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City noise can be distracting and irritating. It can also lead to health problems. Noise Pollution in the City Can Be Deadly According to the UNEP, noise pollution “leads to” 12,000 premature deaths each year in the European Union (EU). Acceptable noise levels are surpassed in many global cities including Bangkok, Damascus, Algiers, and New York. “Recreational noise” (i.e., music concerts) caused hearing damage in 21% of Mexico’s high school students. Kaltenbach et al., showed that exposure to daytime aircraft noise surpassing 50 dBA was associated with adolescent learning difficulties. Parra et al., found that health-related (HR) “quality of life” was diminished by road traffic noise for people over 60 in Bogota, Columbia. Ana et al., found that children in Nigeria who attended a school near a noisy road reported “fatigue and lack of concentration” as their prominent noise-related health complaint. UNEP reports that noise of 60 dB can raise heart rate and blood pressure. It can also cause a lack of sleep. Sources: https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/deadly-wildfires-noise-pollution-and-disruptive-timing-life-cycles https://www.noiseandhealth.org/article.asp?issn=1463-1741;year=2013;volume=15;issue=64;spage=153;epage=159;aulast=van https://www.unep.org/interactive/frontiers-report-2022/frontiers/en/index.php#cities

Americans throw away millions of tons of food waste every year, much of it going to landfills. Imagine the benefits if all of it were composted. Composting Food Scraps Compostable food scraps and yard waste make up more than 30% of what Americans throw away. In 2018, 35 million tons of food scraps went into US landfills. The residential sector generated about 25 million tons of that waste—about 66% of residential food waste. Fifteen percent of residential food waste was burned, i.e., to generate energy, and 15% was sent to sewage or wastewater treatment. The EPA estimated that only 3% of residential food waste was composted in 2018, or 2.6 million tons of food scraps. Curbside composting collection programs served 6.1 million US households in 2017. Compost enriches soil, holds moisture in soil, suppresses plant diseases and pests, lowers the need for chemical fertilizers, encourages the growth of beneficial bacteria and fungi in the soil, and reduces methane emissions (from landfills). Sources: https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/usda-food-waste-infographic.pdf, https://www.epa.gov/recycle/composting-home

By Kate Pugnoli* What People Can Do to Save Water—and the Environment When people turn on their faucets in bathrooms, kitchens, or showers, they expect water to flow out. And if they live in a modern, developed country, they expect that water flow to be drinkable, too. But how often do people really consider how precious water is or the distance it may have traveled to reach them? In many countries around the world, plumbing and the availability of water is a given, nothing to lose sleep over. The idea of walking to a well over a mile away to bring back water in a jug or transporting it back home in plastic containers on a bike or truck is unimaginable, but in some places in the world this journey is still a reality. Even in some Native American homes in the United States, flowing water is not always available. Where one lives will impact one’s sensibility about water’s availability or its scarcity. For example, people living on the west side of the main island of Hawaii can expect a yearly rainfall of less than nineteen inches. However, if they move 77 miles to Hilo, on the east side of the island, they will see more than 144 inches per year. People who live with abundant rain will develop different attitudes and habits of water usage compared with those in drier climes. Worsening Droughts Regardless of where people live, the unfortunate reality is that over the past thirty years, water resources in many populated areas of the world are becoming seriously stressed. As early as 2025, half of the world's population could be living in areas facing water scarcity. By 2030, some 700 million people could be displaced by intense water scarcity. As populations grow in many regions and cities, the demand for water increases even as its availability becomes more limited. Rising global temperatures, less rainfall in crucial areas, and myriad factors have contributed to widespread droughts, particularly in regions of the American Southwest. Stark images of Lake Mead published by NASA in July 2022 made headlines around the world, as aerial pictures revealed a substantial drop in the lake that is connected to the Colorado River, on the border between Nevada and Arizona. The Hoover Dam is connected to Lake Mead and provides water and electricity to over forty million people in nearby cities and states. South of the border of Arizona is Sonora, Mexico, which at one time was supplied with abundant water from the Colorado River. People who live in certain regions of that area may find that in hot summer months, water may be turned off for a couple hours a day. Visitors traveling throughout Mexico will see large water tanks, “tinacos,” on the rooftops of most residences; they contain water that is often not drinkable. Efforts are being made to remedy this problem, but the current water usage in Mexico is not sustainable. With the many-faceted issue of climate change continually dominating the news, the average person can easily feel overwhelmed to effect meaningful corrective change. However, regarding water usage, there are many measures one can take to promote water conservation and reduce water consumption without resorting to extreme water rationing. With expanded awareness about extravagant water usage, communities can promote daily water savings tips—leading to lower water bills and even feelings of satisfaction that anyone can make a significant difference! What People Can Do There are many effective ways to conserve water; the list below highlights just a few, most of which do not involve much expense. Even simple changes make for a good start. Saving Water in the Bathroom When brushing one’s teeth, wet the brush and use a cup of water to rinse. There’s no need to keep the tap flowing while shining those pearly whites. Sometimes a long hot (or cold!) shower is just what a body needs, but people can save many gallons of water when showering. This means wetting the body/head under the shower, turning off the water while soaping up and shampooing, and rinsing off. Normally, showering for just four minutes sends twenty to forty gallons down the drain! For those who shave at the sink, try shaving by filling the sink with warm water. The razor can be rinsed without leaving the tap running. Replace that old toilet with a new ultra-low volume (ULV) 1.6-gallon flush model. Potentially, this upgrade will save as much as 70% in water, and cut indoor water use by about 30%. Alternatively, consider purchasing a dual flush toilet or buy a dual flush converter. A family may save up to 15,000 gallons of water each year. If needed, more water is used, but normally households will use 70% less water. Replace shower head and bathroom faucets with aerators that will reduce water flow. Saving Water in the Kitchen Use the dishwasher. People may think they use Iess water by handwashing dishes, but unless there are dual sinks—one for washing, one for rinsing—handwashing dishes actually uses more than a dishwasher. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that an efficient dishwasher uses half as much water, which may save as much as 5,000 gallons each year. Also, pre-rinsing dirty dishes is unnecessary if a dishwasher is used. In hot summer months, don’t run the tap for cooler water; keep a pitcher of water in your refrigerator—cool water will always be ready when needed. Saving Water for the Outdoors Water plants late in the evening whenever possible; this will cut back on the amount of moisture that evaporates. Consider planting trees that provide shade either to other plants or the home. The plants near the tree will use less water, and shade provided by trees may keep your house cooler. Install drip irrigation. There are many relatively simple DIY kits that can be picked up at hardware or big box stores that have gardening departments. Using rain barrels to collect water runoff from the roof can also save water. Instead of hosing down sidewalks or outdoor patios, sweep them off. Dipping the bristle end of the broom into a bucket of water will help get up any dirty deposits. Check to see that you have no leaks in the outdoor garden faucets and hoses. Although changing one’s water usage habits may be a little challenging at first, the water bills can go down by employing some of these ideas, while helping to preserve the water supply. There is no denying that there is a decreasing water supply in many places. Regardless of the security of the water supply in one’s local community, imagine if millions of people worldwide utilized some of these water saving tips. The result is a win-win for families, communities, and beyond. Moreover, efforts towards expanding greater awareness and consciousness of these solutions can give people a chance to make a difference. *Kate Pugnoli is an Arizona based freelance journalist and former educator who works with nonprofit organizations. Her area of interest is in addressing environmental issues impacting marine biodiversity and conservation.

