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Report Highlights Projected Increases of Uncontrolled Waste into 2050 In February, the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), with the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), released the Global Waste Management Outlook 2024 report, which offers projections on global waste generation, costs, and management for municipal solid waste (MSW, excluding industrial waste). Here, “controlled waste” refers to waste that is collected and either properly disposed of or recycled. “Uncontrolled waste” refers to either uncollected waste that is dumped or burned in the open or collected waste that is dumped or burned at its final destination. Some 2.7 billion people (700,000 from urban areas and 2 billion from rural areas) do not have their waste collected. If no urgent actions are taken, global MSW generation per year is projected to steadily increase, from 2.126 billion tons in 2020 to 3.782 billion tons in 2050. The total global cost of MSW in a “waste management as usual” scenario is projected to increase from $361.0 billion in 2020 to $640.3 billion in 2050 Out of the 2.126 billion tons in 2020, 38% (about 805 million tons) was uncontrolled and 62% (about 1.32 billion tons) was controlled. Among controlled waste, 48.5% (about 641.2 million tons) was landfilled, 30.6% (about 404.2 million tons) was recycled, and 20.8% (about 274.8 million tons) were converted to energy. The global share of uncontrolled waste is projected to rise from 38% in 2020 to 41.5% in 2050. However, over three decades, the actual amount of uncontrolled waste is projected to almost double from about 805 million tons to 1.57 billion tons annually. Globally, the average MSW collection rate is 75%. In Western countries, this rate is very high—93% to 99%—while rates are considerably lower in Sub-Saharan Africa (36%), Central and South Asia (37%), and Oceania (45%). The three lowest regions of MSW collection also have the highest uncontrolled waste as percentage of total MSW. These are Sub-Saharan Africa (87%), Central and South Asia (79%), and Oceania (62%). Europe leads the world in MSW recycling, thanks to Western Europe’s 56% rate. Northern and Southern Europe are third and fourth at 42% and 44%, respectively. However, Australia and New Zealand are second at 54% recycling rates. Northern Europe also has the highest MSW waste-to-energy conversion rate of 42%. Sources: https://www.unep.org/resources/global-waste-management-outlook-2024 Full report: https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/44939/global_waste_management_outlook_2024.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Executive summary: https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/44992/GWMO2024-Executive-summary.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

But Home Filtration Devices Can Raise Water Purity By Alina Bradford* Ever poured a glass of tap water and wondered about its purity? While tap water in many areas is considered safe to drink, contaminants can still lurk within it, posing health risks. In fact, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), residential tap water can include arsenic, copper, lead, nitrate, and radon, as well as E. coli, Hepatitis A virus, and salmonella. Here’s what one needs to know about tap water and how to make it safer to drink. What is in US Tap Water? Tap water can contain a variety of contaminants, including toxic substances, inorganic compounds, bacteria, metals, and microplastics. These can originate from agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, outdated plumbing, and even natural sources. Contaminants in drinking water can cause a variety of health problems, including blood disorders, low IQ, gastrointestinal issues, neurological disorders, and cancer. Many people get water from public water systems (PWS), which are regulated by the EPA, and include fluoridated community water supplies (CWS). The highest and lowest percentages of people receiving fluoridated water to total population served by CWS are the District of Columbia (100%) and Hawaii (8.5%), respectively, based on 2020 data. A study by the US Geological Survey reveals that up to 45% of the country's tap water may contain one or more varieties of chemicals called per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances, commonly referred to as PFAS. Perhaps more disturbing, over 12,000 types of PFAS have been identified, and current testing methods can only detect a fraction of them. Recently, the EPA announced a proposal to lower the maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) of six specific PFAS allowed in drinking water. A study by the US Geological Survey reveals that up to 45% of the country's tap water may contain one or more varieties of chemicals called per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances, commonly referred to as PFAS. A 2023 study took water samples from 38 lakes in 23 different countries on six continents and found that all contained microplastics. This can be concerning since a large portion of drinking water comes from lakes. How is Tap Water Treated? Before water flows from the tap, it undergoes several treatment processes to remove impurities and make it safe for consumption. These typically include coagulation and flocculation to clump particles together, sedimentation to allow particles to settle, filtration to remove small particles, and disinfection to kill bacteria and viruses. While effective, these methods have limitations, particularly against some modern contaminants, such as PFAS and micro/nano-plastics. [Water treatment] typically include[s] coagulation and flocculation to clump particles together, sedimentation to allow particles to settle, filtration to remove small particles, and disinfection to kill bacteria and viruses. While effective, these methods have limitations, particularly against some modern contaminants, such as PFAS and micro/nano-plastics. Coagulation and Flocculation The first steps in the water treatment process involve adding chemicals with a positive charge to the water. This causes some contaminants like dirt and iron to combine into larger particles. The next process is called flocculation. It stirs the water, causing particles to bind together into larger particles, known as flocs. Coagulation and flocculation processes effectively remove particles and sediments but do not remove dissolved substances or microorganisms. Sedimentation Following flocculation, the water moves to sedimentation tanks, where the heavy flocs settle to the bottom due to gravity. Sedimentation is efficient for settling out large particles. However, smaller particles and dissolved substances may not be removed through this process alone. Filtration Coagulation and sedimentation can only remove between 27% and 84% of viruses and 32% and 87% of bacteria, so the process continues. After sedimentation, the clear water on top will pass through various filters. These can include sand, gravel, and charcoal filters. The effectiveness of filtration depends on the type of filters used. While it can remove many contaminants, including parasites and some bacteria, some viruses and chemical pollutants may pass through, especially if the filters are not properly maintained. Disinfection Before the water is sent through the distribution system to consumer taps, it is disinfected to kill any remaining bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Treatment plants typically use chemical disinfectants like chlorine or chloramine for water disinfection. Most chemical disinfectants are removed from the water before it goes out to the customer. Still, some are left to disinfect the water further as it’s moved through potentially contaminated pipes. The CDC says drinking water is safe with chlorine levels of up to 4 milligrams per liter (or ppm) and chloramine levels of less than 50 milligrams per liter. However, tap water can contain even tinier amounts—for example, normal chloramine levels in drinking water range from 1.0 to 4.0 milligrams per liter. Some water treatment plants use UV light and ozone to disinfect drinking water. However, these methods don’t continue disinfecting the water when it passes through contaminated pipes. Although disinfection effectively kills pathogens, it can leave behind harmful by-products. For example, chlorine can react with organic matter in water to form trihalomethanes (THMs), which are associated with cancer risks. Furthermore, some pathogens, like Cryptosporidium, are resistant to traditional disinfection methods like chlorination. Home Water Filtration Options Water treatment effectively eliminates a large portion of potentially harmful contaminants. However, on occasions, they still get through due to contaminated pipes and other problems. How can one ensure tap water is free from these contaminants? Home water filtration systems can play an important part in making drinking water as safe as possible. Here are some options: Activated charcoal/carbon adsorption: This method removes organic compounds, chlorine, and chlorine by-products. Filters like pitcher filters and under-sink units commonly use activated carbon. However, they don’t remove hard water minerals or some bacteria unless certified. Membrane-based filters: These filters, often used in reverse osmosis systems, are typically composed of thin, porous materials that can trap and remove a wide range of impurities, including bacteria and viruses. While highly effective, they require more maintenance than other filters and can be costly. They are also typically used with activated carbon to remove chlorine, fluoride, and other contaminants. Specialty filters: Some filters target specific contaminants, such as lead or arsenic. Specialty filters can also be used to add minerals back to water after filtration, such as alkaline filters. Considerations for Choosing a Filter When selecting a water filtration system, consider the specific contaminants in the water, the system's maintenance requirements, and household water usage. No single filter removes all pollutants, so a combination of systems that provides maximum protection may be considered. NSF-certified filters are listed in the NSF’s database, which indicates what the filter can clean out of the water and what it can’t. Also, make sure that the filter is NSF-certified. NSF-certified filters are listed in the NSF’s database, which indicates what the filter can clean out of the water and what it can’t. Don’t forget to get a filter for each source of one’s home’s drinking water. Here are some options: Whole-house filtration: This system treats water as it comes into the house. It filters all of the home’s water, not just drinking water. Whole-house systems can be pricey, though. Under-sink filtration: These attach to the plumbing under the kitchen sink to provide clean water from the tap. DIY installation is possible, but some homeowners may find it difficult. Faucet-mounted filters: These filters attach to the kitchen faucet and are simple to install. While they are inexpensive compared to whole-house or under-sink filters, they could slow down the water pressure. Water bottle or pitcher filtration: These are the cheapest and most convenient filtration options. Once filled with water, the built-in filters clean the water. The main problem with bottle or pitcher filtration is that it can be slow and the filters may need frequent replacement. Refrigerator filters: Don’t forget to make sure the filter on the refrigerator’s in-door water dispenser gets a filter change on a regular basis. Understanding tap water's treatment processes and the potential contaminants that can remain is key to ensuring that residential water is safe to drink. By choosing the appropriate water filtration system, the risk of consuming harmful contaminants can be significantly reduced. *Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert that has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com.

