeping their teeth healthy: Use a water filtration system that uses reverse osmosis and activated alumina filters. Choose fluoride-free bottled or filtered water. Limit tea, seafood, and processed foods made with fluoridated water. Use fluoride-free toothpaste and mouthwash. Brush and floss twice a day and reduce sugar intake to prevent cavities. Consider hydroxyapatite toothpaste  as a natural alternative to help remineralize enamel. According to Kevin Gast, CEO and Co-Founder of VVater , a water technology company, “The risk lies in overexposure, and the combination of fluoride in water, fluoride in your toothpaste, mouthwash, and other sources of fluoride is the high-risk factor. It is strongly advised to be selective in your products to minimize your risk of ‘overdosing’ on fluoride. Using the latest water treatment technologies to remove fluoride from your water makes a big difference, but also using fluoride-free toothpaste, mouthwash, and avoiding various processed foods and drinks that contain fluoride.” “The risk lies in overexposure, and the combination of fluoride in water, fluoride in your toothpaste, mouthwash, and other sources of fluoride is the high-risk factor. It is strongly advised to be selective in … products to minimize [the] risk of ‘overdosing’ on fluoride.” By examining how much fluoride one is exposed to, one can manage the amount and maintain good oral health. Making an Informed Choice The debate over fluoride isn’t settled. While it’s been used for decades to help prevent cavities, research continues to uncover the long-term effects and impact of overexposure. If concerned about fluoride, start by checking the local water report, asking the dentist about one’s fluoride intake, and looking into fluoride-free alternatives. Whether people support fluoridation for its benefits or prefer to avoid it, staying informed helps one make the best choice for their health. *Kelcie Ottoes is a copywriter for sustainable businesses. She specializes in long form content with a call to action and has worked with brands like Farm Journal, Pela, ZeroHero, and more.

Connecting with Nature Promotes Environmental Stewardship   *By Julie Peterson ©pedphoto36pm/ iStock Today, there is awakening awareness  that enlightened humans will be better stewards of nature. This awareness includes boosting one’s bond with nature—a delightful activity—and becoming conscientious about not harming nature through pollution or abuse of natural resources.   There is concern about the future that lies ahead if people don’t change, but it’s not too late .   Here are some tips for boosting one’s bond with nature and marveling at the difference it makes to humans and the rest of life on Earth.   Living in Harmony Being in nature can provide valuable life lessons. A stroll through the woods shows that species in nature live in harmony and that the survival of all life depends on relationships.   Symbiotic relationships are the rule in the forest. Diversity is what makes an ecosystem strong. For instance, a patch of woods has different types of trees growing together, trunks and branches entwined with short shrubs and groundcover plants below. Symbiotic relationships are the rule in the forest.   Diversity is what makes an ecosystem strong. Compare this to a city where people of different ethnicities, nationalities, and beliefs live together without friction. What might be learned by comparing these two places?    Diversity.  Photo: pexels Diversity.   Photo: pexels In a forest ecosystem, rabbits, squirrels, birds, deer, and other animals find food and shelter—whether it be in the groundcover plants such as violets, sedges, ferns, or baneberry; the understory shrubs and trees such as staghorn sumac, dogwood, witch hazel, viburnum, or elderberry; or the tree canopy of maple, hickory, oak, locust, cedar, pine, and so on. (For help in identifying trees and other plants when in the woods, try downloading  LeafSnap  or  Seek .)   In a healthy deciduous forest, every vertical level is occupied, and plant and animal diversities are great. A squirrel in the understory of a forest.  Photo: pexels Interconnected Lives Professor Chris Laszlo , of the Case Western Reserve University Fowler Center for Sustainable Value in Ohio, is a researcher on sustainability and systems thinking as it relates to the human connection with nature. He emphasizes that understanding the interconnectedness of all life forms and ecosystems is crucial to re-establishing a strong bond with nature.   After all, it was not that long ago, on Earth’s timeline, that humans were part of the wild and nothing was domesticated. Regaining this connection to the wilderness has repeatedly been shown to be beneficial to human health  and well-being  via improved breathing, better sleep, and reduced symptoms of depression.   Laszlo points out that the health of the natural environment also benefits from human beings recognizing the interconnectedness of all life . He believes that through learning about ecosystems, the roles of different species, and how humans and the environment interact, humans will recognize that they are an integral part of the natural world and see themselves as stewards rather than exploiters of nature.     “Looking at how individual flourishing, based on what we’re terming spiritual experience—through a greater sense of connectedness that people have to their own purpose, to community, and to the larger environment—is helping them to make decisions that support sustainability in everything they do,” says Laszlo . Conscious Living Though people may take walks next to a river or through the woods, if they aren’t paying attention, does it matter? Laszlo believes that reconnecting with nature means fostering a deep, mindful awareness of the natural world. Intentionally appreciating the beauty and complexity of the environment are ways for people to awaken their connection to the Earth.   Thus, instead of talking on a cell phone while walking a trail, it’s important to focus on nature and attune to the rhythms and beauty of the environment. Laszlo emphasizes the importance of being fully present in the moment and engaging all the senses when in nature.   By paying attention to the sights, sounds, smells, and textures of nature, individuals can develop a deeper appreciation and cultivate a more intimate relationship with the natural world.   