By Dr. Tanmoy Rana* How Green Tea May Impact Mental Health, Cancer, COVID-19, and More The associated health benefits of green tea have given the drink its lofty reputation and growing popularity. Today, green tea and its components can be found in a variety of tea blends, nutritional supplements, skin treatments, and even ice cream. Green tea’s reputed health benefits are impressive. A cup of green tea can bolster immunity and provide relief for a sore throat. Its components possess antioxidant and anticarcinogenic effects and could reduce the risk of cancer. A recent research study demonstrated that consumption of green tea can help boost DNA repair. One of green tea’s substances—epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG)—is mainly responsible for the beneficial functions that green tea exhibits. EGCG may inhibit the growth of tumors, help people lose weight, fight diabetes and high blood pressure, help protect the brain, and prevent strokes. EGCG may even counteract coronavirus (CoV) infection. Green Tea and the Brain Green tea—Camelia sinensis is the plant from which green and black teas are derived—is widely studied for its impacts on cognitive function and dementia risk. It has been shown to reduce psychopathological symptoms, including anxiety, and improve memory and attention. Green tea can also assist brain function through the activation of working memory, a benefit observed in functional MRI scans. Nutrients called phytochemicals give green tea its reputation as a brain and mood food. Recent research shows that green tea may maintain positive mood states and even protect against Parkinson's disease and other brain disorders. Surprisingly, EGCG can also act as a quick pick-up without affecting sleep. A study from the University of San Francisco observed that the tea’s polyphenols—antioxidants that neutralize free radical damage—help boost dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter and hormone that plays a role in creating positive moods. It also helps with reward feedback and motivation and assists smooth muscle movement. Another study documented that the polyphenols in green tea positively influence the metabolism of glucose, which is an overall benefit to brain and heart health. Researchers at the University of California at San Francisco found that a polyphenol in green tea called gallotannin helped repair brain damage and prevent neuron death in stroke victims. In addition, green tea extract helped enhance connectivity from the right superior parietal lobule of the brain to the middle frontal gyrus, possibly improving task performance. Green Tea and the Heart Drinking green tea can lower the risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke by reducing LDL cholesterol and triglycerides. Long-term consumption of tea polyphenols called catechins may also be beneficial against high-fat, diet-induced obesity and type II diabetes. Research on Japanese adults showed that participants who drank more than five cups of green tea a day had a 26% lower risk of death from a heart attack or stroke than people who drank less than one cup a day. They also had a 16% lower risk of death from all causes. Japanese adults who drank more than five cups of green tea a day had a 26% lower risk of death from a heart attack or stroke than people who drank less than one cup a day. Green tea may be a promising tool for the protection of cardiovascular disorders because it may counter plaque accumulation on arterial walls, reduce the formation of blood clots, and inhibit tumor growth. It may also have antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects, as well as beneficial effects on blood vessel function. Recent evidence exists for beneficial effects of tea constituents on heart tissue, including positive effects on heart muscle contraction and hypoxia (low oxygen level)-induced tissue injury. Green Tea and Cancer There are close associations between green tea consumption and a lower risk of cancer and related mortality. EGCG may play a role in inhibiting several stages of tumor development, from tumorigenesis (tumor formation) through metastasis (secondary growth or spread). In addition, EGCG is capable of reducing cancer risk by quenching free radicals and thereby preventing oxidation-induced DNA damage and mutations. Topical application of green tea ointment may protect against precancerous cervical lesions of patients. In addition, tea constituents may play a significant role in fermenting gut bacteria. Exploring Impacts on SARS-CoV Recent studies demonstrated that EGCG may protect against infection by diverse coronaviruses (CoVs), including potential future emerging CoVs. Research demonstrated that EGCG plays a key role in preventing human and rodent CoV infection, including co-variants of concern, in lung epithelial cells. EGCG interfered with the attachment of CoV to sugar-chain structures on cell surfaces. EGCG shows antiviral activity against diverse DNA and RNA viruses, including herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), influenza A virus (IAV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). Researchers documented that EGCG inhibited HCoV-OC43 infection by disrupting the binding of the virus to its receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Green Tea and Oral Health Green tea may also play a role in oral health. It can eliminate bad-breath (halitosis) through the moderation of odor-causing sulfur components. It is also capable of causing apoptosis (cell-death) in oral cancer cells. Caution from Regulatory Agencies Despite the popularity of green tea and widespread belief in its health benefits, drinking excessive amounts of green tea may lead to nausea, stomach irritation, headaches or dizziness. Also, green tea’s strong antioxidants and other properties may pose problems for people suffering from anemia or blood-clotting disorders. Therefore, the properties of green tea will need further assessment in rigorous clinical trials before questions about its efficacy are answered. It should be noted that US regulatory agencies caution that evidence of efficacy is yet inconclusive. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) says the following: "Although many studies have been done on green tea and its extracts, definite conclusions cannot yet be reached on whether green tea is helpful for most of the purposes for which it is used." Fortunately, tea and its components are undergoing continuous research. NIH’s National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) has continued to publish research on green tea and its extracts. Green Tea Horizons Studies have shown that cancer-prevention strategies that combine pharmaceuticals and tea components may have potential applications. For instance, EGCG administered via drug delivery systems such as lipid nano-capsules or liposome encapsulation may significantly enhance therapeutic efficacy. Despite the current lack of consensus on what tea’s benefits are and how they are achieved, the popularity of tea is without question. Tea revenue is expected to grow by 6.9% at least through next year. People continue to love a cup of green tea and enjoy its benefits, whatever they might be. *Dr. Tanmoy Rana is Assistant Professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata, India. His professional interests include arsenic toxicity, molecular diagnosis and toxicology, oxidative stress, immunopathology, nanoparticles, echinococcosis, and host-microbe interactions. He conducts multidisciplinary research in life sciences and writes and edits content as well as grants.