Local Energy Production Builds Sustainable Neighborhoods By Robert Cuzner* Reliable electrical energy is increasingly being seen as a basic human right, and this perspective is driving significant shifts in the way electrical energy is being generated, transmitted, and used. Climate change and extreme weather events can increase disruptions to electrical power service with very personal consequences. At one extreme, power outages impact daily life when there’s a lack of connection to a reliable power grid, while at the other extreme, increased electrical demands on aging electrical grid infrastructures raise the risks for outages. Interspersed with these challenges are the varying human needs and attitudes of electricity users across a range of socioeconomic issues and disparities. Examples include the disproportionate fixed cost of electricity to low-income households, growth in electric vehicle (EV) charging needs, critical community facilities (e.g. hospitals, fire protection, water treatment and schools), vulnerable manufacturing facilities, and the range of household and community commitments to reducing their carbon footprint. Community microgrids tailored to meet shared, localized needs can solve these challenges. The Community Microgrid The microgrid is a small electrical grid that serves electricity needs within a defined boundary using local sources of supply. This defined electrical boundary can include neighborhoods, a campus, a village, a town, or multiples thereof, where the electricity users live, work, and perform services together, in which case the microgrid expands to a community microgrid. Today, the microgrid can address a community need to reduce its carbon emissions through the efficient use of renewable and stored energy resources. It may operate connected to or disconnected (“islanded”) from the grid. In remote areas, where energy poverty impacts survival, community microgrids have emerged as a possible solution. In remote areas, where energy poverty impacts survival, community microgrids have emerged as a possible solution. In India, for example, the deployment of microgrids to villages on mountains, in deserts, and on islands has outpaced the government’s efforts to tie these communities to the national grid. A Sense of Energy Supply Ownership A community microgrid gives participants a sense of control and ownership over their energy supply, and not only serves individual households but also the needs of the community. The greatest benefits are derived as the households learn how to interact with the microgrid and become aware of how their daily habits impact energy usage. The neighborhood microgrid is a “behind the meter” (quasi off-the-grid) where consumers of electrical energy are also producers, or prosumers, producing a net benefit to its users both individually and collectively. Such systems achieve a smart grid that forces cooperative use of rooftop solar and energy storage units that are distributed among participating households. Among the factors for the most favorable neighborhood microgrid implementations, the number of participating households is key. Case studies show current favorable effects range from 20 to 200 homes. Weather and geographic location play a role as well, with implementations in a Mediterranean climate being the most favorable. Neighborhood Microgrid Challenges Nevertheless, the feasibility of a purely “behind the meter” or neighborhood microgrid is challenging, given the human factor and the all-important question: Who will shoulder the costs of installation and maintenance? Rules regarding net energy metering impose constraints on the size (and beneficiaries) of a microgrid; utilities must deal with the consequences of possible sub-standard implementations that interact in a negative way with the utility grid, with rules varying by state, such as in California. The feasibility of a neighborhood microgrid is challenging, given the human factor and the all-important question: Who will shoulder the costs of installation and maintenance? Even so, motivation for planned installations, such as “all-electric neighborhoods” in California are coming from mandated building codes. Recently, facilitators for large-scale community microgrid deployments, such as the Clean-Coalition, are advocating for “front of the meter” approaches that connect neighborhoods with commercial properties, essential community services, and include utility-focused partnerships. Utility partnership or ownership allows users to pay for electricity through their utility, making microgrid ownership and operation more transparent. A successful example of neighborhood ownership and sustainment is the 37-home pilot project installed within the Medley at Southshore Bay residential development in Wimauma, Florida. This microgrid is utility owned and operated and is built upon an electrical system developed and installed by a Tampa, Florida, company, BlockEnergy. Neighborhood microgrid installations will become more ubiquitous when the most expensive components, such as energy storage, are utility owned and when usage includes community service providers (such as schools, hospitals, fire departments, etc.) and commercial properties. In this way, costs and benefits are spread across a more diverse group of stakeholders. Installation Energy Security Community microgrids can play a significant role in achieving Installation Energy Security. Energy security depends on three pillars: reliability, resilience, and efficiency (see Figure 1). Efficiency The efficiency pillar includes what has been mentioned already: more efficient use of the electrical energy generated by environmentally friendly resources minimizes the detrimental impacts of fossil fuels increasingly being manifested through extreme weather events. These accelerate the pace of community microgrid adoption as a necessary solution—and here the other two pillars come into play. Reliability Reliability has to do with a service or a product functioning as expected as long as it is being used in the manner for which it was designed. Reliability of electric power means an electricity user can expect to receive uninterrupted service unless there is a disturbance causing voltage and/or current to stray outside of designed (rated or nominal) parameters. However, there is a caveat—"for the life of the product.” As electrical grids age, their components—cable insulation, circuit breakers, and so forth—are weakened and become less reliable. The aging electrical grid infrastructure, costs to upgrade, and increasing consumer demands leads to a weakening of the grid’s ability to provide stable and clean voltage power to its customers. The aging electrical grid infrastructure, costs to upgrade, and increasing consumer demands leads to a weakening of the grid’s ability to provide stable and clean voltage power to its customers. Electricity is distributed through a grid within a specific geographic area. Patterns of ownership and operation vary depending upon the country and the level of government involvement in electricity generation and distribution. In the U.S., this grid is owned and operated by local utilities. Distribution voltages are typically in the tens of thousands of volts. Sometimes, power must be delivered to customers that are far from the generation source, and customers in rural areas often find themselves at a weak end of the distribution grid. The weak grid problem is exacerbated by sudden shifts in loads that cause voltage dips and spikes. Lights may dim or buzz, or circuit breakers may trip unexpectedly, leading to the loss of essential life-sustaining services. A locally focused community microgrid is a solution for communities who dislike being at the weak ends of the grid. Resilience Resilience, another pillar of Installation Energy Security, addresses any disturbance or event that could endanger human lives or damage equipment if electrical power is not immediately removed, or isolated from affected or damaged parts of the system. Community microgrids interface with energy utility electricity transmission through a utility substation. Transmission has to do with the transfer of electrical energy over much longer distances, and the voltage levels are hundreds of thousands of volts (high voltage). This is mentioned because future community microgrids will expand the definition of community beyond the neighborhood, city, and municipality. An example of a great need for resilience is the Goleta Load Pocket, a 70-mile area along the Southern California coastline that is highly vulnerable to power loss. Communities along the Goleta Load Pocket are served by just one set of transmission lines hung on the same transmission towers and routed through 40 miles of mountainous terrain. This is a disaster-prone region that has been subject to extreme weather events in recent years. A community microgrid solution—the Goleta Load Pocket Community Microgrid (GLPCM)—has been proposed that would interconnect planned and existing microgrids, energy storage, and solar PV installations in Goleta Load Pocket communities. Development of this multi-city microgrid is still in progress and is actively moving forward thanks to the efforts of Clean-Coalition. Figure 2 shows a concept for a resilient community microgrid that interconnects multiple installations through either direct interconnection within a local community or through utility substation connections across multiple communities. All these implementations share common features, such as a standardized approach to microgrid building blocks, that can be installed as the community grows. Each microgrid building block has localized controls and communications with proactive capabilities to learn from its environment and increase its resilience over time. It also has an autonomous reconfiguration capability so that if a power outage appears imminent, power can be automatically re-routed to keep the lights on. Each microgrid building block has localized controls and communications with proactive capabilities to learn from its environment and increase its resilience over time. Figure 3 shows an example of how the system would respond to an extreme weather event that, without this community microgrid concept, would result in losses of power to large sections of the serviced area. The system is self-learning and self-healing. Individual microgrid building blocks (the microgrid sub-stations) can “island” or disconnect themselves from the rest of the network and provide extended electrical service to the part of the community it services while repairs are being made. The system determines what actions to take by receiving information from its nearest neighbor through high-speed communications with adjacently connected sub-systems and by coordinating with the energy utility. If communication networks are damaged, the system can use the information that it has to make the best decision as to which switches to open and what changes to make to its connection with its participants. Adoptability and Sustainability Public policy is key to building microgrids. Clean-Coalition provides a good example of an organization that not only designs and stages cutting-edge community microgrid projects, but is also involved in commissioning these installations and showcasing their value and feasibility. They are also involved in addressing barriers and gathering stakeholders through their work on public policy. At the same time, utility-focused partnerships in project development and a “front of the meter” approach addresses long-term sustainability. Otherwise, individualized project endeavors (and even public-private partnerships with a community) can become subject to the hidden costs of maintenance contracts from commercial vendors of these systems. Obsolescence is an issue, as well. Of course, microgrid developers are an essential element, but the more replicable and plug-and-play these systems become, the greater their market will become. Technological innovations, partnerships, and policy are all essential to the deployment of sustainable energy secure community microgrids. With each new community microgrid project, the way forward becomes clearer. *Robert Cuzner is Richard and Joanne Grigg Associate Professor for the Electrical Engineering Department at the University of Milwaukee, Wisconsin (UWM), the Director of the Center for Sustainable Electrical Energy Systems (SEES), and the UWM Site Director for the GRid-Connected Power Electronic Systems (GRAPES) Industry/University Collaborative Research Center.