Conscious living is not always easy for busy minds. It requires practice, and before that, learning. A few important steps toward conscious living  are:   Being mindful of thoughts and focusing on surroundings Seeing things through a wider lens, without ego and beliefs passing judgment Disconnecting from technology   “Don’t immerse yourself in your smartphone,” says Remez Sasson, author and creator of SuccessConsciousness , a personal growth and conscious-living website. “There is real life around you. Don’t forget the world. Where your awareness is, that’s where you are.”   Mindful awareness of our relationship with the wild can be encouraged by practicing gratitude, which also helps to cultivate a deeper emotional connection.   Mindful awareness of our relationship with the wild can be encouraged by practicing gratitude, which also helps to cultivate a deeper emotional connection, according to Laszlo.   This could be done by tracking one’s relationship with nature through journaling: “Today I walked the path along the lake. I saw a family of ducks. The lapping of the waves sounded soothing, but I saw the ducklings struggled to swim through these waves. Perhaps this is a lesson in how I can move through my own obstacles.” Journaling in nature.  ©mussi87/ IStock Photo journaling with captions could be equally effective (share it on social media or not; this is a personal relationship): “Interesting tree still growing even though it is broken.” “Beautiful rocks left behind by a glacier—a magnitude of force that puts my life in perspective.” “The sun was dappling through the trees, and I noticed the bees on the dandelions.” Laszlo says that gratitude fosters a mindset of respect and reverence, which can lead to more mindful actions toward the planet.   Humans are empowered by going inside themselves and observing what’s happening there. When meditating on the environment, some people come up with feelings of helplessness  about making a difference. But are those thoughts logical, since people are empowered with limitless imagination and an abundance of free will? Can people further evolve to consciously improve their relationship with the natural world?   The biophilia hypothesis says they can. It refers to one's innate or inborn focus or emotion toward life forms. Researchers say people were biologically driven  to interact with plants and animals as an evolutionary adaptation, especially crucial for humanity's survival in nature during ancient times. However, in the modern era, biophilia has shifted toward an “affiliation with Nature” that deepened and expressed itself through pro-environmental behavior.   Nurture the Connection There are myriad activities that will strengthen one’s connection with nature. Some come with a payback in the form of increased energy  and improved physical  health outcomes, such as a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease or diabetes. Mental health  benefits may include decreased distress, attention restoration, and a sense of fulfilment . A sense of fulfilment. Istock Without realizing it, someone’s preferred activities may actually be a calling to connect with nature, such as an urge to plant a garden, fill the house with plants, care for pets, or place bird feeders outside the windows. Some might prefer swimming in a lake over swimming in a pool or relaxing under a tree instead of in a living room recliner.   Connecting with nature can take the form of small or large acts that help heal the environment. Picking up trash on a walk, composting, carrying a reusable shopping bag, volunteering to remove invasive plants, helping to build a community garden, or donating money to help endangered sea turtles are all activities that demonstrate an intrinsic connection with nature. Even reading a book to learn about local wildlife can create a greater sense of wonder and connection to the natural world.   Children in Nature A 2020 paper  published in the International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education  by researchers at the Children and Nature Network points out that children experience nature differently than adults: “Quality time in nature [for children] includes opportunities for self-directed exploration, multisensory engagement with nature places, the presence of animals, and the supportive influence of peers and adults.” Joy.  Photo: pexels Given the differences in how children perceive the world, the researchers agree on the need for more studies that focus on 2- to 5-year-olds in nature to better understand immediate and long-term effects. For example, they use their bodies as their pathway for relating to nature and may not be able to accurately vocalize or self-assess feelings like empathy and curiosity. These are the feelings that “enrich life in the moment, with the capacity to motivate children to continue to seek out nature as they grow. Through early experiences in nature, children may begin to feel part of the natural world,” the researchers say.   A child who develops a strong Connection to Nature (C2N) grows into a person who is more likely to engage in pro-environmental behaviors. Many researchers  over the last 30 years have agreed that a child who develops a strong Connection to Nature (C2N) grows into a person who is more likely to engage in pro-environmental behaviors.                                      During the last 20 years, studies  exploring the impact of children's nature-relationship have increased in number and focus. Studying C2N is now a scientific discipline that goes beyond the well-being of children and delves further into the long-term effects of children who develop a C2N at an early age.   One C2N study is ongoing in preschool populations in Sweden , and smaller studies are taking place across the United States and Canada. With time, these will inform parents, teachers, developers of urban areas, and designers of homes and schools when and how to introduce children to the idea of their bond with nature.     Research to improve human understanding of nature must continue, as the world faces critical socio-ecological challenges , such as biodiversity loss and climate change. Laszlo says by viewing the planet as a complex, interdependent system, individuals and organizations can develop strategies that promote sustainability and good health for both humans and the environment. *Julie Peterson   writes science-based articles about holistic health, environmental issues, and sustainable living from her small farm in Wisconsin.