Europeans can monitor the air quality in over 340 of their cities through the European city air quality viewer. The data for ranking the European cities was collected from over 400 monitoring stations over the past two years. Air Quality in Europe Air quality in 2020-2021 was good in only 11 European cities, having levels of particulate matter PM2.5 below the World Health Organization’s (WHO) health-based guidelines. Of the 343 European cities included in the viewer, 97% were above the WHO guidelines. In contrast, the European Union’s (EU) annual limit for particulate matter PM2.5 was only exceeded in the three most polluted cities, those being Nowy Sacz in Poland and Cremona and Padova in Italy. Starting in 2020, under the National Emission reduction Commitments (NEC) directive, EU Member States saw a transition to more stringent national emission reduction commitments to reduce emissions for five air pollutants. 2020 saw just under half of Member States meet all their national commitments to cutting air pollutant emissions. Reducing emissions of ammonia from agriculture is the biggest challenge. 11 Member States still need to cut their emissions levels. On the bright side, the annual EU emission inventory report 1990-2020 showed a downward trend in emissions (1990-2020) of six air pollutants: carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrogen oxides, non-methane volatile organic compounds, sulphur oxides and particulate matter. Source: https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/air-pollution-which-european-cities

By Mark Smith* At times it can seem that every headline carries news of some sort of climate-related disaster. In the last few weeks alone, the worst wildfires in fifty years have torn through the Canadian province of Newfoundland, while heavy rains described as a "1,000-year event" brought massive flooding to the normally arid Death Valley. Indeed, the figures on disasters related to extreme weather are grim. According to the UN’s World Meteorological Organization, a disaster related to a weather, climate or water hazard occurred every day on average over the past fifty years, with daily losses of 115 deaths and $202 million in damages. In fact, the organization claims the number of disasters has increased by a factor of five over that fifty-year period, driven by climate change, improved reporting, and more extreme weather events. But it added that thanks to improved early warnings and disaster management, the number of deaths decreased almost three-fold. So, are climate-related disasters on the rise, or, as one academic claims, are they actually declining? Or does it simply depend on which statistics are considered? Diverging Views Roger Pielke Jr., Professor of Environmental Studies at University of Colorado Boulder, has studied data from the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT). In his view, climate-related disasters have fallen by 10% over the last two decades. The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) in Belgium, which maintains EM-DAT, said its database includes disasters since 1900 that meet one of several criteria. These include at least ten deaths, at least 100 people affected, and the declaration of a state of emergency or a call for international assistance. In terms of loss of human life, Prof. Pielke cited research by global insurance company Munich Re in tracking disaster impacts. They found that in 2020, 8,200 people died in natural catastrophes compared with 550,000 similar deaths in 1920. Writing online on his Honest Broker Substack, Prof. Pielke hailed these findings as "very good news" and "completely contrary to conventional wisdom." He said: "As global population has increased, the number of people who die in disasters has declined precipitously due to better warnings, preparation, infrastructure, and response. This is a remarkable success story that too often goes untold." 22,000 Disasters Catalogued—So Far The EM-DAT contains information on more than 22,000 mass disasters in the world from 1900 to the present day. It is compiled from various sources, including UN agencies, non-governmental organizations, insurance companies, research institutes, and press agencies. Some trends about mass disasters might be due to improved, accurate reporting. For instance, EM-DAT data showed that disasters had risen for the whole of the 20th century, but then declined after 2000. "The period since 2000 is viewed as the most reliable for data reliability, but it is safe to say that even since 2000, coverage has improved," Prof. Pielke wrote. "So the 10% decline is possibly an underestimate." Cost of Disasters In addition to the tragic loss of life caused by mass disasters, mass disasters can be devastating on economies too. Yet, Prof. Pielke finds that the financial costs of disasters has been reduced in recent decades as well. "The world has made incredible progress with respect to the human and economic toll of disasters, and that progress is set to continue." He said: "As the size of the global economy doubled over the past thirty years, disaster losses dropped from about 0.25% of global GDP to less than 0.20%." He added that human-caused climate change was "real and significant," but added: "Emissions reductions are an imperative—nothing I’ve written here contradicts that. But those realities should not prevent us from respecting an empirical reality. The world has made incredible progress with respect to the human and economic toll of disasters, and that progress is set to continue." A Case of Defining Disaster? But does the interpretation of climate-related disaster statistics show them to be on the rise or falling? Certainly better awareness, rising living standards, and improved emergency response has led to declining death rates. However, that is not the only way to define disaster. Mass disasters "are on the rise," said Andrew Collins, Professor of Disaster and Development at Northumbria University in England. "There is no doubt about this if we consider the UN definition of a disaster as 'a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts.'" Prof. Collins is the former chair of the Global Alliance of Disaster Research Institutes (GADRI), which is made up of more than 220 research institutions worldwide. He currently heads a new GADRI working group on data for disaster risk reduction. He noted that one of the sources of confusion to any question of increase or decrease in mass disasters can be an "overemphasis on immediate mortality data," i.e., deaths in climate-related events. "With improvements in humanitarian response, emergency management regimes, and the evolution of resilience strategies at the local level by residents in at risk locations, overall death rates do indeed decline," he said. But while "overall mortality rates were going down, the numbers of people affected by weather-related disasters continued to increase in all income brackets," said Prof. Collins. While "overall mortality rates were going down, the numbers of people affected by weather-related disasters continued to increase in all income brackets." He added that he supports "possibilistic views rather than deterministic ‘no hope type’ of forecasts." "Human nature can still be as much of the solution as it has been part of the problem and reducing climate-related disasters has to be recognized as still possible with fundamental changes to the way we live," said Prof. Collins. What Action is Needed? In terms of what needs to happen next to tackle climate-related disasters, Prof. Collins called for more investment in next generation disaster prevention, response, and recovery. "By this, I mean that much of the world is already having to engage in recovery actions from both climate-related and other disasters, often interrelated and requiring the rebuilding of infrastructure, livelihoods, health, safety and society as a whole," he said. "What we need to do is to realize that putting disaster prevention into these recovery processes, as a response, is a strategic opportunity to improve the well-being and survivability of future generations." *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

By Gordon Cairns* Innovations Promote Broader Seafood Consumption in Sweden In the Middle Ages, Northern Swedish fishermen had a very specific problem with their catch. They couldn’t afford the salt necessary to preserve the freshly caught fish through the harsh winter. They came up with an ingenious solution: They buried the salmon in a hole in the ground—gravad lax in Swedish—covered it with birch bark and laid it in a mixture of water and the fish’s blood with some herbs sprinkled on top. And so, Scandinavia’s most famous dish—Gravlax—was invented. Today’s culinary techniques have thankfully moved on, but the country’s practical approach to solving food-based issues has remained. Sweden’s Surprising Seafood Problem Modern Sweden has a new, equally complex seafood-related problem. A country with 2,000 miles of coastline, plus innumerable lakes and islands, actually imports three-quarters of the seafood it consumes. This includes 90% of all farmed fish that ends up on a Swedish plate. Furthermore, of all Scandinavians, the Swedes are not only the lowest producers of farmed fish, but they also actually consume less fish than the amount recommended by the Swedish Food Agency. So, how does this northern European country help guarantee its food security, spark the renaissance of its home-grown fish market, and simultaneously encourage people to eat more seafood? By applying modern technology and the same practical mindset that saw their forebears burying fish to preserve it. Seafood Solutions Examples of the nation’s seafood ingenuity abound. One project is called Five Tonnes of Green Fish on the Counter. It uses a novel method of making fish feed from insects fed on food waste. Additionally, the company Musselfeed has turned dried blue mussel meat into both a healthy powder and flour. These products can be used as an ingredient in food, such as a seasoning for fish dishes or as part of a burger, as well as for animal