By Marion W. Miller* In this age of interconnected global commerce, a company’s legacy and attractiveness to stakeholders and investors is no longer marked only by its profitability but also by its principles. With a growing consciousness around the environmental (E), social (S), and economic repercussions of corporate governance (G)—combined as ESG—stakeholders and investors look at criteria for responsible business. Rooted in the ideals of business ethics, which grew to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s, ESG represents a renewed and holistic commitment to ethical corporate behavior. The UN has recommended investment considering ESG issues since 2004. Still, like any evolving paradigm, it has its complexities and challenges. (Risks and Benefits of ESG Investing February 2022 | theearthandi.org) ESG Proponents and Critics Proponents say that by adhering to ESG principles, companies send a clear message to stakeholders and investors about their commitment to doing business ethically. When businesses follow ESG standards, they can anticipate and avoid potential socioenvironmental pitfalls. This fosters trust and ensures a more stable long-term operational landscape. Also, companies that are socially and environmentally responsible have more sustainable business models, are more appealing to consumers and investors, and attract top talent. (ESG isn't just about doing good. More often, it's good investing | Bloomberg Professional Services) Companies that are socially and environmentally responsible have more sustainable business models, are more appealing to consumers and investors, and attract top talent. Conversely, critics say that it is tricky to accurately gauge performance on ESG criteria. For instance, the reliability of ESG scores was questioned when the S&P 500 ESG index in 2022 included oil-and-gas company Exxon Mobil on the list, but not Tesla, which exclusively manufactures electric vehicles. (How a Sustainability Index Can Keep Exxon but Drop Tesla – And 3 Ways to Fix ESG Ratings to Meet Investors’ Expectations | Michigan Ross/University of Michigan). Critics also say companies can tout ESG compliance to improve their public image without genuine commitment. This superficial portrayal is known as greenwashing. Moreover, universally imposing one set of values can lead to oversimplifications and misunderstandings; for example, what works in the developed world may not work in the developing world. Finally, implementing ESG standards can be costly, and small businesses with limited resources say that ESG could inadvertently marginalize them. (Let’s not kill small business in the name of ESG | IEDM/MEI) ESG Scores More than 140 entities in the US alone, ranging from non-profits to private firms, are at the forefront of determining ESG scores. (ESG Scores: The good, the bad, & why they matter | esg.conservice.com) They assess a multitude of parameters, from a company’s carbon footprint to supplier networks to governance structure. For instance, associating with businesses known for child or slave labor, or those with high environmental liabilities are likely to weigh down a firm's ESG rating—although this is a task that, unfortunately, is not always performed adequately by scorers (ESG’s Biggest Miss: Supply Chain Visibility | CFO.com). Despite these challenges and obstacles, some companies rise to the occasion and receive well-deserved high ESG rankings. The American Water Works Company (American Waters), a publicly traded US-based water and wastewater service utility company, and Dassault Systèmes, a French multinational software corporation developing 3D design, simulation, and manufacturing software, exemplify robust ESG practices. American Water Works Company A stalwart of the industry since 1886, American Water's emphasis on sustainability, leadership, and transparency has garnered significant accolades and cemented its reputation as a leader in ESG integration. (ESG Evaluation: American Water Works Co. Inc. | S&P Global Ratings) American Water’s impressive score of 87 (out of 100) on its S&P Global ESG Evaluation reflects its dedication to safety, environmental stewardship, and public health, and the integration of these values into its strategy. This commitment's hallmarks include providing safe drinking water and fostering a diverse and inclusive workforce. Under the leadership of Walter Lynch, CEO and president, the company understands that delivering safe and affordable water is just the tip of the iceberg. Numerous initiatives highlight the company’s push towards a sustainable and socially impactful business model, earning them the top spot on Sigma Earth’s Top 10 ESG Companies of 2023. (Top 10 ESG Companies Of 2023 - Sigma Earth) Determining ESG To determine its ESG criteria, American Water looks at various facets of its operations. Environmentally, the company recognizes risks like water-borne illnesses, inefficient water use, and other environmental hazards. Its focus on leak detection and water use reduction is commendable, setting it apart from its peers. Moreover, its proactive approach to tracking and avoiding water sources from stressed regions and its forward-looking approach to exploring other water sources to increase water system resiliency speak for its commitment to the environment. Socially, the company recognizes its pivotal role in the communities it serves by maintaining high safety standards and ensuring a diverse workforce. Its strategy to acquire and improve failing water systems is commendable, proving its commitment to these communities. Practicing ESG Environmentally, the company has achieved a 4% reduction in water delivered per customer since 2015 and aims to achieve a 15% reduction by 2035. It is also on track to meet its ambitious target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2025. The company's focus on infrastructure investment, particularly pipe replacement, is another significant step in its ESG preparedness. Socially, American Water has showcased its commitment by maintaining impeccable safety standards. With a diverse workforce, the company also has partnered with educational institutions, encouraging skill development and building a quality future workforce. The company’s governance structure and oversight mechanisms are superlative. With ten out of eleven board members being independent directors, the board emphasizes objectivity and adherence to the company's core values. Their transparent reporting and disclosure practices are part of strong governance values. The risk of water scarcity is a looming concern in Western states and especially in California. Despite its admirable efforts, American Water is not without its challenges. The risk of water scarcity is a looming concern in Western states and especially in California. The company's focus on water efficiency and recycling is paramount in this scenario. Another challenge is community opposition, particularly when the company takes over failing systems. Privatization is often met with skepticism, and managing community relations in this regard is crucial. However, American Water’s clear strategic direction and strong alignment with ESG values make it well-equipped to navigate these challenges. The company's forward-thinking approach and commitment to ESG values stand out in the industry. (Our Sustainability Story | American Water) Dassault Systèmes Dassault Systèmes (3DS), a leading French software conglomerate, is committed to ESG values as companies globally grapple with environmental crises and societal upheavals. Its proactive approach offers lessons in resilience and adaptability, and its ESG evaluation score is an admirable 84 (out of 100). (ESG Evaluation: Dassault Systèmes SE | S&P Global Ratings) Operating predominantly in the technology sphere, 3DS reaps 90% of its revenue from software, with the remaining coming from consultative services. While its direct environmental imprint might appear minimal, the widespread use of its groundbreaking 3D imaging software by aeronautics and auto manufacturers significantly reduces their need for building wasteful physical prototypes. While 3DS’s direct environmental imprint might appear minimal, the wide use of its groundbreaking 3D imaging software by aeronautics and auto manufacturers reduces the need for building wasteful physical prototypes. Over a short span from 2018 to 2021, 3DS increased its renewable electricity use from zero to 75%, setting the ambitious goal of 90% by 2025. The company's staunch commitment to the Science-Based Targets initiative (SBTi—Science Based Targets initiative) and emphasis on reducing consumer-use emissions further underscores its determination to curb its carbon footprint. 3DS's drive for circularity is equally noteworthy—recycling nearly 98.4% of waste from electrical and electronic equipment. The company is steadily steering its clientele toward sustainable practices by expanding its lifecycle analysis module to various sectors. However, 3DS lags in monitoring office waste and tracking its water footprint. Its governance structure is finely calibrated with transparent oversight layers, including a dedicated committee for R&D. A particularly commendable feature is its board composition—all board committees include independent directors, ensuring a balanced decision-making process. Championing Social Values Despite the sectoral upheavals in 2021, the company has upheld high talent retention rates and offered training well above the sector median. 3DS’s Human Resources (HR) leaders took a life-changing online class in Business Sustainability Management at Cambridge Institute for Sustainability Leadership (CISL). They learned that employee engagement initiatives translate into better inner-company communication, cooperation, and morale. As a result, the HR department promotes a sustainable company culture and organizes fun and creative activities for its employees relating to environmental ethics. Special mention is due to its gender diversity goals, aiming for a managerial workforce with 30% women by 2025. A potential area of contention is 3DS’s CEO's (Bernard Charlès) remuneration, which in 2021 was 552 times the median salary of 3DS employees. While this can be attributed to his long-standing association and contribution to the company, it does pose questions about pay equity. Navigating ESG Challenges 3DS's primary challenges lie in optimizing resource management, enhancing data center efficiency, and refining waste monitoring. Tackling these issues requires a nuanced approach, balancing immediate business needs with long-term ESG goals. Given the diverse local regulatory environments, another challenge is ensuring consistent ESG practices across global operations. Maintaining an exemplary cybersecurity record, especially in today's volatile digital realm, demands constant vigilance. Maintaining an exemplary cybersecurity record, especially in today's volatile digital realm, demands constant vigilance. Dassault Systèmes stands out as an ESG trailblazer, embodying how companies can intertwine profitability with responsibility. While the road ahead is fraught with challenges, 3DS's commitment and innovation-driven approach promises a sustainable future for itself and its clients. (ESG Management | Sustainability Commitment - Dassault Systèmes) Refining ESG for the Future For ESG to fully realize its potential, proactive engagement, and employee buy-in are essential. Companies ahead of the curve, cognizant of evolving norms and global standards, are better poised to adapt to current and future regulations, especially as regions like Europe have already begun enforcing ESG standards (Environmental, Social, & Governance Laws and Regulations Report 2023 Germany). But beyond mere compliance, the onus is on firms to be authentic. A major greenwashing scandal was revealed earlier this year when a high-profile investigation learned that “over 90 percent of rainforest carbon credits issued by Verra, the world’s leading carbon credit certifier, claimed reductions in deforestation that didn’t exist,” thus making the offsets worthless (What are carbon offsets, and are they scammy? | Vox) (Bogus Carbon Credits a 'Pervasive' Problem, Scientists Warn | Time). As empty boasts of future ESG compliance and other greenwashing controversies surface, businesses need to ensure their ESG commitments are realistic and translate into tangible, positive outcomes. Fortunately, some companies, such as American Water and Dassault Systèmes, have shown that doing just this is possible. Navigating the intricacies of ESG principles, American Water Works Company, and Dassault Systèmes showcase the importance of setting tangible and measurable goals. Their commitment to transparency and independent governance is evident in their boards predominantly comprised of independent directors, ensuring balanced and unbiased decision-making. By integrating ESG values into their core operations and company culture, these two companies show other companies a viable way forward, proving that authentic commitment to ESG is achievable and beneficial to the bottom line. *Marion W. Miller is a French bilingual researcher, writer, and editor now residing in Northern Virginia. She has master’s degrees in Business and Economics and International Economics and Economic Development. She has also ministered for community development and world peace. As a grandmother of eight, she cares deeply about environmental stewardship and preserving natural wonders for future generations. She has traveled to many natural sites in countries around the world and now escapes to the gorgeous Shenandoah Valley National Park whenever time allows.