Environmental Activist Says Opening Hearts Is Key The Earth & I Editorial Team ○ Part 1 ○ Special Section: Fourth Anniversary of The Earth & I Wanjira Mathai, a leader of the Green Belt Movement in Kenya and Managing Director for Africa and Global Partnerships at the World Resources Institute, was in Seoul, Korea, in April 2025, to receive her 2025 Sunhak Peace Prize. Around that occasion, editors of The Earth & I had the privilege of interviewing her about her life and work. Here we present some highlights of that interview, and some comments she made as a guest speaker at a conference on environmental issues on April 12, organized by the Hyo Jeong International Foundation for Environmental Peace (HJIFEP). Wanjira Mathai ©Sunhak Peace Prize Foundation Wanjira Mathai sees green in Africa’s future. Perhaps she has always seen things that way, but there is a rich history behind how this lover of nature became the environmental champion she is today. Now at mid-life, Wanjira Mathai has garnered global acclaim for her many contributions to sustainable development, such as leading the AFR100 initiative, which aims to restore 100 million hectares of degraded land across 31 African countries by 2030. She has also led and now serves on the Board of the Green Belt Movement, founded by her mother, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Wangari Maathai, and is currently serving as managing director for Africa and Global Partnerships at the World Resources Institute (WRI), and as the Africa advisor at Bezos Earth Fund. Wanjira Mathai’s many awards include BBC’s 100 Women (2023), TIME’s 100 Climate list of most influential climate leaders in 2024, and the 2025 Sunhak Peace Prize (see “World Peace Education Center Events Open New Era of Global Cooperation”). In brief remarks at an environmental conference organized by HJIFEP on April 12, 2025, in Seoul, Mathai said, “The Earth is our life support system … it is what we need to survive … I cannot tell you how many times people ask me, ‘What is the choice we have to make in this relationship between economic sustainability and environmental protection?’ It is a false choice … if we destroy the planet, we will have nothing to build these future economies on.” Being an environmental activist wasn’t always in Mathai’s future. In her interview with editors of The Earth & I, she said, “I studied biology in college (Hobart & William Smith Colleges, USA) and then thought I wanted to be a doctor.” She added, “I decided at last that it didn't really energize me.” She went on to get a master’s degree in public health at Emory University in Atlanta and worked for six years at the Carter Presidential Center on disease eradication. At that stage, she decided to take a break and returned to Nairobi where she began to work with her mother. “And it was again about community and people,” she said, though this time, “the work was about planting trees and saving the environment.” She soon realized her mother’s work “was no different [than working in public health] because it was about a healthy environment that supports healthy people.” ‘Green’ is More than Planting Trees Today, “green” means more to Wanjira Mathai than planting trees, though she is setting records for doing that—as of 2023, the Green Belt Movement had planted over 51 million trees. Transformation requires cross-boundary cooperation, something that is hindered by silos built around expertise. She told The Earth & I that transformation requires cross-boundary cooperation, something that is hindered by silos built around expertise. “People have the best of intentions, they intellectually know that they should be integrating, but it's very difficult to do when you are an expert in your own domain.” “That's why we work at the World Resources Institute (WRI) in teams,” she adds. “You need to consider community perspectives on the issues. The carbon issue, for example—it's very complex, and often the part that is left out is the people. Who benefits, who gains, who wins, who loses?” Mathai’s passion for this type of work is palpable. “Right now, I'm in the middle of an initiative that is extremely exciting, trying to work on the protection of the Amazon, the Congo Basin, and the forests of Indonesia. We're saying that … those three forest blocks, as the lungs of the planet, require all of us to … work together. Because if we lose any of them, we all lose.” Green Belt Movement tree nursery in Tumutumu Hills, Kenya. Courtesy of Wangari Maathai Foundation/Ariel Poster ‘All Decisions Are Local’ Mathai “gets” effective cooperation. She says it involves everyone, up and down. “We have to encompass everything, because the global diplomatic narrative feeds the local. In the end, all solutions are local. It all happens on the ground; but it's so important that there's global solidarity because the financing, the solidarity around what people believe, the priorities that are set by multinational organizations or even multilateral processes, come from the realities on the ground. So, we have to have a constant conversation up and down.” An important part of her work involves mobilizing funds, getting global finances to communities where they are needed. “I think philanthropy is getting smarter and smarter about working with community, working and being partners. We're actually dropping the use of words like ‘donors,’ because it implies a one-way relationship. But if they're your partners, they're in this with you.” Skipping the High Emissions Phase When asked if it’s possible for developing nations to skip the high emissions stage that plagued developed countries, Wanjira Mathai was optimistic. “Take the example of the epic leapfrogging that was mobile telephony,” she said. “On the African continent, we went straight to mobile telephony at a speed that even the consultants who had been hired to model transformation could not appreciate. It transformed everything we know about mobile telephony … We leapfrogged [the landline stage].” “Africa today is arguably more connected than most places. More young people are on their mobile phones, on AI, on all sorts of technology, than anywhere in the world.” “Investing in the future is the way to go,” she advised. “Africa today is arguably more connected than most places. More young people are on their mobile phones, on AI, on all sorts of technology, than anywhere in the world.” Is education in Africa keeping up with the future? “I think not enough. I think there's a lot more relevant education needed. We are seeing a huge growth in tech-based solutions. FinTech, AI, data hubs, data languages, models that need to be instructed in African languages.” Simple is Luxurious Does she think that as we move into this more ecologically friendly future, people will need to adopt a simpler, less materialistic lifestyle to protect the environment? Or does she think advanced technology will be the key? “Technology has brought a lot of benefits. But in terms of lifestyle, we have to break the mold we have. It's not sustainable. So, we need to move into a more sustainable mode. It may still be luxurious. It's luxurious to eat healthy. It's luxurious to eat local.” “It's luxurious to eat superfoods today,” she added. “But a lot of those are local. For many Kenyans, the vegetables we find in our supermarkets today were not there 10 years ago. They were not considered supermarket worthy. But they are superfoods. There are seven, eight green vegetables that I can buy in my supermarket today that I couldn't buy [before].” “That's progress!” she said. “I think the nomenclature is a little bit confusing because we almost imply that sustainable is ‘less than.’” Family Traditions “As a family, we compost to make sure that we reduce the sort of waste that leaves our house and make sure that what we can use, we use,” she told The Earth & I. “In our neighborhood we have a program where all that compost comes back to our gardens … [in six weeks] we get an announcement: The compost is ready.” She said her teenage children “have grown up separating their waste in Nairobi.” Does she think her children will carry on her mission of protecting the environment? “Oh, absolutely, I think so. It's now stuck in their heads.”