feed applications. The company Musselfeed has turned dried blue mussel meat into a healthy powder and flour to be used as a food ingredient for humans and animals. Furthermore, researchers at Sweden’s Chalmers University of Technology have developed a new sorting technology to tackle fish waste. Currently, more than half of a fish is discarded after the fillets are removed. But the new method processes five parts of the fish to produce new products such as nuggets and fish oil supplements. This technology is already being used by a commercial herring processor. Last year, the Blue Food Centre received 48m Swedish kroner (about $4.7 million) from the Swedish Research Council, Formas. This marked the country’s largest single investment in a seafood initiative. The goal is to achieve ten-fold growth and diversification in the aquaculture industry while tripling the use of raw seafood production materials. The center engages primary producers, fishermen, large fishing companies, restaurants, and retailers, and includes more than seventy different non-academic partners. The initiative’s director, Professor Kristina Snuttan Sundell, who also works at the Department of Biology and Environmental Science at the University of Gothenburg, outlines their major goals: "We are working from responsible and innovative, question-driven research, together with the industry, so that we can get new innovations out there based on scientific facts. One of the main aims is not just to decrease the import of farmed fish per se, but to enhance our self-sufficiency regarding seafood in Sweden, in order to take better advantage of the bio-resources that we have." She added: "As we have very low aquaculture production, as well as a poor use of landed wild fish for human food, we aim to meet the increasing seafood demands by increasing the aquaculture production on the one hand and more efficiently using landed seafood raw materials for food production on the other. However, this needs to be done sustainably." She describes sustainability as the "overarching theme" of their work and says, "Several of our research groups focus on life-cycle analysis and other types of sustainability analyses in order to follow all the different research projects, innovations and procedures, following all three sustainability aspects; ecological, economical and societal. That is the whole basis of the work that we do." "We need to increase the production of not just any food, but nutritious food, and seafoods have a lot of advantages in that respect." And while low seafood consumption might seem a local Swedish issue, the Blue Food Centre is looking beyond their country's borders: "One of the global challenges that we have is we need to increase our food production in a sustainable way by not overloading the ecosystem, and we see seafood is a very strong candidate for doing that. We need to increase the production of not just any food, but nutritious food, and seafoods have a lot of advantages in that respect." "This combines with another very important aspect, the health and well-being of our animals—it should be farmed in a way that is optimal for the different organisms. Any increased production of food needs to be ethically sound." Broadening Sweden’s Dining Palate Perhaps the greatest challenge will be to persuade the Swedish population to widen their seafood palate, as they typically prefer to eat fish in its filleted form. "It will mean a change in eating culture as people need to become used to eating new food items," says Prof. Snuttan Sundell. She adds: "Of today’s total seafood production in Sweden, less than 20% ends up on our plates. We would like to increase that to 60%." One such change will be to encourage the consumption of fish that comes from freshwater fisheries in Sweden. Today, this fish source is mainly used as animal feed, but the Blue Food Centre is creating alternative ways of consuming these fish and other underutilized species: "The industry and researchers are working together to find new types of food products that can be marketed, like minced meat from fish to make burgers or fish meatballs, all kinds of different products from fish utilizing all parts of the fish, not only the fillets." The sustainable approach taken by the Blue Food Centre dovetails with that of the not-for-profit organization, the Axfoundation. Madeleine Linins Mörner, who has been with the organization for over a decade, is the program director of its Future Food strand. She was also the lead on the Axfoundation’s Five Tonnes of Green Fish on the Counter program. She explains the intriguing concept title: "We want to pick a pilot that was substantial in volume that would show this can really work in sales and decided ‘five tonnes, green fish’ because it’s environmentally friendly, and ‘on the counter’ because we wanted to end up where we meet the consumer." "We wanted to show that whole value chain from the fish farmer to the consumer." She adds the Axfoundation seeks to lift ideas off the researcher’s notebook and apply them to the real world. The goal is to be financially viable: "We want the solutions from our programs to be applied, which means someone has to think there is an upside to using them." "We have to be very business savvy, that you can make money or save money, or you can build your brand but there has to be someone out there that thinks the solution is there and can be applied." "We have our own holy trinity. Sustainability is the greatest pillar of all, then nutrition and taste." Yet this real-world pragmatism can’t abandon environmental standards: "We have our own holy trinity. Sustainability is the greatest pillar of all, then nutrition and taste," says Ms. Linins Mörner. "It doesn’t matter if something is amazingly environmentally friendly and very good for your body if the taste is not palatable. Chefs are amazingly important, as are representatives of the market; it could be retailers or wholesalers depending on the project." The Five Tonnes pilot looked at the contentious issue of farmed fish being fed a mixture of other wild-caught fish and soy, which means farmed fish actually damage the stocks of fish in the ocean. Ms. Linins Mörner says: "Our food shouldn’t eat our food. It’s better if our food eats the things we don’t want to or cannot eat." "The idea here was to try and transform waste into a high-protein feed through insects, as they can be harvested after two weeks and are highly efficient." The organization collected food waste from food and vegetable wholesalers. The food waste is mixed with bread and fed to black soldier fly larvae, which are "fantastic waste regenerators" and less fussy about what they eat compared to other insects. They quickly grew into healthy, high-protein, high-fat content feed. The feed was harvested and turned into pellets—the most usable form for the fish farmer—and fed to the fish, which were housed in land-based tanks. She adds: "If the solution we create requires the user to invest in a whole new infrastructure, it’s not going to happen. You just have to make it easy as possible." The next hurdles to overcome were size and flavor: "If the fish had grown less on this circular feed, it wouldn’t work. So, there were a lot of trials for the growth and health of the fish, but they actually grew more." "Another really important thing is taste. We had a sensory panel of well-known and highly trained chefs. Our greatest fear was that it would taste worse, but it turned out it had better scores than other farmed fish. Perhaps because soy is not part of their natural diet, but insects are." "That’s when we felt that we are on to something. We then produced on a larger scale, and they sold like hotcakes!" Ms. Linins Mörner compares the two areas she works in as a delicate piece of cloth: "The food system and the ecosystem are both equally complicated, and you have to be sure of what you are doing as it is all interconnected." "If you pull a thread in one corner, there’s going to be a rip in another corner, and you have to see those possible dangers." With these innovations, it’s not hard to imagine a favorable future for fish-eating in Sweden. A restaurant kitchen may soon exist in Stockholm where the head chef is preparing a delicious dish of Gravlax made from a farmed salmon that was fed on pellets made from black soldier flies that were fed on food waste. In other words, consumers rediscovering the delicious world of seafood with zero environmental damage. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

By Rick Laezman* More than sixty years ago, the first satellite launches captured the attention of the world. Astronauts followed soon after, and the concept of space exploration leaped from science fiction into reality. Fast-forward to the new millennium. Space travel and more importantly, satellite technology, have evolved since those early days. At the same time, the world has a whole new set of problems to solve. The U.S. Government's National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) continues to occupy a lead role globally in the exploration of the skies. Of its many facilities, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in La Canada Flintridge, California, stands out as a premier facility for satellite technology. JPL has many satellite projects that gather valuable information about a multitude of subjects. It may come as a surprise to learn that not all these projects examine far-flung, extraterrestrial phenomena, such as pulsars and black holes. Many are gathering data that is vital to the study of problems right here on Earth. Of these, none is more pressing than climate change. Rendering Islands of Heat Global warming has manifested itself in many ways. For example, the accentuated effect of global warming's rising temperatures has been documented in urban environments. While buildings, roads, and other infrastructure give cities their unique character and iconic profiles, these man-made structures also absorb and re-emit the sun’s heat to a much greater degree than do natural landscapes, such as forests and water bodies. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), studies and data have found that in the United States, the heat island effect results in daytime temperatures in urban areas about 1–7°F higher than temperatures in outlying areas and nighttime temperatures about 2–5°F higher. When coupled with the already rising temperatures caused by the effects of greenhouse gases, this serves to only compound the problem for the occupants of cities, which is where more than half of the world's population (56%) resides. Data measuring heat islands is one of the products of the JPL ECOSTRESS mission. The device has been deployed on the International Space Station (ISS) since 2018, when it was launched on a SpaceX Dragon. It consists of a thermal radiometer which measures radiation emitted from the Earth's surface. The radiometer consists of a scanning mirror and telescope to focus the energy from a small spot on the Earth onto a very sensitive infrared detector. ECOSTRESS can map 90% of the continental United States in less than four days. Simon Hook, Principal Investigator for JPL on the ECOSTRESS project, describes the sophistication of the instrumentation. "We can measure the surface temperature of the Earth within a few tenths of a degree," he explains. "Measurements can be made in microseconds." The objective of the mission is to measure variations in ground temperatures to indicate how plants respond to water shortages. This will provide vital information to those studying the impact of drought and water use on agricultural practices. The information has also proved useful in the examination of heat islands. The JPL radiometer has produced a number of images that render the impact of extreme heat in urban environments. For example, an image posted to the mission website illustrates the dynamics of a heat wave that occurred in Las Vegas in June of this year. Air temperatures reached 109°F, but surface temperatures on the city's streets were much higher. The JPL images, where heat is rendered in various shades of red, show a grid pattern, mirroring the city's streets, where temperatures were measured in excess of 120°F. Heat islands present many problems for urban residents related to energy consumption and health. In some cases, the effects can contribute to higher mortality rates in heat waves. Taking account of heat islands can result in solutions that lessen their impact. The data that ECOSTRESS provides can help with the development and evaluation of those solutions. For example, the City of Los Angeles used ECOSTRESS to measure the impact of a test project to lower temperatures from paved surfaces. The city's Bureau of Street Services applied a cooling layer of white "paint" to certain test spots around the city. After application, the city measured the effects. Using data from ECOSTRESS, the city confirmed that the paint application had resulted in a temperature difference of 13°F between street surfaces in the same neighborhoods that had been painted and those that had not. Measuring the Dynamics of Dust JPL satellite technology is being used in other projects to study the effects of global warming. The Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation, (EMIT) will analyze dust carried through the atmosphere from dry regions to see what effects it has on the planet. Why dust? It's a fair question. After all, it is just, well, dust. The impact of these airborne clouds of sand and dirt is far greater than what the diminutive size of the individual particles would suggest. Across the globe, strong winds carry clouds of dust in concentrations that reach mammoth proportions. According to NASA, each year, strong winds carry more than a billion metric tons of mineral dust, equal in weight to 10,000 aircraft carriers. These clouds travel from Earth’s deserts and other dry regions through the atmosphere. Across the globe, strong winds carry clouds of dust in concentrations that reach mammoth proportions. Scientists know that the dust affects the environment and climate, but they don’t have enough data to determine, in detail, what those effects are or may be in the future. EMIT can provide them with the data they are looking for. The state-of-the-art spectrometer was developed at JPL and launched to the International Space Station in June of this year. The instrument will collect more than a billion dust-source-composition measurements around the globe over the course of a year. Robert Green, Principal Investigator for the project at JPL, describes how each particle of dust is unique. "They give us signatures, like fingerprints." The instrument can detect these unique characteristics. It is "setting a new benchmark for the quality of this class of instrumentation," he explains. The information gathered by EMIT will contribute to scientific understanding of atmospheric dust clouds in five distinct ways. First, it will identify the composition of mineral dust from Earth’s remote and inaccessible desert regions. EMIT provides information on the color and composition of dust sources globally. This data will help scientists understand which kinds of dust dominate in particular regions, and it will advance their understanding of dust’s impact on climate and the Earth system. Secondly, EMIT data will clarify whether mineral dust heats or cools the planet. Currently, scientists aren't sure about the heating and cooling properties of dust because particles have different properties based on their color, which will determine if they absorb or reflect heat. EMIT will provide a detailed picture of how much dust comes from dark versus light minerals. Third, EMIT will help scientists understand how dust affects different Earth processes. Mineral dust particles vary in color because they’re made of different substances, such as iron, calcite or chlorite, and these substances have varying properties which can impact Earth systems in different ways. For example, mineral dust plays a role in cloud formation and atmospheric chemistry. When mineral dust is deposited in the ocean or forests, it can provide nutrients for growth, acting like fertilizer. When it falls on snow or ice, the dust accelerates melting, leading to more water runoff. And for humans, mineral dust can be a health hazard when inhaled. Fourth, EMIT will improve the accuracy of climate models. The data provided by the project's instruments will allow scientists to more accurately render the color and composition of atmospheric dust, and therefore to understand the effects this dust may have on climate, and that climate may have on the dust. Fifth and finally, EMIT will help scientists more accurately predict how future climate scenarios will affect the type and amount of dust in our atmosphere. As global temperatures rise, arid regions may become even drier, resulting in larger deserts with even more dust. With the help of EMIT, scientists will gain a better understanding of this compounding effect and the "feedback loop" it may have on climate itself. Understanding Global Warming from the Skies JPL and NASA have many other satellite projects underway, analyzing the endless mysteries of our skies. While "enchanted rocks" on Mars and life on distant worlds may grab headlines and pique the imagination of viewers at home, studies of Earth phenomena have equal importance. As the study of climate change becomes more earnest, the data from these projects carry greater significance and may lead to solutions that can help mankind ameliorate and cope with the monumental changes it faces. *Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California, US. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has been covering renewable power and other related subjects for more than ten years.

By Dr. Mahesh K. Gaur and Dr. Victor R. Squires* How Large Reforestation Projects Impact Water Cycles and Local Water Availability The need to reforest portions of Earth has been well documented. The known benefits of reforestation and afforestation are unquestioned and far-reaching, particularly when it comes to impacts on water. Reforestation greatly reduces annual rainwater runoff, for instance, leading to less soil erosion and unexpected flooding. Ample forest cover lowers surface temperatures and cools soils, lakes, rivers and landscapes. Forests also enhance water quality and reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Planting trees can increase carbon sinks that absorb and store carbon. In addition to climate-related benefits, reforestation can potentially protect endangered species. A restored forest can undo habitat loss and improve species health. Still, with all these benefits, Earth’s forested lands continue to shrink. A Crippling Trend According to the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the total forested area of Earth is about four billion hectares—31% of the global land area—or about 50 x 100m per person. Of this area, only about one billion hectares are primary, native forests that are largely undisturbed. The number of forested hectares is huge, but so is the number of hectares lost. According to the FAO’s 2020 edition of The State of the World’s Forests, the world lost about 420 million hectares (mha)— approximately 10% of its total forest area—to deforestation in the last thirty years. The FAO report estimates that between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was ten million hectares per year. That is down from sixteen million hectares in the 1990s. Even so, the area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over eighty million hectares since 1990. Tree Planting has Side Effects The world is planting trees in response. The FAO says that 7% of the global forest area is currently planted. The area of naturally regenerating forests has decreased since 1990—at a declining rate of loss—but the area of planted forests has increased by 123 million ha. It is not easy, however, to successfully create—or recreate—a forest. According to an April 8, 2021 article in Yale 360, scientists and environmentalists have concerns about large-scale tree planting programs, as they can reduce