Lead in Drinking Water Linked to Adverse Health Outcomes in Unborn Children By Mark Smith* The nation’s battle to remove lead from drinking water may have become more urgent: A new study has found that pregnant women who consume water with high levels of lead can pass it to their unborn children. The research, published in July in the Journal of Health Economics, is ground-breaking. Many studies have found a correlation between lead exposure and health problems, but the study authors believe theirs is the first to find an actual link between drinking lead-contaminated water and adverse health effects in fetuses. The Newark Water Crisis In 2016, elevated levels of lead were found in the drinking water of some public schools in Newark, New Jersey—a city that still has century-old pipes. The next year, the city’s tests found that the public water in more than 10% of Newark homes had high levels of lead. Despite corrective efforts, such as a corrosion control process to reduce lead levels in water, the city was eventually forced to offer water filters and bottled water to tens of thousands of Newark homes. In 2021, Newark finished its program to replace lead pipes with copper pipes. But this calamity—coming on the heels of the 2014 lead-in-water crisis in Flint, Michigan—touched off water-pipe concerns nationwide. Tale of Two Water Treatment Plants Newark’s water crisis also caught the interest of two economics professors, Muzhe Yang at Lehigh University and Dhaval Dave at Bentley University, who began researching the situation in 2019. The professors saw there were two different treatment plants helping to supply Newark’s water. They used data on the home addresses of pregnant women living in Newark for their study, together with information on the boundary separating areas serviced by two different water treatment plants. In their study, "Lead in drinking water and birth outcomes: A tale of two water treatment plants,” the professors said they found an external change in water pH levels that caused lead to leach into the drinking water of one plant's service area but not into the water of the other plant’s area. In an exclusive interview, Prof. Yang told The Earth & I: “Residents’ exposure to lead in drinking water can be viewed as almost randomly assigned, since people decide where to live probably not based upon a water treatment plant’s service area.” “This kind of randomization that happens in the real world—a natural experiment—helps us researchers identify a causal effect of lead exposure. It’s an effect that is due to lead exposure alone, not due to other factors.” Their research discovered a range of evidence for negative health impacts from the water, including a 19% increase in the risk of premature birth and an 18% increase in the risk of low birth weight. Why is Lead Dangerous? The health impact of lead happens over time. Lead accumulates in the body through repeated exposure and builds up in the bones alongside calcium. In unborn babies, exposure is a particular problem because lead in the mother’s bones can be released as a calcium substitute to aid bone formation in the fetus. Lead in a mother’s blood can also cross the placenta, exposing the fetus to lead poisoning. Prenatal lead exposure has been associated with impaired neural development, putting children at risk for cognitive impairment later in life. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) agree that there is no known safe level of lead in a child's blood. Lead Sources and Safety Thresholds Aging pipes have long been implicated in high levels of lead in the water supply. The EPA estimates that drinking water may account for more than 20% of total lead exposure for adults and between 40% to 60% for children. “Old houses are more likely to have lead plumbing materials. Corrosion of these lead plumbing materials can happen when the pH level of water drops below a certain threshold.” According to an analysis of EPA data by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), 186 million people in the United States—56% of the population—drank from water systems with lead levels exceeding 1 part per billion (ppb). This is higher than the level recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics to protect children from lead in school water fountains. Prof. Yang said: “I live in the Northeast of the US where there are a lot of old houses. Old houses are more likely to have lead plumbing materials. Corrosion of these lead plumbing materials can happen when the pH level of water drops below a certain threshold, that is, the water becomes more acidic than it should be. This is exactly what happened in Newark, New Jersey.” Replacing Faulty Pipes When it comes to lead in drinking water, the simplest and most straightforward way of dealing with the problem involves the replacement of aging infrastructure—and that’s something which has increasingly been on the agenda both at the local and federal levels in the US. By August 2021, almost all of the lead water pipes in Newark had been replaced with copper ones, solving much of the city’s water crisis problem. In 2019, President Biden signed the Water Infrastructure Funding Transfer Act, allowing the transfer of funds from a federal clean water fund to a state fund for lead-related projects. More recently, in December 2021, the US Congress passed H.R.3684—otherwise known as the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act— that included $15 billion in funding for nationwide lead pipe replacement. Prof. Yang welcomed these developments, and said he hopes his and others’ research will lead to more public awareness of the urgency of solving the lead pipe problem in the US water system. “I am hopeful,” he said, “but the work needs to be done soon. High lead levels have been found in the tap water in many US cities besides Newark, such as Baltimore, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, New York, Pittsburgh, and Washington, D.C.” He warned that if something isn’t done—particularly replacing the pipes—the problems experienced in Newark could be replicated more widely. “What happened in Newark may be the tip of an iceberg,” he said. “There is an urgency of replacing all lead pipes in the US water system, and the work should be done as soon as possible.” *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

The Earth & I interviews the National Union of Women with Disabilities of Uganda. By Betty Achana* “I used to hate myself because of this physical appearance which distinguishes me from others, but today I have realized I was wrong.” — Ugandan woman who benefitted from self-esteem education. E&I: What was the genesis of your organization? How was the group received in the beginning and what were its initial goals? The National Union of Women with Disabilities of Uganda (NUWODU) is an indigenous organization formed in 1999. Its purpose is to act as an umbrella organization for all categories of groups serving girls and women with disabilities, including physical, sensory, and mental impairment. Its membership includes Disabled People’s Organizations as well as GWWD (Girls and Women With Disabilities) groups and national associations. As of March 2021, NUWODU has a membership of 77 district associations, which represents over 60% of 146 districts in Uganda. NUWODU provides a strong voice for a common cause, particularly to defend, protect and promote the rights and advocate for equal opportunities for women and girls with disabilities, a population that wasn’t adequately represented in women’s rights organizations. NUWODU was established with the following six objectives: Address the special needs of girls and women with disabilities in Uganda. Strengthen the decentralized, grassroots groups of women with disabilities in Uganda through building their capacities, training, education, and provision of assistive devices. Act as a coordinating and monitoring body and establish an information center for women with disabilities in Uganda. Advocate for equal opportunities and rights for women with disabilities regardless of age, nature of the disability, tribe, or religion. Unite groups of girls and women with disabilities at the grassroots and the existing national organizations of women with disabilities. Mobilize resources for programs for girls and women with disabilities regardless of age, nature of the disability, tribe, or religion. E&I: How has NUWODU evolved since its founding? Tell us some of the challenges and breakthroughs along the way. For the last twenty years, NUWODU has grown in strength and size. Every five years, delegates from member organizations come together at a General Assembly, which is the supreme policymaking body. The Board of Directors makes policies, and the secretariat is charged with responsibility of translating the decisions of the Board into programs and implementing them as per the constitution. With respect to our work, there has been continuous growth in the freedom to engage, initiate, and intentionally influence one’s life circumstances—and raise self-esteem among women within the GWWDs. Women learn to reflect on life more deeply and change their perceptions about their situations. Many cease to hold negative attitudes about themselves; as one woman said, “I used to hate myself because of this physical appearance which distinguishes me from others, but today I have realized I was wrong.” A good example of our members is a deaf woman who has established a school in Ruhadaganzi Sub County, in Bushenyi. This lady never experienced school education herself, but she got an inspiration to start a school and transform her community. Women benefit from the networking that happen during the many trainings and workshops that are held. For example, a member of one association decided to run for political office. Because of community support, she ran against male candidates and won; she is now the main political party’s vice chairperson for the Western region. NUWODU has focused on helping women economically, introducing them to management tools and business planning to help them engage in gainful self-employment. Beyond that, NUWODU has joined meetings, locally to internationally, on matters of inclusion of people with disabilities in humanitarian actions, education, transportation, and services. The theme of the 2016 celebration of the International Day of People With Disabilities was: “Inclusion matters: access and empowerment of people of all abilities.” E&I: How did your members cope with COVID-19? The global pandemic COVID-19 greatly affected NUWODU. For instance, with more than ten NUWODU projects operating across the country, the impact of COVID-19 caught NUWODU by surprise—there was a lack of proper preparedness to run virtual offices. Then, in the communities, there was increased gender-based violence among families of women and girls with disabilities, increased pressure on district associations to respond to COVID-19, disrupted livelihoods for women with disabilities, and lack of access to basic services including medicines and products for sexual reproductive health and HIV. All the above highlighted challenges provided a more strengthened and innovatively caring family of women and girls with disabilities in Uganda. But this strange situation also exposed the need for far more cohesive strategies to address the new challenges facing these women. NUWODU’s website was created to raise awareness on disability and visibility for NUWODU as an organization for women and girls with disabilities. The platform has fulfilled its purpose beyond expectations because through it, the organization is receiving expressions of interest for partnership and knowledge acquisition for budding disability rights advocates. The web is maintained and managed by a team of passionate, committed, and tireless advocates and supporters. E&I: NUWODU could be described as more than an organization; would you say that it’s a community, a sanctuary, even a family? In what ways do you care for and serve each other? Poverty and disability cannot be divorced from each other without sustained efforts in ensuring equitable and inclusive education to promote the employment of persons with disabilities in the informal and formal workforce. When COVID-19 revealed the urgent need to embrace technology for virtual transactions and work, NUWODU partnered with the Government of Uganda through the Ministry of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and the Uganda Communication Commission (UCC) to provide digital literacy for persons with disabilities. This project, funded by UCC, is being implemented throughout Uganda, and seeks to equip women with disabilities with practical and soft skills in ICT. E&I: Below are two women’s stories of breaking the chains of dependence. I am Ms. Namukaya Florence, of Buchamata village, Irongo Sub County, Luuka district. I am aged 42, with physical disability, married with 9 children. When I married, my in-laws did not like me, saying their son had married a girl with leprosy. My husband left the village, we were extremely poor, and we used to work in people’s gardens to get food. We did not have land but could work for people and get land to use in return. When the project came, I was hesitant because we had been registered many times, sometimes for money, and the people would disappear. When we dug down the paspalum [grass] in the compound to plant vegetables, the neighbors laughed at us, saying, “Disability is a curse, and the curse is permanent.” However, from the time I joined the project, my life and family have never been the same. We stopped working for people in their gardens. I am Ms. Abalo Jeniffer, a blind woman, aged 46, of Can pe Kun Women with Disabilities group in St. Joe village, For God parish, Layibi division in Gulu city. I am a beekeeper, a basket knitter and a division counsellor representing Persons with Disabilities in Layibi division. I was trained in bee keeping in 2013, and in 2020 NUWODU collaborated with the Umbrella of Hope, an organization in Gulu, to train the 27 members of the group in basket knitting. As a blind woman, Umbrella of Hope wondered how I could benefit from the training and proposed to train my son in the skill. But I insisted on learning from their training and from my son until I learned the skill. My son and I can now knit baskets for sale besides selling honey. Basket knitting is a good business whose money is handy as opposed to bee keeping whose money is seasonal. As a widow, I can pay fees for my children in good schools in Kampala. The COVID-19 pandemic, brutal as it is, has brought NUWODU many opportunities for partnerships, linkages, and coalitions. Many people have come to appreciate the NUWODU’s approach and work, and this has culminated in many vital partners getting involved to provide the skill or bridge the gap that NUWODU is lacking. The notion of leaving no one behind is alive and active in our work. E&I: Share with us, please, your goals going forward and how you see the future for Uganda’s disabled women and girls. NUWODU is acting as a “whip” and “watchdog” that introduces new knowledge and is monitoring the changes in attitude and practices at community, regional, and national levels. Media is an important component for advocacy, and in the last year, visibility of disability rights for women and girls with disabilities—including in political office—has increased by leaps and bounds. Our media engagement has generated partnerships, development of research papers and reports on issues affecting women and girls with disabilities and increased awareness on disability inclusion. In a nutshell, NUWODU is recognized as a family that unifies, cares for one another with respect and love which is a core value. This is visible in the far and wide stretches in its efforts to reach the most vulnerable and most remote to have their voices heard. *Betty Achana is a public health specialist and the executive secretary of the National Union of Women with Disabilities of Uganda.