Over 25% of Adults and Close to 20% of Children Have Seasonal Allergies in the US It’s that time of year when flowers bloom and pollen fills the air, causing many to suffer from hay fever (allergic rhinitis). Below are some facts on hay fever and pollen—microscopic egg-shaped male cells  of plants—in preparation for traversing the great outdoors. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , 25.7% of adults and 18.9% of children in the US had seasonal allergies in 2021. According to a 2022 study  by researchers at the University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines in France, the median prevalence of allergic rhinitis in adults worldwide was 18.1%. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences provides a list of pollen-releasing plants . These include ragweeds, trees, and grasses, such as the Bermuda and Kentucky varieties. People with tree pollen allergies are urged to avoid elm, oak, pecan and walnut trees, among others. Hay fever  can also be caused by dust mites, pet hair/dander, cockroaches, or mold. Some recommendations to reduce exposure to allergens include using air conditioning and keeping windows closed while indoors, wearing glasses or sunglasses while outside, and not hanging clothes outside to dry. Irritants , such as wood smoke, tobacco smoke, and aerosol sprays, can worsen hay fever symptoms. For those in the US, pollen.com  provides a pollen forecast for select cities across the country. Along with an index for pollen amounts, the forecast shows the top allergen sources on that day.   Sources: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/allergies.htm https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/clt2.12130 https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/allergens/pollen https://acaai.org/allergies/allergic-conditions/hay-fever/ https://www.healthline.com/health/hay-fever-symptoms   https://www.pollen.com/map

Research Finds 70 Potentially Habitable Exoplanets We only have one planet—Earth—called home, though it’s easy to take for granted the alignment of factors that make sustaining life here possible. As the search for extrasolar planets (exoplanets) advances, below are some facts of potentially habitable exoplanets and how they compare with Earth. According to NASA , over 5,000 exoplanets have been discovered since the discovery of the first one in the 1990s. The Planetary Habitability Laboratory of the University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo has a Habitable Worlds Catalog  (HWC) with 70 potentially habitable worlds. Of these, 29 are “more likely to be rock planets capable of surface liquid water” and 41 “might include water worlds or mini-Neptunes with a lower likelihood of habitable conditions.” Out of the 29 promising exoplanets, Proxima Centauri b  is the closest, at 4.2 light-years away from Earth. Its orbital period (around its host star) is 11.2 days, and it is frigid, with an estimated low surface temperature of 261 K (-12°C or 10.4°F). Despite it being in the habitable zone, it can suffer from powerful UV radiation—up to 10,000 times as much  as that experienced by Earth—from its host star, leading to atmosphere loss. Teegarden’s Star b has the closest Earth Similarity Index (ESI)—compared to how much radiation Earth emits—of 0.97 in the HWC. Its orbital period is 4.91 days, and it has an estimated surface temperature of 293 K (20°C or 68°F), which is much closer to that of Earth. However, a 2024 study  reevaluated this exoplanet’s habitability, dropping its ESI to 0.90 and a colder equilibrium temperature of 277 K (4°C or 39.2°F). Out of the “optimistic” sample of 41 exoplanets, Wolf 1061c is the closest, at 14 light-years away from Earth. Its orbital period is 17.9 days, and it has a higher estimated surface temperature of 306 K (33°C or 91.4°F). However, excessive tidal heating  (flexing or bending of a planet or moon in orbit through gravity) “might adversely affect the habitability”  of Wolf 1061c.   Sources: https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/science/science-behind-the-discoveries/hubble-exoplanets/ https://phl.upr.edu/hwc   https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/proxima-centauri-b/ https://www.nasa.gov/science-research/heliophysics/an-earth-like-atmosphere-may-not-survive-proxima-bs-orbit/ https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/04/aa48033-23/aa48033-23.html https://www.universetoday.com/articles/astronomy-jargon-101-tidal-heating https://www.drewexmachina.com/2017/03/25/habitable-planet-reality-check-wolf-1061c-revisited/

Better Evacuation and Firefighting Responses Sought NASA image of the Korean Wildfires from space. Wikimedia South Korea is grappling with the aftermath of its most devastating wildfires on record. CNN reported that 30 people were killed, with over 3,100 evacuated to 114 shelters, while  AP News reported that more than 37,800 fled their homes. Thousands of homes, factories, and vehicles were destroyed. The blazes, which began in the southeastern regions of the country in late March, left swaths of destruction in their wake. March 21, 2025, image of a forest fire in Sancheong, South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. Wikimedia Helicopters and fire crews worked tirelessly to drop water and fire retardants on the raging flames, although their efforts were hampered by gusty winds and dry weather conditions. Altogether, the government mobilized more than 10,000 personnel, including firefighters, 420 military helicopters, and 29 specialized Mercedes-Benz firetrucks  to assist in the firefighting efforts. Among the wildfire victims were a helicopter pilot whose aircraft crashed while fighting the flames and an 85-year-old Buddhist monk  who served as caretaker of a remote mountain temple. Four firefighters and additional workers also perished  after being trapped by fast-moving fires. Many of the civilian casualties were elderly people who found it difficult to evacuate quickly or did not heed evacuation orders. The worst-hit areas included the cities of Andong, Uiseong, and Ulsan, as well as sections of the historical Juwang Mountain. Local authorities issued evacuation orders for several villages, including the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Hahoe Folk Village  in Andong. The Gounsa temple  complex, originally built in the 7th century, was heavily damaged, with 20 out of 30 structures destroyed. They included two designated “treasures” —a pavilion-shaped structure built over a creek in 1668 and a Joseon dynasty structure erected to mark the longevity of a king. On Friday, March 28, 2025, The Korea Times   reported  the fires to be officially contained “after 149 hours [and] 48,000 ha [about 120,000 acres] of forest scorched.” The disaster has underscored the vulnerability of South Korea to extreme weather events . Local officials quickly called for a complete overhaul of the country’s wildfire response strategies to better prepare for such events in the future. Lee Cheol-woo, the governor of North Gyeongsang Province, emphasized  the need for improved evacuation guidelines, more advanced firefighting equipment, and better resources for nighttime firefighting operations. Currently, firefighting efforts at night rely heavily on manual labor, which is inadequate given the density of Korea’s forests and the speed at which fires can spread. South Chungcheong Province Wildfires Emergency Meeting on March 25, 2025. Wikimedia The Long Road to Recovery As the nation begins to rebuild, it is clear that this disaster has served as a wake-up call for the need to rethink and reinforce the country’s emergency response systems. Lee Han-kyung, deputy head of the government’s disaster response center, said that the wildfires showed “the reality of climate crisis that we have yet experienced,” according to Yonhap news agency. The Korea Herald   cited  a March 2025 report by the National Institute of Forest Science that estimates a need for “30 [plus] years for structural recovery and up to 100 years for full ecological stabilization” to recover from wildfires of this magnitude. Recovery costs , according to   Korea JoongAng Daily , are to be covered by a budget of 10 trillion won ($6.8 billion) proposed by the Ministry of Economy to “restore areas impacted by the massive wildfire,” as well as “mitigate trade risks and support small businesses.” For the thousands of displaced residents, the road to recovery will be long. Among the evacuees is 79-year-old Seo Jae Tak, who described  the devastation of returning to his home in Andong, only to find the entire mountain reduced to ashes. His emotional response reflected the personal toll of the wildfires on South Korea’s aging population.