water supplies and negatively impact agriculture and associated livelihoods. How might planting trees dry up water supplies? It has to do with a tree’s ability to absorb and evaporate water at relatively high rates. According to Filoso et al., the authors of a 2017 study inPLOS One, "forests have relatively high evapotranspiration (ET) rates in comparison to most other land use and cover types, which is why water yields usually decrease upon the conversion of different land uses into forests." While it is true that large scale plantings may generate more evapotranspiration and lead to higher rainfall, this is common. To be effective, it needs to cover an area about as big as Switzerland. The major concern is that many plantation species can tap the groundwater and make the conditions less favorable for local native forest species or can lead to creeks and ponds drying up. Water Impacts Can Be Felt Far Away It takes relatively few trees to intensify the water cycle. According to a UN University report, "more than two square kilometers of forest expansion can increase the possibility of rainfall." What's more, when trees, through evaporation, move water vapor into the atmosphere, it can travel far distances through "wind-driven circulation," thus increasing "the possibility of precipitation in another location," states the study’s author. This, the author writes, "indicates that, at a global scale, afforestation can indeed bring benefits to the water cycle." However, this does not take into account losses en route, such as if wind driven rain-bearing clouds pass over parched areas. Dijke et al. (2022) observed that the effects of "directly enhanced ET and indirectly enhanced precipitation" can cause shifting patterns of water availability. They found that "large-scale tree-cover expansion can increase water availability by up to 6% in some regions, while decreasing it by up to 38% in others." Actual decreases have been more commonly reported in places such as India, Ethiopia, and China instead. Large-scale tree-cover expansion can increase water availability by up to 6% in some regions, while decreasing it by up to 38% in others. The effects of drying out local regions and increasing rainfall in other places can be extraordinarily far-reaching, write the authors. "Tree-cover change in the Amazon forest could impact precipitation in Canada, Northern Europe and all the way into Eastern Asia." The study’s authors added that "several so-called hot spots for reforestation could lose water, including regions that are already facing water scarcity today." Such effects may not show up on trees themselves, but they could be impacting the water tables and small streams. Local Winners and Losers Dijke and colleagues predict local water-supply winners and losers (following reforestation), even though they see overall benefits for the planet. They write "that for half of Earth’s surface (47%), the indirect moisture recycling effects of large-scale tree restoration could offset the direct evaporation effects, thus resulting in slight increases in water availability rather than decreases." Where do the authors think local water losses from reforestation will occur? The United Kingdom (UK) is one such place. They write that the UK "has a high tree-restoration potential and therefore a high increase in evaporation." This will result in "low evaporation recycling [rainfall] due to the dominant westerly moisture transport [aided by winds] from the country towards Eurasia." Possible winners? "Low latitudes" enjoy an increase in water availability because local evaporation recycling is high. This is due to "strong convection above the tropical forest [and short] travel distances of the atmospheric moisture," according to Dijke et al. Possible Effects on Rivers Dijke and colleagues predict varying effects on streamflow (following reforestation) by combining the direct effects of reforestation "via increased evaporation" and indirect effects "through increased precipitation" for twenty-one large river basins from the Yangtze to the Mississippi. For all of them, "enhanced evaporation reduces streamflow (up to 9%)," they found. Why the potentially different streamflow outcomes? Some river basins benefit "when evaporated water rains out within the same river basin," say the authors. Those same basins might also recycle rain from regions upwind. For river basins in the tropics that enjoy high local evaporation recycling, the gains could make up for losses via evaporation, they write. What About Arid Regions? River basins with limited water (arid regions} have a low tree-restoration potential because arid regions often lack enough groundwater to support tree growth. In such cases, state the authors, there is likely to be "a small absolute change in evaporation and precipitation" following reforestation. The authors speculate that some arid regions might benefit from tree planting because trees can increase soil porosity and soil organic carbon, thus promoting the infiltration capacity and water storage capacity of local soil. There is also a need to factor in seasonal impacts for arid areas that receive most of their precipitation on a few occasions per year. Despite these factors, the authors affirm their hypothesis that post-reforestation "streamflow will decrease for most of the world’s important river basins despite the indirect effect of evaporation recycling." In the past, afforestation has failed unless it is done with an aggressive weedy tree such as the Acacia nilotica or Prosopis juliflora, which was officially grown in the Thar Desert of India in the 1930s to afforest the desert wasteland. India: Learning from Possible Miscalculations Just because an area is without tree cover does not mean it is time to start planting. According to a 2015 study, The World Resources Institute (WRI) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) once "misidentified nine million square kilometers of ancient grassy biomes as providing ‘opportunities’ for forest restoration." In reality, establishing forests in such grasslands, savannas, and open-canopy woodlands would "devastate biodiversity and ecosystem services," according to the study’s authors. Fortunately, missteps based on miscalculations can be avoided. In the case of India, an Expert Technical Committee constituted by the Madras High Court recently found the Uppanar backwater region unsuitable for mangrove reforestation because of the area’s steep slope and tidal conditions in which mangroves would not thrive. The investigation was ordered to address concerns over reforestation proposals for the area. India’s Rajasthan State: Reforestation Success India has seen hydrological benefits from reforestation, however, even in arid regions such as The Rajasthan State. Rajasthan receives 16.05 billion cubic meters of water from rainfall annually but loses four billion cubic meters of that to runoff. Despite the heavy losses, work done under the Mukhyamantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan—Chief Minister’s Water Self-reliance Campaign (MJSA)—has raised average ground water levels in local villages by nearly five feet in twenty-one of Rajasthan’s non-desert districts. In addition, the need to supply locals with water via tankers has fallen to about 56% due to this project. Soil erosion has also declined and soil fertility has improved in the region, resulting in increased agricultural production. MJSA, which was launched in 2016, has been linked to the "Van Kranti" (Afforestation Mission) and the planting of about 148 lakh (1 lakh=100,000) saplings across the state. Thousands of newly constructed or renovated water structures under MJSA are being covered or surrounded by saplings to retain groundwater levels, reduce soil erosion, and boost biodiversity through the protection of local wildlife. According to the Chief Minister of Rajasthan: "It is a foregone conclusion that MJSA has been a huge success and a trendsetter in the country on [the] water management front. In many ways, MJSA is an important step towards ‘climate proofing’ the State." Conclusion Taking into account both the global benefits and possible negative local water impacts of reforestation, Dijke and colleagues call for more careful planning. "We emphasize that future tree-restoration strategies should consider these hydrological effects." *Dr. Mahesh K. Gaur is Principal Scientist at the ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India. He specializes in aridlands geography and the application of satellite remote sensing, GIS and digital image processing for natural resources mapping, management and assessment and also researches drought, desertification, land degradation, indigenous knowledge systems, and the socio-economic milieu of the Thar Desert of India. He is author/editor of 8 books on Drylands, Desertification, Watershed, Food Security, Remote Sensing, etc. A member of the Association of American Geographers and the Society for Conservation Biology, and several editorial boards of journals, he has been awarded the Citizen Karamveer Award 2011 by iCONGO; the Millennium Award and recognitions by the UGC of India and Scientific Assembly of the International Committee on Space Research (COSPAR). *Dr. Victor R. Squires is a Distinguished Guest Professor in the Institute of Desertification Studies, Beijing. An Australian with a PhD in Rangeland Science from Utah State University (US), he is a former (retired) Foundation Dean of the Faculty of Natural Resource Management at the University of Adelaide and author/editor of 22 books on Drylands, Desertification, and Ecological Restoration. He has been a consultant to World Bank, Asian Development and various UN agencies in Africa, China, Central Asia and the Middle East. He was awarded the 2008 International Award and Gold Medal for International Science and Technology Cooperation by the Government of China and in 2015 was honored by the Society for Range Management (USA) with an Outstanding Achievement Award and was recognized a member of the Order of Australia for services to ecology, especially rangelands.