By Stuart Nathan* (Updated on March 12, 2024) Water is the most abundant substance in all living things. On average, 60% of the human body is composed of water. As you read this, your 75%-water brain is processing information gathered by your 98%-water eyes. That level of water must be maintained. The simple actions of breathing, sweating, and digestion, all cause the body to lose water. Rehydration is vital for regulating body temperature and maintaining healthy body systems and joints. For many years, health authorities recommended that adults should drink two liters of water per day. However, estimates of the actual amount needed vary. In the United States, the National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommended that men should drink 3.7 liters of fluid every day, and women 2.7 liters. In Britain, the National Health Service recommends between 1.2 and 1.5 liters per day, depending on air temperature and activity level. It does not all have to be pure water to meet the quota. The water content of food and other drinks also contributes to the total. Despite this, most adults in Europe and the US are thought to function in a constant state of slight dehydration. We should all be drinking more. But in today’s society, there is a dizzying array of different types of water available. You can get it from the kitchen sink, or you can buy it in bottles. Even then, commercial water brands compete with claims that theirs is the healthiest. Should we be drinking spring water, artesian water, mineral water, distilled water, alkaline water, hydrogen water, or even collected rainwater? Despite the names and claims, is there really any difference? What Makes Bottled Waters Unique? If your water comes from a bottle, the International Bottled Water Association regulates what it says on the label. For example, only water that flows naturally to the surface from an underground source can be called spring water. It can only be collected directly from the spring or from a borehole tapping the underground formation that feeds it. Mineral water must contain no less than 250 parts per million of dissolved solids, and no additional minerals can be added after extraction. Industrially purified water should be labeled with the process by which it was treated—for example, distilled water, deionized water, or reverse osmosis water. This way, consumers can be aware of what “type” of water they are drinking. But are any of these waters “better” than the rest? Doctors and researchers are still investigating potential health benefits. Hydrogen Water Shows Promising Results In the western world, municipal water suppliers have to meet stringent levels of purity and quality for potable water. Despite well-publicized cases where such standards were not met (such as the water crisis in Flint, Michigan), the tap water in most places in America or Europe should be perfectly safe. The US Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics says there is little evidence supporting or refuting the claimed health benefits of alkaline water. Commercial operators, eager to make a profit, publicize health claims for their products. In recent years, the bottled water most promoted by influencers and celebrities has been alkaline water, whose pH has been raised (through additives or by picking up minerals naturally) above neutral 7 to around 8 or 9. For a healthy human, blood pH is neutral, and the liver and kidneys do a good job of keeping it that way. People with diabetes can have slightly acidic blood while kidney disorders can cause alkalinity. But according to Melina Malkani, spokeswoman for the US Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, there is little evidence supporting or refuting the claimed health benefits of alkaline water. Debunking Distilled Water Concerns: Not as Bad as Previously Assumed Beyond “healthy” water, there are also persistent beliefs that some kinds of water can be unhealthy. For example, distilled water is claimed to absorb carbon dioxide from the air, leach essential minerals from the body when consumed, and reduce nutrient levels in vegetables when used for cooking. Each of these claims is false. However, because distilled water contains very low, even negligible, levels of minerals, it is also not a source of nutrition. This is not a serious problem since most people get their nutrients from food, not water. Distilled water tends to taste “flat,” but otherwise is perfectly healthy to drink. Drink Enough Water As long as you live in an area where the municipal water supply is free from contaminants, the most cost-effective way to stay hydrated is just to turn on your kitchen tap and glug away. You save money, avoid polluting the planet with bottles, and enjoy the life-sustaining benefits that water provides. *Stuart Nathan is a London-based freelance science writer, specializing in science, engineering, and technology.

By Dhanada K Mishra* Scientists have long been intrigued by the durability of Roman-built buildings. For instance, the famed Pantheon, which has the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome, was built in 128 CE and still stands today. A Roman-era aqueduct, the Aqua Virgo, built of the same concrete, still supplies water. A little over a year ago, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Professor Admir Masic and his Italian and Swiss collaborators published a startling discovery about the concrete used in ancient Rome. The researchers uncovered the presence of so-called lime clasts—granules of calcium carbonate that gave concrete self-healing properties—according to their paper published in the journal Science Advances. The key was using hot mixing of quick lime (a reactive form of calcium that generates heat on mixing with water) instead of slaked lime (a cooler, slow-acting form). Because of the presence of the resulting lime clasts, cracks formed in concrete could heal themselves when they came in contact with moisture and pozzolanic materials, such as volcanic ash contained in the mix. Ticking Time Bombs Emerging knowledge like this could have incalculable value. Since English bricklayer Joseph Aspdin invented and patented Portland cement in 1824, reinforced concrete has been used worldwide in buildings, highway bridges, offshore platforms, dams, roads, etc. The typical service life of such structures is expected to be 50 years on average and up to 200 years if built with extra care and special provisions. Compared to concrete used in the Roman period, the massive infrastructures built in the last couple of centuries are ticking time bombs. However, compared to concrete used in the Roman period, the massive infrastructures built in the last couple of centuries are ticking time bombs. They require frequent repair and maintenance during their service lives. They will also eventually need to be demolished or rebuilt. There is an environmental impact, too: The buildings and infrastructure construction sector is estimated to contribute around 40% of greenhouse gas emissions in terms of embodied and operational carbon footprint, according to the UN Environment Programme and its Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction. The race is now on to use this new knowledge about “self-healing” concrete and modify modern-day concrete to mimic the longevity and much lower carbon footprint of the ancient construction material. The Need for Resilience Resilience is the ability of any structure to withstand extreme load events, such as an earthquake, typhoon, explosion, etc., and recover from it as quickly as possible. The frequency of extreme natural (see Figure 1) and man-made disaster events, such as hurricanes, storms, floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, heat waves, fires, terrorism, etc., has been increasing in recent decades. It has underscored the need for durable, safe, and securely built infrastructure. As a tragic example, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake hit the Turkey-Syria region on February 6, 2023. More than 160,000 buildings were destroyed or severely damaged, and more than 53,000 people died. Some 2.7 million were left homeless. War-torn Syria is estimated to have 40 million tons of cement rubble, in addition to the cement debris from the 2023 earthquake. According to a 2023 article in The Guardian, which cited a study in the Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, efforts are underway that demonstrate how to prepare—and strengthen—local rubble to rebuild the nation. New Lower Carbon Footprint Material In recent years, there has been a concerted effort to reduce the environmental impact of cement production as rapid urbanization occurs in Asia and Africa (see Figure 2). Traditional Portland cement contributes significantly to carbon dioxide emissions (around 5% to 8% of the global emissions). Its production requires an energy-intensive process to create clinker, composed of mostly limestone, that is then ground into cement powder. However, several lower-carbon alternatives to clinker are now available. Pozzolanic Cement Concrete Historically, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) have long been used in construction. The Romans used volcanic ash, while other parts of the world used various forms of reactive clay, etc., as a supplement to the primary binder, such as lime and, more recently, cement. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) have long been used in construction; the Romans used volcanic ash. SCMs, or pozzolans, are materials with weak binding properties in the presence of water and calcium hydroxide resulting from the primary reaction of cement or lime. Modern industrial byproducts—such as fly ash (a coal combustion residue from thermal power plants), slag (residue from the blast furnace), and silica fume (residue from the ferro-silicon industry)—can be used as partial replacements for Portland cement. Incorporating SCMs reduces the need for clinker production, resulting in lower carbon dioxide emissions. In countries like China and India, higher quantities of SCMs are incorporated directly in the cement-making process itself to make products like Portland Pozzolanic Cement (PPC), Portland Slag Cement (PSC), and composite cement (using both fly ash and slag). Besides reducing embodied carbon and reducing waste, SCMs improve the long-term performance and durability of concrete structures. Despite their advantages and potential, these emerging SCMs do have their drawbacks and limitations when compared to Portland cement. For instance, there may be problems with incomplete dispersion of some composites throughout the mix, as well as increased water consumption requirements which can affect workability, among other issues. As these SCMs are relatively new, there is also an obvious lack of testing of some for their long-term mechanical properties. Geopolymer Concrete One of the primary sources of greenhouse gas emissions in Portland cement manufacturing is the high-temperature process of producing clinker from limestone and clay. If one can imagine a room-temperature process to make Portland cement without using limestone, then geopolymer cement would be that wonder material. It is produced by activating aluminosilicate materials, such as fly ash or slag, with a strong alkaline solution. This alternative cementitious material offers comparable or even superior mechanical properties compared to Portland cement-based concrete. Geopolymer concrete has a significantly lower carbon footprint and exhibits excellent resistance to fire, chemicals, and fatigue. Unfortunately, Portland cement production approaches over 4 billion tons a year—making Portland cement concrete the second-most-used material by humans (after water). This leaves an insufficient amount of pozzolanic source material available to meet demands by geopolymer concrete alone. Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) In South Asia, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) last year released an exclusive Indian Standard (IS 18189: 2023) for a new type of low-carbon cement called LC3. This cement is produced from about 50% Portland cement clinker, 30% calcined clay, 15% limestone, and 5% gypsum. Among the various new cement formulations, LC3 has been the most successful emerging commercial product in several countries. Each ton of calcined clay produced saves 600 kilograms (1,322 pounds) of CO2. By the end of 2025, it is expected that LC3 will have saved 45 million tons, according to the Swiss-supported LC3-Project. Real-Life Examples High-volume pozzolanic concrete made from PPC, PSC, and composite cement is commonplace in every type of construction where ordinary Portland cement concrete is used. The same is increasingly the case with LC3 cement-based concrete. New cementitious materials have undergone extensive testing and have also been successfully utilized in pavements, retaining walls, water tanks, and precast bridge decks. The University of Queensland's Global Change Institute (GCI) has been constructed using geopolymer concrete. It is a four-story building for public use and is claimed to be the first of its kind. New cementitious materials have undergone extensive testing and have also been successfully utilized in pavements, retaining walls, water tanks, and precast bridge decks. Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Several cementitious materials show significant promise in terms of disaster resilience. Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), for example, is a material that has outstanding mechanical properties. It offers high strength, ductility (can be shaped without losing strength), and energy absorption capacities, making it suitable for blast-resistant structures. UHPC can withstand extreme loads and impacts. It is an ideal choice for structures exposed to potential terrorist attacks. UHPC consists of carefully chosen ingredients based on particle-packing principles to give a dense microstructure that is further reinforced with micro-steel fibers. It is also known as reactive powder concrete (RPC) or densified system of particles (DSP). Its dense microstructure provides impact resistance, high strength, and excellent durability properties, providing extended service life. Fiber-Reinforced Concrete and Engineered Cement Composites (ECC) As their names suggest, fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) and engineered cement composites (ECC) are composites that combine fibers with cementitious materials with a range of strength, ductility, and durability properties. They can be designed to help resist impact and energy absorption capacities. By incorporating fibers, these materials can effectively distribute and dissipate energy during extreme load events, reducing the potential for structural failure. ECC has resulted from the pioneering work of Professor Victor C Li and his co-workers at the University of Michigan, based on a design framework illustrated in Figure 3. Their approach considers multi-hazard extreme load conditions—such as a levee breaking apart in an earthquake or hurricane—and the future impact of climate change-induced increases in loading. The goal is to develop an optimal design that can justify the initial investment in high-performance materials such as UHPC or ECC, which can provide the desired level of resilience and sustainability. While many real-life applications of UHPC and ECC are available in almost every type of construction project, their adaptation needs to be more widespread. The increased availability of these materials for use depends on various factors, including research and development, standardization, production scalability, and market demand. While some of these materials are commercially available, others are still in the research and testing phase. Advancements in these materials are expected to continue, and their availability is likely to increase in the coming years as their benefits are recognized and demand grows. Towards a Safe and Sustainable Infrastructure Developing and adopting new cementitious materials with a lower carbon footprint and enhanced disaster resilience are crucial steps toward sustainable and safe infrastructure development for the future. These materials offer superior performance during natural disasters, such as earthquakes, typhoons, and explosions, while reducing the environmental impact of traditional Portland cement. Geopolymer concrete, limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) concrete, ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), and fiber-reinforced composites (FRC) are promising materials. As awareness grows and regulations focus on sustainability and resilience, adoption of these materials is expected to increase, contributing to a more resilient and environmentally friendly construction industry. *Dhanada K Mishra has a Ph.D. in civil engineering from the University of Michigan and is currently based in Hong Kong, working for an AI start-up, RaSpect (www.raspect.ai). He writes on environmental issues, sustainability, climate crisis, and built infrastructure.

By Rick Laezman* As the U.S. considers alternative sources of clean power to wean itself off fossil fuels, offshore wind energy (OWE) has emerged as a promising option with tremendous potential. However, like many other renewable energy sources, it faces its own unique set of challenges, some of which test the premise of “clean.” OWE may not create greenhouse gases, aside from those generated during initial construction and maintenance, but it does negatively impact the environment in other ways. Environmental groups and scientists have voiced concern about how the development and operation of offshore wind farms can harm marine life in the waters where they are built. Responding to that concern, multiple studies are examining this negative impact, such as those being conducted in the Mediterranean Sea, to confirm a pattern of disturbance and also to develop protocols for mitigating the impacts. Proponents hope these findings will provide guidance to the industry so that it can avoid the most harmful effects and continue its current trajectory of growth. The Expanding Role of OWE While wind power is commonly associated with land-based turbine farms, the offshore version has emerged with great potential. The American Clean Power Association (ACPA) describes OWE as “America’s next major energy source, representing a generational opportunity.” OWE offers several advantages over other means of clean energy production. It is an abundant, relatively consistent, reliable source of clean and renewable power. In contrast, the variability factors associated with solar and land-based wind energy have always been their biggest drawbacks. OWE could help compensate for this. The variability factors in solar and land-based wind have always been their biggest drawbacks. Offshore wind energy could help compensate for this. OWE also offers logistical advantages. The greatest concentrated demand for electricity typically occurs in large urban areas; since many of these megacities are also located in coastal zones, they could be serviced readily by OWE. Furthermore, OWE offers good economics. Because of its steady and sustainable nature, favorable prices can be locked in for many years. All these factors have boosted interest in and enthusiasm for the industry. Reuters reports that total U.S. OWE capacity is set to jump from 41 megawatts (MW) in 2023 to almost 1,000 MW in 2024. Much of this momentum is coming from the federal government. In 2021, U.S. President Biden set the goal of deploying 30 gigawatts of offshore wind electricity generation by 2030—enough to power more than 10 million American homes. Good But Not So Good As is the case with so many other promising solutions, not everyone is sanguine about the prospects of OWE. Projects have drawn protesters just about everywhere. Their ranks include environmentalists, fishermen, coastal residents, and no small number of politicians. They have cited numerous reasons for their opposition, but the negative impacts on sensitive marine animals seem to have attracted the greatest amount of attention. Offshore wind energy farms can impact marine life in many ways, both from their development and operations. Concerns are not unfounded. OWE farms can impact marine life in a variety of ways, both from their development and operations. While not necessarily aligning itself with the opposition, the French maritime data analysis company Sinay has identified several issues with OWE. Ocean-based wind turbines are typically larger than their land-based counterparts. They are often built on huge towers that are anchored into the bedrock on equally substantial foundations. This construction is an efficient conduit of the noise that is generated by the turbine blades, even though they are spinning in the sky, over 100 meters (about 328 feet) above the water. The sound of the vibrating turbine travels down through the tower into the base and then into the sea floor. These unnatural or anthropogenic (generated by humans) sounds in the aquatic environment create "noise pollution" that interferes with the marine animals living in the area. These animals have developed ways of navigating, communicating, interacting, feeding, and reproducing that often involve the processing of naturally occurring ambient noise in their surroundings. The introduction of noise pollution from wind turbines may alter these sound-reliant behaviors. Noise from heavy machinery, such as pile drivers that are used to drive the large [wind] towers into the sea floor, generate pronounced noise pollution that can harm wildlife. Some of the most acute noise pollution comes from the construction of OWE farms. Noise from heavy machinery, such as pile drivers that are used to drive the large towers into the sea floor, generates pronounced noise pollution that can harm wildlife. Sinay also notes that cables installed to carry the power from turbines to onshore distribution centers emit electromagnetic fields (EMFs) into the surrounding water. The issue of EMFs from land-based high-voltage transmission lines has been controversial, and similar concerns have been raised about the effect of EMFs from offshore turbines on marine life. EMFs are naturally occurring in the ocean environment, and many aquatic species are naturally adapted to their presence. They are highly sensitive to these energy waves and use them to navigate, forage, hunt for food, and avoid predators. But the man-made EMFs generated by underwater cables can alter the behavior of these animals. OWE turbines can generate other forms of pollution besides noise. The saltwater in the ocean is highly corrosive and breaks down the metal structures used to support turbines. This metallic breakdown can also become a source of pollution in the ocean environment. Finally, wind turbines and their bases on the sea floor attract marine life looking for cover. This “artificial reef effect” has positive and negative outcomes. It can help compensate for the disruption of habitat caused by the construction of the wind farm, but it can also harbor invasive species and otherwise alter the natural balance in surrounding habitats. Birds, Whales, and Turtles In response to concerns voiced by various groups, including fishermen and environmentalists, studies have been conducted to assess the potential damage to marine ecosystems from the development and operation of OWE farms. A few studies have found that some of the worst fears may be overblown. For example, a study conducted in 2019 on the effects of European and Danish OWE farms on birds found evidence of “widespread avoidance of offshore turbines by large-bodied birds.” In other words, the birds don’t die as feared because they simply fly around the turbines. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) also has found that “there is no scientific evidence that noise resulting from OWE site characterization surveys could potentially cause mortality of whales.” Recognizing the controversy and the potential problems with offshore wind energy technology, the U.S. federal government approved funding to conduct comprehensive studies of its effects. However, concerns remain, and much of the research and knowledge about the effects of OWE on marine life is in its infancy. Recognizing the controversy and the potential problems with the technology, the U.S. federal government approved funding to conduct comprehensive studies of its effects on the natural marine environment and wildlife. In October 2021, the Department of Energy (DOE) announced $13.5 million in funding to provide “critical environmental and wildlife data to support OWE development.” The funding went to four separate projects. Two of these were to support wildlife and fisheries monitoring on the East Coast. The other two focused on West Coast waters. On the East Coast, Duke University received $7.5 million to examine the effect of OWE development on marine animals, including birds, bats, whales, and turtles. The Coonamessett Farm Foundation received $3.3 million to survey changes in commercial fish populations and aquatic environments at an OWE development site. On the West Coast, Oregon State University received $2 million to conduct acoustic monitoring of marine mammals and seabirds. The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution also received $750,000 to develop robotic technology to monitor the effect of wind energy development on marine life. In 2022, the DOE and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) announced an additional award. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) received $1.6 million to conduct bat acoustic monitoring at fixed and mobile (floating) sites along the West Coast. These and other efforts are underway. While strong correlations have yet to be established, the goal is to develop a database of knowledge that can help guide the industry, so that as it grows, it takes the necessary precautions to minimize the effects of OWEs on the environment. BOEM, the federal agency that grants leases, easements, and rights-of-way for OWE development, has developed measures to mitigate impacts. Some of these measures are already being implemented. BOEM, the federal agency that grants leases, easements, and rights-of-way for OWE development, has developed measures to mitigate impacts. These include the selection of potential sites that will have the least amount of conflict with marine life and human activities, such as fishing. Seasonal restrictions are also designed to avoid conflict with the migration patterns of certain species. One of the most consequential activities in wind farm development may be the pile driving of wind turbine towers, mentioned earlier. Construction can last between two and four years, and the noise is intense and may be harmful to resident marine life. However, a so-called “bubble curtain technique” is being deployed to minimize its impact. This entails using steel-encased, perforated rubber hoses sunk to the seafloor in rings or circles around the base where the tower will be driven into the sea floor. Air is pumped into the hoses, where it escapes through the holes and rises to the surface. As it rises, it creates a “curtain” of bubbles that acts as a buffer that prevents the pile driving noise from escaping into the surrounding ocean environment and can reduce the sound generated by pile driving by as much as 80 to 90 percent. Sustainable Offshore Wind Energy The fight against climate change is not just about ending the nation's dependence on carbon-emitting fossil fuels. All forms of energy generation have drawbacks, risks, and harmful impacts. In this sense, the challenge presenting itself to an energy-dependent society is to account for the harmful impacts of all forms of energy production and to sufficiently mitigate them. Just as scientists, innovators, engineers, and governments have demonstrated the ingenuity to develop alternative fuel sources, they have an equal capacity to refine and improve upon even the most seemingly clean and sustainable forms of energy generation. As the U.S. strives to enlist diverse resources in the fight against carbon emissions, offshore wind has emerged as an energy alternative with potential. To fully meet the challenge of climate change, the OWE industry will have to mitigate the impacts of this very plentiful and otherwise sustainable fuel source. Industry leaders and many policymakers have shown the will to address these challenges. In time, OWE may prove to be one of the nation's leading sources of clean energy with minimal impact on the aquatic environments whose resources it harnesses. *Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California, US. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has covered renewable power and other related subjects for over ten years.

Culinary Pioneer Pays Tribute to Nature By Mark Smith* “In nature I find a friend, a companion, and a mother. My job is to pay tribute to her, to preserve her, and present her to the world.”—Claire Vallée It can be hard to stand out in the culinary world when one hails from a nation synonymous with fine cuisine. But French chef Claire Vallée is a true gastronomic pioneer. Entirely self-taught, her restaurant, ONA, was the first vegan restaurant in France to earn a coveted Michelin star award, and she has become one of the world’s leading advocates for both vegan and sustainable cooking. But her passion for vegan food transcends simple taste and ingredients. It is rooted in spiritualism, philosophy, and a wider fascination with nature itself. A former archaeologist, it is perhaps no surprise that her love of the treasures buried in the Earth helped inspire her culinary creations. But it was a journey to the East that lit the fire of inner discovery that set her on the path to success. Inspired by Temple Cuisine After working as a chef on a catamaran, Vallée journeyed to Thailand in 2012—and things would never be the same again. “It was a revelation,” she told The Earth & I. “I discovered vegetarian cooking through the Buddhist culture. Herbs, roots, spices— nothing escaped my library of tastes, textures, and smells.” “I discovered vegetarian cooking through the Buddhist culture. Herbs, roots, spices—nothing escaped my library of tastes, textures, and smells. I familiarized myself with umami, the famous fifth taste. And I realized that temple cuisine was just as tasty as that on offer in France.” When she returned to France, she settled down in Arès, in Gironde, on the Arcachon Basin, and was hired as a chef in a traditional restaurant. But she quickly realized that that kind of cooking was no longer for her. “I took a deeper interest in animal distress in farms, slaughterhouses, and during transport. I became aware that, in addition to the cruelty inflicted on these sentient beings, there is also the pollution of soil, rivers, and oceans caused by animal dejecta; the deforestation linked to the cultivation of soya to feed these animals; the methane released into the air which contributes to global warming; and the antibiotics and growth hormones injected and which we humans reciprocally ingest by consuming meat and dairy products,” she said. ‘Animal-Free Origin’ Fueled by a desire to do things differently, coupled with the skills she had picked up in the East, Vallée decided to open ONA— which stands for Origine non animale (animal-free origin)—in Arès near Bordeaux. But that would be easier said than done. Mainstream banks thought her dream was a “crazy idea,” so she went about funding things differently. She started a crowdfunding campaign. Some 126 people helped raise €10,000 (about $10,753). That money was pooled with a loan from La Nef, a bank that specializes in lending for ethical projects. She then mobilized a volunteer workforce of painters, masons, electricians, plumbers, gardeners, friends, future customers, strangers, helpers, and local businesses. In less than two months, ONA opened its doors to the public in 2016. Not only did the restaurant serve vegan food from the onset, it used no animal products in its decorations or furnishings and won praise for its commitment to renewable practices. Success soon followed. ONA was named in the Michelin Guide for 2021 and received a Michelin star—a first for a vegan restaurant in France. It was also one of 33 restaurants in France to receive a Green Star, a new Michelin Guide category awarded for sustainable practices. Nature as Friend, Companion, Mother When it comes to her culinary ideas, it is in the natural world that Vallée said she finds true inspiration. “In nature I find a friend, a companion, and a mother. My job is to pay tribute to her, to preserve her, and present her to the world. I find her as fragile as she is strong, as moving as she is cruel, as beautiful as she is sometimes sad.” She believes that plant-based cooking allows people to break free from traditional cooking constraints, get out of their comfort zones, and think more deeply about the living world and the plate. “It offers an unrivaled playground for renewed creativity, thanks to the complexity and the thousands of plant varieties that exist,” she said. People Eat with Their Eyes People eat with their eyes, or so the saying goes, and as a former art historian, Vallée likes things to look good on the plate. But she doesn’t advocate any hard and fast rules for budding chefs when it comes to presentation. “I don't really have any advice on culinary aesthetics. Personally, I'm a keen observer of nature and its changing colors over time. I also like to bring harmony to proposals and the positioning of food on and around the plate,” she said. The 'Stars' of Her Kitchen In addition to her creativity and achievements with food, she is also known for her passion for using renewable materials. This is perhaps best illustrated by the relatively small and trusted team of suppliers she keeps around her. “They are the stars of my kitchen,” she enthused. “Carole my greengrocer; Claire my ceramist; Pierre my baker; Philippe my wine merchant; Benoît my grocer, and Cyril my horticulturist. Their work is sourced from organic, ecological, or sustainable agriculture. They all live within a 20 km (12 mile) radius of the restaurant.” “Carole my greengrocer; Claire my ceramist; Pierre my baker; Philippe my wine merchant; Benoît my grocer, and Cyril my horticulturist. All six are passionate about their respective fields. Their work is sourced from organic, ecological, or sustainable agriculture. They all live within a 20 km (12 miles) radius of the restaurant and add value to the region through their know-how and techniques.” Changing Seasons and Stories Despite her reputation in the kitchen, chef Vallée is never one to rest on her laurels and likes to change things up when it comes to putting new creations on the menu. “My cooking is rather unusual in that I regularly change the dishes according to the seasons and my inspirations,” she said. “What's more, my culinary approach focuses on the message and the story. All dishes are important in this sense and contribute to the narrative.” Keep It Sustainable at Home "I wrote my book, Origine Non Animale, Pour Une Gastronomie Végétale, published in 2023. So, my customers can easily draw inspiration from some of my recipes to cook at home.” When it comes to creating delicious vegan dishes and helping support sustainability at home, Vallée said it is the “small, simple gestures” that make a difference every day. “Be careful not to let the water run for hours on end. With basins, you can reduce this impact by washing your vegetables, and then rinsing them in another, and the same goes for washing up. Even in an apartment, uneaten peelings can be fed into worm composters. Prefer bulk packaging to reduce packaging consumption. And, of course, give preference to local and seasonal produce—organic is even better,” she told The Earth & I. Cooking as a Virtue She added: “Cooking for yourself is also a virtuous act for yourself, others, and the planet. We spend less and pay more attention to what we eat when we cook. Making your own household products doesn't actually take much time, and it's frankly 1,000 times more environmentally friendly. Also, people can stop wasting food “by drying your food, preserving it by fermenting it, salting it ... just like our grandparents did!” she advised. From her self-taught beginnings and art history and archaeology background to her success in bringing people together to help realize a dream, it is clear Vallée is no ordinary chef. She has blazed a trail that is kinder to nature, inspiring many others along the way, and will hopefully continue to do so long into the future. *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