Earth’s Crowded Orbit Raises Concerns About ‘Kessler Syndrome’ The European Space Agency (ESA) released its annual Space Environment Report  in March with its Space Debris Office. Given how the Earth’s orbital environment is a “finite resource” with limited space, Kessler Syndrome (the Earth’s orbit becoming unusable due to increasing space debris) becomes a concern. The report provides an overview of global space activities, focusing on satellites, space objects, and space debris. Below are some key findings from the report. According to ESA’s space debris environment model MASTER (Meteoroid and Space Debris Terrestrial Environment Reference), there were 54,000 space debris objects greater than 10 cm (4 in), 1.2 million space debris objects from 1 cm (0.4 in) to 10 cm, and 130 million space debris objects from 1 mm (0.04 in) to 1 cm in Earth’s orbit as of August 2024. In 2024, there were 39,246 tracked objects orbiting Earth, an increase of 7,473 from the previous year. Payloads (or objects such as satellites and calibration objects with specific functions outside of launching something into space) occupied the highest share of the total, at 13,672 (34.8%). This was followed by unidentified objects at 7,967 (20.3%) and rocket fragmentation debris at 7,767 (20%). The number of tracked objects in Earth’s orbit since 1960.  © The European Space Agency  ( for non-commercial use ) Key: Unidentified (UI, light grey); Rocket Mission Related Object (RM, dark orange); Rocket Debris (RD, dark red); Rocket Fragmentation Debris (RF, yellow); Rocket Body (RB, red); Payload Mission Related Object (PM, light blue); Payload Debris (PD, grey); Payload Fragmentation Debris (PF, blue); Payload (PL, dark blue) There were about 13,579 tons of space objects orbiting Earth, an increase of 2,229 tons from the previous year. From the total, this was mostly from payloads, at about 9,707 tons—or 71.5%—followed by rocket bodies at about 3,727 tons (27.4%). The number of re-entered objects into Earth’s atmosphere was 2,031 in 2024. Just over half were from payloads at 1,089 objects, followed by payload fragmentation debris at 515 objects (or 25% of the total). There have been an estimated 656 fragmentation events in all of history, of which 220 occurred in the last 20 years. Fragmentation is a concern given how this increases the number of space debris objects, especially if it occurred unintentionally. Nuclear power sources (including small fission reactors) are used in outer space for interplanetary payloads and planetary exploration. Eighty-two of such objects re-entered Earth’s orbit, of which seven are “asserted but not catalogued.”   Source: https://www.sdo.esoc.esa.int/environment_report/Space_Environment_Report_latest.pdf

Except for Waterfowl and Waterbirds, Long-Term Populations Trending Down The North American Bird Conservation Initiative, a forum of government agencies, private organizations, and bird initiatives in the US, Canada, and Mexico, published the 2025 edition of the State of the Birds Report  in March. The report tracks trends of bird species in the US and recommends that 229 of the 718 bird species should be “prioritized in conservation planning.” Below are key findings from the report. Out of 718 species, 489 (68%) are of low concern. But 112 species (16%) are of high concern and 117 species (16%) are of moderate concern. The 112 species of high concern have “lost more than 50% of their populations in the last 50 years” and about 42 of these species have “perilously low populations and steep declining trends.” These included Allen’s Hummingbird, Tricolored Blackbird, and Saltmarsh Sparrow. Two of the eight bird categories—waterfowl (dabbling and diving ducks) and waterbirds—had increasing population trends compared with 1970. The waterfowl population was at +24% while waterbirds were at +16%. However, the remaining six categories—Sea Ducks, Western Forest Birds, Eastern Forest Birds, Shorebirds, Aridland Birds, and Grassland Birds—all saw population declines since 1970. Two categories—aridland and shorebirds—had no species with increasing populations. Instead, among aridland birds, there were 14 species that were stable and 17 species in decline, with a 41% decline overall. Shorebirds had nine stable species and 19 in decline, with an overall 33% decline. Grassland birds had the overall highest decline of 43%. Grasslands are being lost due to conversion for row-crop agriculture, woody-plant invasion, and drought, with the Great Plains losing 1 million to 2 million acres of grasslands per year. Western forest birds and Eastern forest birds had overall declines of 11% and 27%, respectively. Western forest birds have been declining due to habitat (forest) degradation, while Eastern forest birds suffer from short-rotation harvesting, pest outbreaks, residential development, and agriculture.   Source: https://www.stateofthebirds.org/2025/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/state-of-the-birds-sotb-2025-spreads.pdf

How Wind Power is Reducing the Maritime Industry’s Carbon Emissions *By Rick Laezman Norsepower Rotor Sails onboard Maersk Pelican are among the largest Flettner rotors in the world.  Photo: Wilsca/Wikimedia As the fight against global warming intensifies, more industries are joining the fray. In the shipping industry, this means adopting any number of innovations, including wind-aided technologies. This does not mean modern seafaring vessels will return to the massive sails and giant masts of centuries past. Instead, it involves a hybrid approach using modern technological advances that harness the power of the wind to complement and improve the efficiency of combustion engines. This is helping maritime vessels significantly reduce fuel consumption and carbon emissions and, when combined with other clean energy improvements, is helping the industry become greener. Centuries of Sailing Innovation Humans have used sailing vessels for millennia, but in the late 1800s, ships began converting to combustion engines as the technology became widely used for trains, factories, and later automobiles. Now