By Alina Bradford* Fresh produce often comes straight out of the ground, so it’s born dirty. Though it looks clean by the time it gets to the store, don’t assume that it is. Even organic produce can be covered in bacteria and other contaminants. Here’s what consumers need to know about the cleanliness of produce and how to make it safer to eat. How Dirty Is Produce? It all depends. Each piece of produce that ends up in a shopping bag took a different journey to the store. Fruits and vegetables are often exposed to rodents; unwashed hands; bugs; airborne germs; and particulates, fertilizer, and more as they travel. Moreover, most produce is exposed to pesticides. The Environmental Working Group's 2022 Shopper's Guide to Pesticides in Produce listed strawberries and spinach as the two top produce items that contain the highest levels of pesticide contamination. Next on the list were kale, collard and mustard greens, nectarines, apples, grapes, and varieties of peppers. Try to buy produce locally. Shorter shipping distances mean that contamination is less likely. It’s best to assume that the fresh fruits and vegetables brought home are pretty filthy. Though this may make some people wary of eating store-bought produce, there’s no need to avoid it. Produce can be made safe to eat. How Can Consumers Make Produce Safe? The safest way to ensure that raw food won’t cause an illness is to wash it, and then cook it, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The heat from cooking can kill any bacteria that might remain after washing. Also, try to buy produce locally. Shorter shipping distances mean that contamination is less likely. Of course, the safest produce is homegrown, garden-to-table food since consumers know exactly what the fruits and vegetables were exposed to. What Is the Right Way to Wash Produce? Produce should be cleaned as soon as possible so this step won’t be forgotten later. Plus, clean produce won’t contaminate the refrigerator or countertops. First, start with clean hands. Wash your hands for at least 20 seconds with soap and water. Also, make sure your kitchen surfaces, like your sink and countertops, have been cleaned and sanitized. Once the surfaces are clean, remove the "extra parts" of the produce. Remove the outer leaves from lettuce, the loose, outer skins of onions, and eyes from potatoes, for example. Also, discard berries or leaves that are damaged. Next, scrub the fruits and vegetables under lukewarm running water. Vegetable brushes are nice, but they are not required—the running water and clean hands are fine, according to the Colorado State Extension Office. Conversely, a brush may help get the dirt off of root vegetables like potatoes, carrots, and turnips. Do Consumers Need a Special Cleanser for their Produce? The CDC, US Department of Agriculture, and federal Food and Drug Administration don’t recommend washing produce in anything other than water. That means consumers can skip those fancy veggie washes seen in stores or the well-intentioned homemade cleaning recipes posted on the internet. Fruits and vegetables are porous. They can absorb the washes, and possibly cause a sickness or alter the taste of the food. Besides, these washes haven’t been proven any more effective than water. When the first batch of produce is cleaned, place it into a clean colander while the other items are washed. What About Produce with Inedible Peels? Yes, even if the plan is to remove the banana, avocado, melon, orange, grapefruit, or lemon peel, the produce should be washed. Hands or knives touching the peel can contaminate the fruit underneath. Moreover, washing bananas when they first come into the kitchen can banish any fruit-fly eggs that tagged along. Does Organic Produce Need to Be Washed? Even if the produce has never been touched by pesticides, there is a good chance it has been touched by dirty hands, rodents, and bugs. So, give organic produce a good wash, too. How About Pre-washed Packaged Produce? The CDC says that food that’s labeled as washed doesn’t need further cleaning, but many consumers do so anyway. In 2021, eighteen people became sick with listeria after eating Dole pre-packaged salads. There have been other recalls of contaminated pre-packaged produce in the last few years, as well. What Happens if the Produce Isn’t Washed? At the very least, consumers will ingest the waxy preservatives the store uses to keep the produce looking fresh. At the worst, they could consume pesticides or dangerous bacteria. Around 1 in 6 Americans (or 48 million people) get sick, and 3,000 die, from foodborne diseases. While a lot of times foodborne illnesses come from animal products, produce is often contaminated, too. For example, in early 2022, a recall was issued over contaminated baby spinach. Four people needed to be hospitalized after fifteen became ill. Some common food contaminants include Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Norovirus, and Listeria monocytogenes. They can cause diarrhea, headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, fever, hallucinations, paralysis, and death. While most people will just suffer what is thought of as a "stomach flu" when exposed to these contaminants, they are particularly dangerous to children, pregnant women, the elderly, and those with compromised immune systems. So, the best bet for healthy eating is to always wash fruits and vegetables. While it doesn’t always get rid of every contaminant, it’s the best line of defense against bacteria and pesticides. *Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert that has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com.

By Angelica Sirotin* Climate Change Impacts an Alpine Treasure It is no secret that climate change has a serious impact on the quality and ecology of aquatic environments. Switzerland is an example of a mountainous, alpine region that is at risk of experiencing a decline in water supply due to global warming as well as the human response to it. Researchers at Swiss research institute Eawag have revealed that human responses to climate change are just as impactful on our water systems—for example, through agriculture and hydropower installations. But what does this mean for the future of Switzerland’s water security? Alpine Water Supplies Could Become at Risk Switzerland is traditionally a water-rich country, averaging about 5,000 cubic meters (or 5 million liters) of renewable fresh water available per person per year. However, this abundance is unevenly distributed, and some alpine regions of Germany, Austria, and Liechtenstein are also already facing water scarcity. Most of Switzerland’s water resources come from the Alps, which are also the main source of water for neighboring countries. Moreover, the Alps are an important source of hydropower, which provides approximately 60% of Switzerland’s electricity. As the climate changes, the amount of water available in the Alps is expected to decline. This is due to a combination of factors, including increased evaporation, decreased precipitation, and melting glaciers. The resulting decline in water availability will have a number of impacts on Switzerland, including decreased water supply for households, industry, and agriculture; increased costs for water treatment and distribution; and negative impacts on the environment. In response to these anticipated impacts, the Swiss government has put in place a series of measures. One such measure was the revision of the Water Protection Ordinance (WPO) in 2020, which introduced more stringent limits for twelve pesticides that are especially harmful to aquatic organisms. In addition, three medicinal compounds were added to the list of regulated substances for the first time. Moreover, The Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) reports that water quantity is not yet the most pressing issue in Switzerland. Rather, it is water quality that is cause for current concern, as agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, and livestock waste can contaminate water supplies. To address this problem, the Swiss government has implemented policies to improve water quality. For example, The Green Economy Action Plan, which was approved by the Federal Office for the Environment of the Swiss Federal Council in early 2013, includes several measures relating to consumption and production, waste, and raw materials. Ultimately, the goal is to better utilize minimal resources, such as freshwater, while also maintaining production needed for economic and societal functionality. Aside from legislation, the promotion of vertical farming (cultivating plants in stacked layers in a controlled environment) is one way Switzerland is working to reduce the water footprint of crops. Vertical farming uses 95% less water than traditional farming methods and does not require pesticides or herbicides. This type of farming provides not only environmental but also economic benefits. Its reduced water consumption results in less strain on municipal resources and infrastructure, enabling farmers to save money on irrigation costs. As Switzerland strives to become carbon-neutral by 2050, it is accelerating the transition to renewable energy, which includes doubling-down on its hydropower resources. For example, Switzerland will inaugurate its new, state-of-the-art pumped storage hydropower plant Nant de Drance on September 10/11, with a storage capacity of 900 MW of electricity (roughly 400,000 EV batteries). While hydropower is generally considered to be a low-carbon technology, it can have significant environmental impacts, including alteration of river flows, which can impact the ecology of the river system. The effects of climate change on water resources are not unique to Switzerland. Many countries around the world are grappling with the same issue. For example, in Australia, the Murray-Darling Basin—which is the country’s food bowl and supports a $75 billion agriculture industry—is under immense pressure from the effects of drought and climate change. The Australian government has implemented a series of measures to try to mitigate the effects of climate change on the Basin, including water efficiency plans and assessment of environmental flows. In addition to Australia, many countries in Africa are also struggling with the effects of climate change on water resources, including flooding, droughts, changes in the distribution of rainfall, drying-up of rivers, and the receding of bodies of water. It is evident that Switzerland's actions serve as a model for other countries to follow to mitigate the effects of climate change. Ultimately, the effects of climate change on water resources require a coordinated effort from all countries to address. It is evident that Switzerland's actions serve as a model for other countries to follow to mitigate the effects of climate change. Moreover, Switzerland has several key lessons that can be applied to other countries when it comes to climate change and water resources. Switzerland’s Key Lessons First, it is important to have clear and stringent legislation in place to protect water resources. Second, the promotion of alternative farming methods, such as vertical farming, can help to reduce the water footprint of crops. And finally, the transition to renewable energy sources is crucial to achieve carbon-neutrality. As a country with a long history of environmental stewardship, Switzerland is setting the standard for other countries to follow. According to Eawag, “We have long been aware of the direct impact of climate change on natural freshwater systems [in Switzerland]. ... This does not just threaten the habitats of aquatic life and their biodiversity. Around 1.5 billion people [worldwide] who rely on the water resources from … mountainous regions will also suffer if the quality and quantity of the drinking water deteriorate." While the effects of climate change are global in scope, countries must act at the domestic level to mitigate the negative impacts of this phenomenon. It is incumbent upon Alpine nations to take action to protect their water resources through a combination of legislation, technology, and education. In doing so, these nations will not only be protecting their own resources but serving as an inspiration for other countries to follow suit. *Angelica Sirotin is a social impact venture entrepreneur, founder, and CEO of Sirotin Ventures. She is a member of the WEF AI Youth Council, B20 Indonesia 2022 Digitalization Taskforce, and has been selected as a SwissCognitive Global AI Ambassador 2022.