By Dr. Eric Larson* The following article is the second part of Dr. Eric Larson’s presentation, entitled “Negative Emission Technologies in US Decarbonization Pathways,” at the Twenty-Eighth International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences (ICUS XXVIII) in 2022. (See here the first part of his presentation.) In this [second] part of my talk, I will look at the potential role that negative emissions technologies might play in the United States if the US is to achieve its government-announced goal of net-zero emissions by 2050. For this, I want to draw on a study that I co-led, which we published in 2021, called Net-Zero America: Potential Pathways, Infrastructure, and Impacts. It can be accessed at https://netzeroamerica.princeton.edu. We tried to paint a picture in as much detail as possible of what the US energy economy would look like if net-zero emissions were achieved by 2050. What Might the US Energy/Industrial System Look Like as the Country Reduces Emissions to Net-Zero by 2050? We started with the knowledge that today’s US net emissions are about 6 gigatons (Gt) CO2/year. We drew a straight line for the net emissions to reach zero by 2050 (Figure 1). The analysis takes into account that there is a land sink today, with trees growing and soils absorbing carbon, and that we would enhance that land sink through various measures. There were experts on our team who helped us to understand that. There are also non-CO2 emissions that have to be considered, like methane and nitrous oxide that come from agricultural production. These tend to be more difficult to completely eliminate. Therefore, when you have non-CO2 emissions and a land sink, the difference between those is what the energy system will need to provide. In our study, we modeled the energy and industrial system and ended up with basically slightly negative emissions for those sectors by 2050 to meet the net-zero economywide target. We did a variety of other modeling that I will not go into detail on, but Figure 2 shows the results of our study. This shows the primary energy supply in 2050 under different pathways to net-zero emissions. 5 Net-Zero Pathways Deliver the Same Energy Services, But With Different Energy Demand and Supply Mixes The left bar shows the 2020 mix of energy sources of over 80% fossil fuels. By 2050, our reference scenario (second-from-the-left bar), without any new policy measures, looks quite similar. Then there are five scenarios that all meet the target of net-zero emissions by 2050. They all deliver the same energy services—that is, the vehicle miles traveled, the square meters of building space heated and cooled, and so on are the same. However, they do this with different mixes of energy-demand and energy-supply technologies. As an example, what we call the E+ scenario is a high-electrification scenario where buildings and vehicles are electrified very aggressively. The E− scenario involves less aggressive electrification. As one can see, electrification gives you some efficiency benefits. In fact, an electric vehicle, for example, has maybe three times the efficiency of a comparable internal combustion engine vehicle, so we have less of an energy requirement overall in the E+ scenario versus the E− scenario. An electric vehicle, for example, has maybe three times the efficiency of a comparable internal combustion engine vehicle. I want to point out the green bars in Figure 2 represent biomass. In all our scenarios, biomass is a very important contributor by 2050. Most of the biomass is used with CO2 capture and storage as well. In four of the five scenarios (scenarios E+, E-, and E+ RE-, E+ RE+, excluding scenario E- B+), we limited the amount of biomass that could be used in the energy system to that which could be delivered without changing land use from today. Taking land for bioenergy that might otherwise be used for agriculture has its potential problems. Therefore, we wanted to minimize that issue. One can see that in these four scenarios, bioenergy is at about the same level. In the scenario E- B+ (the middle pathway of the five net-zero bars), we allowed more biomass, including some land use change, and you can see that much more biomass is adopted there. In all five of our pathways, biomass is a very valuable energy resource when coupled with CO2 capture and storage. In the last two scenarios E+ RE- and E+ RE+ (right two bars), we changed the level of wind and solar generation. In the fourth bar (E+ RE-), we limited the amount of wind and solar capacity that could be added annually to about 40% more than the maximum single-year addition achieved in the recent past. In the last pathway E+ RE+ (the bar on the right), we did not place any constraint on wind or solar additions, and we required the energy system to be completely fossil-fuel free by 2050. 2050 Energy Mix in the Five Net-Zero US Pathways In the first four pathways (scenarios E+, E-, E- B+, and E+ RE-) (see Figure 2 excerpt), we still have fossil fuel use in 2050. Part of the reason we can continue using fossil fuels there is because we have CO2 capture and storage involved and, in fact, in these first four scenarios, we have between 1 billion and 2 billion tons per year of CO2 capture and storage. In the fifth scenario, E+ RE+, we did not allow carbon storage, but there is still capture of CO2, with the carbon being recycled back into fuels that are needed in the energy system. Part of the reason we can continue using fossil fuels … is because we have CO2 capture and storage involved. All five of our pathways rely on six decarbonization pillars (Figure 3) deployed at unprecedented rates. “Unprecedented” means we have not seen such rates of change historically in the US; it does not necessarily mean they are impossible rates of change. Our study delved into each of these important pillars. Here, I will show a snapshot of some results for the BECCS (bioenergy with carbon capture and storage) and DAC (direct air capture) technologies—in other words, the engineered negative-emissions technologies included in our model. Unprecedented Rates of Physical Change Across Six Essential Pillars of Decarbonization We did detail mapping and prospective siting of bioenergy facilities. Figure 4 displays our map for 2050. We did this mapping in five-year time steps. I am just showing the 2050 map. The green point sources represent bioenergy conversion with CCS (carbon capture and storage). The sites are widespread, particularly around the Midwest, but also in the Southeast as well as along the western part of the US. For the Five Net-Zero Pathways, Annual Capture at BECCS Facilities Ranges from 0.4–1.5 Gt CO2 in 2050 We designed a pipeline network for CO2 collection and transportation to underground storage locations. The gray-shaded regions in Figure 4 represent the most prospective regions for CO2 storage in the country. The volume of CO2 capture and storage that is going on in the E+ scenario, which is not our most aggressive one, is comparable to total current US oil production. This gives you an indication that CO2 capture, transport, and storage is a very significant new industry in our net-zero pathways. CO2 capture, transport, and storage is a very significant new industry in net-zero pathways. Annual Direct Air Capture (DAC) in 2050 Reaches 0.7 Gt CO2 in the Most DAC-Intensive Pathway (E-) In the upper panel of Figure 5, we see all the sources of CO2 capture in 2050 in each of our five net-zero scenarios. The lower panel in Figure 5 shows where captured CO2 (from all sources) goes. The gray in the lower panel represents CO2 stored. Most of the CO2 that is captured in the first four scenarios is stored underground. You can see that bioenergy (BE) with carbon capture and storage (CCS—BE+CCS = BECCS) plays a big role in all five of these scenarios. Direct air capture (DAC) really comes in only in the E− scenario. That is the case where we did not electrify vehicles and buildings as aggressively as we did in the E+ pathway. That leads to additional fossil fuel use in 2050, so, that then the emissions from those need to be offset. Since we have consumed the full biomass potential, here we need to adopt DAC, which in our modeling is a more expensive CO2 removal option than BECCS, and that is why it comes in later and mainly in that one scenario. Thus, both the BECCS and DAC technologies play very important roles in the US in potentially getting to net-zero emissions—and potentially in other countries as well. Just to recap, why are we interested in negative emissions? Cumulative emissions of CO2 determine future global warming. To stay below 1.5–2 °C of warming, the carbon budget that we have left to spend is shrinking quite rapidly. Negative emissions can essentially help us stay within our budget and meet those emissions thresholds. What are the various net-zero emissions or negative emissions technologies? I reviewed a number of them, including restoring and managing terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, mineralizing carbon, BECCS, and DAC with CO2 storage. All of these have a role to play in meeting the carbon challenge. But BECCS and DAC prospectively have the largest roles. I showed some results from our US study, including quite detailed modeling results, that really highlight the critical roles for those two future industries in reaching net-zero targets. *Eric Larson has a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and is the Senior Research Engineer at the Andlinger Center for Energy and the Environment, Princeton University, USA. Supporting websites: IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2018. “Summary for Policymakers.” In Global Warming of 1.5 °C: An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5 °C  https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.001. “Negative Emissions Technologies and Carbon Capture and Storage to Achieve the Paris Agreement Commitments.” https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2016.0447. “Co-production of Synfuels and Electricity from Coal + Biomass with Zero Net Carbon Emissions: An Illinois Case Study.” Energy and Environmental Science 3 (1): 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1039/B911529C. “A Review of Direct Air Capture (DAC): Scaling Up Commercial Technologies and Innovating for the Future.” Progress in Energy 3 (3): 032001. https://doi.org/10.1088/2516-1083/abf1ce. “Federal Research, Development, and Demonstration Priorities for Carbon Dioxide Removal in the United States.” Environmental Research Letters 13 (1): 015005. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaa08f.

Portions of Mexico, the US, and Canada will experience a rare total solar eclipse on April 8, 2024, an event attracting broad public interest and launching a host of scientific experiments to study such things as animal behavior during the short-lived daytime darkness. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has set up a special website for the eclipse to provide safety recommendations and important data to assist eclipse- watchers and residents within the narrow band of darkness as it travels northeast across the continent. NASA reports that, with cooperating local weather conditions, Mexico’s Pacific coastline will mark the phenomenon’s North American debut at approximately 11:07 a.m. PDT. After traveling northeastward across portions of Mexico, the eclipse will pass over portions of several US states from Texas to Maine prior to exiting the Atlantic coastline of Newfoundland, Canada, at 5:16 p.m. NDT. According to Scientific American, planned coinciding experiments include equipping volunteer citizen scientists with “small, microphone-equipped electronic devices” that will “listen for shifts in animal noises” during the brief period of “false night.” NASA aircraft will take images during the eclipse in hopes of capturing enormous plasma eruptions arising from the Sun’s surface. Engineers and physicists will also be measuring effects on radio wave transmissions resulting from the drop in ionization that occurs when the moon’s shadow passes over an area. Source: https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/where-when/