attention has shifted to reducing carbon emissions, and as shipping looks for new, cleaner forms of power, wind is making a comeback. Ironically, when combustion engines were revving up, the seeds for wind's return as a clean power source for shipping were being planted. In 1852, a German experimental scientist at the University of Berlin, Dr. Heinrich Gustav Magnus, described a phenomenon he observed in an experiment using a brass cylinder spinning in a fast-moving current of air. He noted that the interaction between the spinning cylinder and the moving air created a difference in pressure on two sides of the cylinder. The side of the cylinder that was spinning in the direction into the wind experienced high pressure, and the side of the cylinder that was spinning in the same direction as the wind experienced low pressure. This pressure difference caused the cylinder to move toward the side with the low pressure. This image of the Magnus effect shows ideal-air-flow (potential flow) velocity forces and transparent pressure-coefficient contours on a moving, rotating ball. (The airflow simulation was performed in SymLab.)  @Syguy/Wikimedia The Magnus effect  can most commonly be observed in sports that involve a spinning ball, such as tennis, soccer, baseball, or basketball. For example, when a baseball pitcher puts spin on the ball as he throws it, the Magnus effect causes the ball to curve in the air as it travels to the batter, otherwise known as a “curve ball.” Similarly, when a tennis player hits the ball, the Magnus effect causes it to drop quickly as it travels over the net to the other player, otherwise known as “top spin.” The Magnus effect on a soccer curveball.  Graphic: Isabohan (CC BY-SA 4.0) The benefits of this physical phenomenon are not limited to sports. It can also be used for power and propulsion. In the 1920s, a German engineer and inventor, Anton Flettner, developed a far more effective device than traditional sails for propelling vessels through the ocean. The device, known now as a Flettner Rotor, harnessed the pressure differential generated by the Magnus effect to impart forward motion to ships. Tall rotating cylinders mounted on the surface of ships create the same pressure difference applied to a traveling tennis ball or a baseball pitch. Instead of causing a ball to curve off its path, the difference in pressure or “lift” causes the ship to propel in a forward direction. Rotor Sails Several modern shipping companies are now harnessing and refining the Flettner technology to increase fuel efficiency and reduce emissions. For example, the Finnish shipbuilder Norsepower  manufactures rotor sails that can be installed on the decks of shipping vessels, known as the Norsepower Rotor Sail™. The company prides itself on having "started the whole modern wind propulsion market" and boasts that it coined the term “rotor sail,” which is now used by many other companies. The company reports that it has installed 18 Norsepower Rotor Sails™ on various tankers, cargo ships, and passenger vessels since 2014, and orders for another 35 units will be filled over the next year and a half.  Scandlines hybrid ferry with its iconic Flettner rotor sail arriving at Gedser port, Denmark.  @Photofex-AT/iStock Resembling a tall smokestack—minus the smoke—the Norsepower Rotor Sail™ consists of a large cylinder made of recycled plastic. Mounted on a steel tower, the cylinder measures about 5 meters (15 feet) wide and as high as 30 meters (just under 100 feet). Vessels can have one or more sails mounted on their deck, depending on the size of the ship. The spin of the sail does not come from the wind itself. Instead, the spin is generated by an electric motor. Norsepower explains that the extra thrust, created by the Magnus effect generated when the rotor sails spin into the wind blowing across the deck, allows the ship to throttle back on its primary motors. This reduces fuel consumption and carbon emissions. Alternatively, the sails can increase the vessel’s speed without increasing fuel consumption. Norsepower says that its [rotor] sails are 10 times more efficient than traditional sails, allowing ships to realize savings anywhere from 5% to 25% in fuel consumption and emissions. Norsepower says that its sails are 10 times more efficient than traditional sails, allowing ships to realize savings anywhere from 5% to 25% in fuel consumption and emissions. Norwegian shipping company Sea-Cargo retrofitted one of its Roll-on/Roll-off (RoRo) ships with two 35 meter x 5 meter (114.8 feet by 16.4 feet) Norsepower Rotor Sails™. Norsepower reports that its prediction  that the 2021 installation would reduce emissions from the ship by about 25% has proved accurate. RoRo ships transport automobiles, construction equipment, tractors, and other large-wheeled vehicles. In March 2025, Sea Cargo announced that it was retrofitting two other RoRo vessels, the Misina and Masana , with the technology. Each ship will have three Norsepower Rotor Sails™, which, in conjunction with solar panels and battery storage, will reduce fuel consumption on each ship by 50%. RoRo (Roll on/Roll off) Sea Cargo ship Connector with foldable rotor sails to pass under low bridges.  