By Robin Whitlock* Is the Process Achievable at Scale? Plastics, a ubiquitous, man-made element in the modern world, have been enormously beneficial to human society. Plastics are currently used for just about everything: food packaging, bicycle helmets, airbags in vehicles, cell phones, computers, roofing, insulation, and in sterile packaging in health care. But plastics have also been identified as a driver of climate change because plastics production leads to greenhouse gas emissions. The question emerges: Can plastics be produced in ways that do not worsen climate change? Some people are likely to see plastics as a single substance without being aware of the different types of plastics. To achieve a common understanding of plastics, it is important to understand the distinctions. Plastics (or polymers) is an umbrella term that includes hundreds of different types. Most people use just a handful of them, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), often used in food packaging and polyester fabric; high- and low-density polyethylene; polyvinyl chloride (PVC); polypropylene; and polystyrene (also known as Styrofoam). It is important to note that PVC and polystyrene have already been found to have serious adverse side effects in that they can leach toxins into the environment throughout their entire lifecycle. Another undesirable feature of plastic is that plastics are produced from fossil fuels. Plastic production is thus a major driver of man-made (anthropogenic) climate change. One possible solution to reducing dependence on fossil fuels is to produce plastics directly from carbon dioxide (CO2), thereby helping to reduce the presence of CO2 in the atmosphere and counter climate change. Conventional Plastic Production Plastics are largely made from fossil fuels, such as oil and natural gas, or from plants (for bioplastics). These raw materials are refined into ethane or propane, which are then subjected to high levels of heat in a process called "cracking." Cracking converts them into monomers such as ethylene and propylene. These monomers are then combined with a catalyst to create a polymer "fluff" that looks like a powder. This powdered polymer is fed into an extruder where it is melted and run through a pipe where it forms a long tube as it cools. The tube is then cut into bits to form pellets, and the pellets are sent off to factories where they are made into products. Bioplastics Are Not a Solution to Climate Change Bioplastics may seem to be a viable alternative to the use of fossil fuels for producing plastic. There has been a lot of discussion about this in recent years, focusing on the use of bioplastics, such as polylactide (PLA) to produce things such as disposable cutlery made from potatoes or plastic bottles made from corn. Bioplastics production, being an energy intensive process requiring the use of fertilizers, is not a viable alternative to conventional plastic production due to environmental impacts. However, bioplastics are not actually a viable solution. For a start, they do not biodegrade easily and usually need to be fed into industrial composters in order to be processed or recycled. The production of bioplastics is also fairly energy intensive, and some bioplastics actually have a higher carbon footprint than ordinary plastics for this reason. Researchers at the University of Sheffield found that, with fertilizer costs, transport, and harvesting, bioplastics were the worst option, with their adverse impacts even exceeding those made from fossil fuels. Furthermore, the water and fertilizers used in producing bioplastics can contribute to the eutrophication and pollution of rivers and estuaries. Utilizing CO2 for Plastic Production In order to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into plastics, two things are required—a large store of captured CO2 and a number of cleverly designed catalysts. A catalyst is a substance or chemical that causes a chemical reaction without itself being affected in any way. Many metals can be used as catalysts, but copper is particularly useful when trying to convert CO2 into plastic. According to Prof. Peter Styring, Director of the UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization (CDUUK), most of the carbon currently available for potential plastic production comes from hydrogen production, but researchers are investigating the capture of industrial emissions as well. CDUUK has discovered how to make polyacrylamide (nylon) from CO2. A number of research projects are currently underway at different locations around the world to develop the processes needed to convert CO2 into plastics. Given that around half the plastic in the world is currently made from ethylene, several of these projects are investigating how to make ethylene from CO2, which can then be turned into plastic. At Rutgers University in New Jersey (US), scientists are using special electrocatalysts containing nickel and phosphorus in a process involving the combination of CO2 with water and electricity. This then produces complex carbon-containing molecules that can subsequently be used to produce plastics and other products, described by the research team as a form of "artificial photosynthesis." Other research projects investigating the combination of CO2 with water and electricity, with copper as a catalyst, are underway at Swansea University’s Energy Safety Research Institute in Wales, and at the Ted Sargent Group at the University of Toronto. The German company Covestro has designed a catalyst that could potentially allow CO2 to react with epoxides (a form of cyclic ether—an organic compound formed of ring-shaped molecules containing oxygen) to produce a family of chemicals called "polyether polycarbonate polyols." These substances can be used to make polyurethane, and Covestro plants in Germany are now producing mattresses using 20% captured carbon dioxide. Research in plastic production from CO2, including the use of electrocatalysis, heterogeneous catalysis, and microbial fermentation, is underway. In the UK, Econic is producing polyurethane from carbon dioxide and expects to be able to produce foam products, coatings, sealants, and elastomers ready for commercialization within two years. The Centre for Sustainable Chemical Technologies at the University of Bath is hoping to produce polycarbonate by combining carbon dioxide with sugars, such as xylose. In Germany, the research institute Fraunhofer has produced formic acid and methanol from carbon dioxide, subsequently converting them into the building blocks for the production of polymers and similar materials using fermentation through microorganisms, in particular methylotrophic bacteria and yeasts. Two processes were employed. Heterogeneous chemical catalysis was used to convert CO2 to methanol, while electrochemistry was also used to produce formic acid from CO2. The methanol and formic acid can be used to build blocks for polymers and can also be used to "feed" other microorganisms to produce other products. In this project, the researchers introduced genes into the microbes to provide a blueprint for enzymes, a process known as metabolic engineering. The enzymes can subsequently be used as a catalyst. Government Involvement In the US, the Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management has also been involved in research in the production of plastic from CO2. In 2013, the agency announced it had funded the world’s first successful large-scale production of a polypropylene carbonate (PPC) polymer using waste CO2. The project was actually carried out by Novomer Inc., in collaboration with Albemarle Corporation, using its manufacturing plant in Orangeburg, South Carolina. It tested the scale-up of Novomer’s catalyst technology and found that only minor modifications needed to be made to the company’s existing facilities to produce seven tons of polymer containing more than 40% CO2. The Office of Fossil Energy is involved in other approaches to convert captured CO2 into products through its Carbon Capture and Storage program, managed by the National Energy Technology Laboratory. Novomer appears to be continuing this project, and other companies are getting involved in this area of research as well, according to the website Packaging Europe. Projected Impact of Plastic Production from CO2 The processes used by the research team at Fraunhofer can be implemented over a medium to long term, say ten years or so, although industry is under pressure to find other processes that can be implemented sooner. However, IDTechEx sees limited potential for this approach to reducing carbon emissions, even though it expects this sector to expand. The key requirement is the expansion of carbon capture infrastructure to feed such carbon utilization strategies with CO2. These processes might not be as effective as the industry and some research organizations claim, however. Some environmental organizations warn that carbon capture and storage (CCS) remains unproven as a viable solution, and the projects in operation are ineffective and expensive. Should this turn out to be true, researchers will have to continue to seek new ways to cut emissions. *Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests including green transportation.