Photo: Sea Cargo Regarding rotor sails, Norsepower is not the only shipbuilder using this technology. For example, London-based Anemoi Marine Technologies  offers a line of five different rotor sails ranging in height from 21 meters (66 feet) to 35 meters (114 feet). The company boasts that its sails can achieve fuel and emissions savings of up to 30% on shipping vessels. The rotor sail towers can also be folded down and out of the way, moved on rails installed along the deck of a ship, or removed and relocated to another ship owned by the same company, all of which makes the towers more versatile and cost-effective and helps shipping companies maximize space for cargo. According to Anemoi, the m/v Afros , built in 2018, is the world's first bulk carrier fitted with rotor sails. The massive 64,000 deadweight ton (dwt) ship, owned by Greek shipping company Blue Planet Shipping, has four 16-meter (52-foot) high rotor sails, which can be moved along rails installed on the deck to make room for loading and unloading cargo. Anemoi Marine Technologies estimates that on one of its recent, routine routes, the rotor sails helped the ship achieve a 12.5% savings, amounting to a reduction of 73 tons of fuel and 235 tons of CO2. Anemoi estimates that on one of its recent, routine routes, the rotor sails helped the ship achieve a 12.5% savings, amounting to a reduction of 73 tons of fuel and 235 tons of CO2. The route was sailed between November 2019 and January 2020, over approximately 11,800 nautical miles between Nantong, China, and Vancouver, Canada. WindWings While rotor sails take advantage of the Magnus effect, other wind technologies are also helping shipping improve its efficiency. In 2023, a collaboration between American food company Cargill, English maritime engineering company Barr Technologies, Japanese multinational corporation Mitsubishi, and Norwegian green maritime corporation Yara Technologies announced the launch of so-called WindWings, a new technology to harness the wind. WindWings  tap into the same propulsion properties of wind force that enable an airplane to fly. Airplane wings are designed to create a difference in pressure between the top and bottom surfaces of the wing. This creates “lift” that carries the airplane into the sky and keeps it there for as long as the plane is traveling at sufficient speeds. When WindWings are installed on the surface of a ship, they create a similar lift. But instead of making the ship airborne, they impart forward propulsion to the vessel, which allows it to move faster and power down its fuel-burning motors. Looking nothing like a traditional sail, the WindWings more closely resemble an airplane wing mounted at a right angle to the ship's deck. Looking nothing like a traditional sail, the WindWings more closely resemble an airplane wing mounted at a right angle to the ship's deck. Composed of steel and composite construction materials, they measure up to 37.5 meters (123 feet) tall. They have three specially designed sections, each of which can be adjusted to different angles in the wind to achieve maximum lift. Barr Technologies  expects the wings to generate average fuel savings of up to 30% on newly built vessels and even higher if used in combination with alternative fuels. Berge Olympus, a large bulk carrier ship with four BARTech WindWing sails at sea.  Photo: Berge Bulk Marine Shipping Transformation The maritime shipping industry is one of the world's most carbon-intensive sectors. Compared to other industries in 2022, it accounted for a relatively small amount— 2% to 3%— of total global emissions. But it is still a significant number, and given the total volume of emissions of about 1,000 million tons annually , the industry faces pressure to decarbonize. Using 2008 emissions as a baseline, the International Maritime Organization’s new standards call for a reduction of at least 20% by 2030—but striving for 30%.” In 2023, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the United Nations Agency responsible for the shipping sector, adopted new standards  to reduce emissions. Using 2008 emissions as a baseline, the IMO’s new standards call for a reduction of at least 20% by 2030—but striving for 30%. The IMO standards further call for a reduction of at least 70%, striving for 80%, by the year 2040, and to “reach net-zero GHG emissions by or around, i.e., close to 2050.” Decarbonizing shipping is not an easy task. Due to long voyages, heavy cargo, and limited space, the industry has few options to improve its efficiency. However, efforts are underway  [see ‘All the Way to Zero’—Maritime Shipping Charts a Course to Decarbonization   The Earth & I , April 2024] to decarbonize the industry, primarily by shifting to alternative fuels, such as liquified natural gas (LNG), liquified petroleum gas (LPG), methanol, hydrogen, ammonia, and biofuel. The transition to alternative fuels in shipping may take time, “so, we have to throw everything at operational measures on existing ships—like retrofitting vessels with sails, kites, and rotors,” says Dr. Simon Bullock ,  shipping researcher at the Tyndall Centre at the University of Manchester. “Wind power can make a big difference,” he adds. One of the greatest benefits of wind technology is the plentiful supply of this natural resource. According to the US Department of the Interior's Bureau of Ocean Energy Management ,  offshore winds “tend to blow harder and more uniformly than on land.” Seafaring vessels are in an ideal location to capitalize on such a consistent power source. The drawbacks are that it is a relatively new technology and comes with high upfront costs—although, as the technology advances, costs will come down. Also, like other forms of wind power, sails only work when the wind blows. The technology is also complicated, and ships face tight space constraints to make room for profit-generating cargo. Finally, shipping companies must consider the comparative cost-benefits of retrofitting existing ships versus installing them on new builds. Retrofits offer more immediate benefits, although they can be costly. Installing wind technology on new builds may take more time to benefit the industry, but it can be more comprehensively and efficiently integrated into a ship's infrastructure. All Hands on Deck While initial progress toward wind-aided vessels has been slow, projections envision an industrywide conversion in a relatively short period of time. According to Gavin Allwright, secretary general of the International Windship Association (IWSA), “now is the time for shipping to use wind energy as a fuel for maritime decarbonization.” The IWSA forecasts around 10,000 ships worldwide to have installed wind (auxiliary) propulsion by 2030 and up to 40,000 ships by 2050. In the fight against global warming, all hands are on deck. *Rick Laezman   is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has been covering renewable power and other related subjects for more than ten years.

Coal Produced Most Electricity; Renewables Had Highest Shares of Increasing Electricity Demand in 2024 In March, the International Energy Agency published its Global Energy Review 2025 . The report covers energy trends in 2024, including those from non-renewable and renewable energy sources and resulting carbon dioxide emissions. Below are some key findings from the report. Total energy-related emissions reached a record high of 37.5 Gt CO2 (gigatons of carbon dioxide) in 2024, a 0.8% increase from the previous year. Of this total, the most was from coal at about 15.6 Gt CO2 (41%), followed by oil at about 11.3 Gt CO2 (30%), and natural gas at about 7.6 Gt CO2 (20%). Global electricity demand grew by 13.9 EJ (quintillion joules), to a total of 648 EJ in 2024. Of this increase, renewables had the highest share of 38%, followed by natural gas (28%), coal (15%), oil (11%), and nuclear (8%). Over 80% of the total increase was from emerging and developing economies. Global carbon dioxide emissions from energy combustion and industrial processes in GtCO2 from 1900 to 2024.  © IEA  (CC BY 4.0) Total electricity generation was about 31,153 TWh (terawatt-hour) in 2024. Globally, coal had the highest share of about 10,738 TWh (34%), followed by renewables at about 9,992 TWh (32%), natural gas at about 6,793 TWh (22%), and nuclear at 2,844 TWh (9%). Percentage of electricity generation by source for selected regions in 2024.  © IEA  (CC BY 4.0)Color key: nuclear (yellow), renewables (dark green), oil (light green), natural gas (dark blue), coal (light blue) Global electricity generation grew by over 1,200 TWh. Of this increase, 480 TWh was from solar photovoltaics, 190TWh was from hydropower, and 180 TWh was from wind power. In 2024, six nuclear projects (two from China and one each from France, India, the United Arab Emirates, and US) were completed with over 7 GW (gigawatts) of additional nuclear power capacity. As of February 2025, there were 62 nuclear reactors under construction in 15 countries, including China, Egypt, India, Turkey, Japan, South Korea, UK, and Slovakia.   Source:   https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ff5e4f91-815f-4f48-874d-4c1da760dded/GlobalEnergyReview2025.pdf

Australia and Chile Leading Sources of Lithium Lithium is found in small amounts in volcanic (igneous) rock and waters of mineral springs. Given its importance as a primary component of lithium-ion batteries, below are some facts on this element. Lithium is extracted from minerals (pegmatites, essentially igneous rock) and brine. Pegmatites  typically contain 1.5% to 4% lithium oxide and can be found in places such as Greenbushes (Australia), North Carolina (US), and Bikita (Zimbabwe). Continental brines typically contain 0.04% to 0.15% lithium. Such brines can be found in places such as Clayton Valley (USA), Salar de Atacama (Chile), and Salar de Hombre Muerto (Argentina). According to the International Council on Clean Transportation’s 2024 report , Chile has the largest share of global lithium reserves at 36%, followed by Australia (24%), Argentina (10%), China (8%), and US and Canada (both 4%). Meanwhile, Australia has the largest share of global lithium mining at 47%, followed by Chile (30%), China (15%), Argentina (5%), and Brazil (2%). According to the US Environmental Protection Agency , 1 ton of battery-grade lithium can come from 250 tons of ore, 750 tons of brine, or 28 tons of spent lithium-ion batteries. Lithium is known to reduce the symptoms of mania and may be prescribed for bipolar disorder. Too much can result in lithium toxicity , causing symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhea, and uncontrolled shaking.   Sources: https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/3/lithium https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/534440/1/lithium_profile.pdf   https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/ID-206-–-Battery-outlook_report_final.pdf https://www.epa.gov/hw/lithium-ion-battery-recycling   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25207-lithium-toxicity

Historic Conference in Brazil to Bring Global Attention to the Amazon Rainbow ov e r the city of Belém, Brazil.  Photo: Italo Melo/ pexels Since the 29th UN Conference of the Parties (COP29) in Baku, Azerbaijan, closed to mixed reviews last year, all eyes have turned to COP30, set to take place in Belém, Brazil, in November 2025. Belém, the capital of Pará state and a gateway to the Amazon Rainforest, is gearing up for this historic conference on the environment. The Amazon plays a crucial role in protecting the global natural environment, and many hope that COP30 will be the turning point for tackling some of Earth’s most urgent environmental challenges.   The conference will focus on how countries can work together to fight climate change and how they can fund and align their efforts with the goals of the Paris Agreement. With Brazil’s Amazon region hosting the event for the first time, climate watchers are excited about what could happen in Belém to save the region and the planet.   The Amazon: A Global Stage Belém is expected to welcome over 60,000 people from 193 nations around the world. To prepare  for the huge event, both local and federal governments in Brazil have been working hard to make sure the city is ready. The main goal is to showcase Brazil's commitment to tackling climate change, while also highlighting the importance of protecting the Amazon. The Jardim Botânico da Amazônia in Belém.  Photo: Marajonida/CC BY-SA 3.0 What Are NDCs? One key part of the COP30 preparations is the submission of Nationally Determined Contributions , or NDCs. These are plans that every country must submit to the United Nations to show how they will reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and otherwise fight climate change. The deadline for submitting updated NDCs is February 2025, and their content will be central to discussions at COP30.   NDCs are submitted every five years , and each country is expected to gradually make their goals more ambitious. For example, Brazil's NDC for 2035 aims  to cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 59% to 67% compared to 2005 levels. The United Kingdom (UK) has set an ambitious target to reduce emissions by 81% by 2035, and plans to be the first major country to fully decarbonize its power system by 2030. Near the end of the Biden presidency, the White House announced a new 2035 target for the US: “a 61-66 percent reduction” in greenhouse gas emissions.   Not all NDCs have the same focus. For instance, Brazil and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have yet to address how they will phase out fossil fuels, despite earlier promises made at COP28. The UN says NDCs “ embody ” national commitments to reducing emissions and adapting to climate change. As the new NDCs roll in, they are expected to shape conversations at COP30 about how to meet the target of reaching “net zero” emissions by 2050.   For access to information (including updates) on the NDCs of each nation, recorded in a public registry maintained by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat, click here .   Sources: https://www.mayerbrown.com/en/insights/publications/2024/12/key-outcomes-of-cop-29-and-expectations-for-cop-30 https://unfccc.int/topics/global-stocktakehttps://www.gov.br/secom/en/latest-news/2024/11/one-year-before-cop30-belem-transforms-itself-to-host-the-climate-summit https://www.e3g.org/news/ndc-3-0-launching-the-next-ambition-cycle-under-the-paris-agreement-at-cop29/ https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2024/12/19/fact-sheet-president-biden-sets-2035-climate-target-aimed-at-creating-good-paying-union-jobs-reducing-costs-for-all-americans-and-securing-u-s-leadership-in-the-clean-energy-economy-of-the-future/ https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidcarlin/2024/11/26/your-quick-guide-to-the-outcomes-of-cop29/