Cycling In Packs Boost Riders’ Health and Reduces Vehicle Carbon Emissions By Gordon Cairns* Going to school in Scotland may have never been so exciting. During any school morning rush hour, one can hear children laughing, bells ringing, and music booming from a speaker while a vibrantly colored procession of bikes rolls through the main traffic junction in Shawlands in Glasgow. But this isn’t some crack of dawn carnival. It’s simply a group of parents taking their children to school on a “bike bus.” The loud music and bright orange and yellow clothing keep everyone in this moving pack of bicyclists safe on the roads. Parents and other riders revel in the biking experience with their children—and demonstrating how city cycling is a practical, low-carbon way of getting kids to school. Bike buses have come a long way since a group of parents got together to bike with their kids to school in Fietspoolen, Veilig, Belgium, in 1998. Today, the Scottish Shawlands version is just one of at least 453 routes taking thousands of children to school in thirteen countries across the world on at least one morning a week. These numbers have grown exponentially, inspired initially by word of mouth, then more recently through social media clips showing parents leaving their cars at home and taking out their bikes. In Barcelona, Spain, every week a swarm of school children form a bike peloton the width of the city’s broad avenues, with groups peeling off at different junctions to go to their own school. Most bike bus routes are between 1.7 to 3.5km (about 1 to 2.1 miles) in distance with the children typically cycling fifteen to twenty-five minutes to get to their lessons. Environmental Benefits The environmental benefits of a bike bus come from obvious reductions in CO2 emissions. If only one parent switched from driving a combustion-engine vehicle to cycling four miles to school (roundtrip) twice a week (average passenger vehicle emits about 400 grams of CO2 per mile), the annual CO2 emissions would be reduced by an estimated 115.2 kg (253.9 lb) annually (counting 36 weeks of school). Multiplying that figure by thirty, the average number of bicyclers on a bike bus, illustrates how much one bike bus can clean up city air—or a total reduction of 3,456 kg (7,619.1 lb) of CO2. For Barcelona bicibús (Spanish for “bike bus”) volunteer and data collector Jordi Honey-Rosés, the benefits also extend to a social level. When he first witnessed the bike bus in action, he could see the long-term effects it would have in the lives of children and on urban landscapes: “It was simultaneously a practical way to travel to school; it was social, it was fun, and it also made a strong statement about what our city should look like,” said Honey-Rosés, a research professor at the Autonomous University of Barcelona. “Kids going to school are performing an essential basic function of their day-to-day lives, but our cities haven’t made it easy for them to ride a bike to school.” In a Zoom conversation, Honey-Rosés explains that modern cities simply haven’t been designed with children in mind: “Kids going to school are performing an essential basic function of their day-to-day lives, but our cities haven’t made it easy for them to ride a bike to school.” Incredibly, the large numbers of children biking to school through the bustling Catalan capital force the bicibús organizers to register their ride as a demonstration to have the protection of a local police escort—their blue lights flashing—to keep the children safe. Honey-Rosés thinks it shouldn’t be this way—and bike buses can become the driver of change. “If we are able to build cities that can accommodate children safely, then we will be building better cities for everyone.” “[Bike buses] brought together so many different things we are interested in—mobility, transforming our city, reclaiming our streets.” “When you see children riding down the center of the street, they’re out of scale; they somehow don’t belong and yet they do belong,” he says. “[Bike buses] brought together so many different things we are interested in—mobility, transforming our city, reclaiming our streets.” School Bike Bus in Scotland In Shawlands, Scotland, five families were inspired by the Barcelona bicibús to create their own version two years ago, in 2021, when the COP26 climate change conference took place in the city. In an interview over coffee, one of the founders, Katherine Cory, said she has seen many benefits. “Forty percent of the kids at the school are on the bike bus; that’s a huge number not coming by car. There is also a ripple effect as a lot of parents, like me, who hadn’t been on a bike for years, are now commuting to work on bike bus days and even non-bike bus days,” Cory said before cycling off to pick up her seven-year-old daughter Martha from school. To help make their journey across a busy junction easier, the leader of the Shawlands bike bus has strapped the Ultra-Smart Cycle System onto his bike’s handlebars. This blue gadget was developed by Sm@rt Technology for the Glasgow City Council. It has three buttons that control different sets of traffic lights along a route, holding them at green for forty-five seconds—four times longer than normal—to allow the seventy to eighty bike bus riders to pass through together. Although specifically created for the Shawlands bike bus, this kit could be used by groups across the world. But even with the aid of smart technology, running a bike bus requires a lot of commitment and hard work from parents to make it a success. But even with the aid of such smart technology, running a bike bus requires a lot of commitment and hard work from parents to make it a success. Besides the lead cyclist, there is a sweeper on a cargo bike at the end, ensuring no children are left behind, and a line of adults cycling on the roadside of the bike train, keeping the well-drilled children safe. While Cory loves the energy, connectedness, and sheer joy of the bike bus, she feels an underlying sense of frustration that there is no bike lane in place to protect the riders. “The adults are essentially a human bike lane. We are acting as human infrastructure until we can get an actual infrastructure,” she says. She adds: “We love the community that we have built on a bike bus, but we should not have to be doing this. It is a form of protest. We are plugging away every week showing these families and children want to cycle to school, but it is not safe.” School Bike Bus(es) in the USA Like Cory in Scotland, physical education teacher Sam Balto in Portland, Oregon, happened to see the Barcelona bicibús clip online and created his own bike bus to take students to Alameda Elementary School more than a year ago. Now, on any given school day, there are between 70 to 150 students taking their bikes to school. They start in two cohorts, each 1.5 miles away from the school, that converge to ride the last mile together. Balto shares Cory’s desire for structural change. “Bike buses are a call to action to our city leaders to prioritize our children’s mobility and to improve infrastructure to allow kids and their families to ride bikes to school, to their friends’ houses, to the library, and to businesses all around the city to increase opportunities for their independence,” he says. For instance, “we would love more dedicated bike lanes; diverters on neighborhood greenways, school streets; red light cameras—all sorts of infrastructure improvements, not just for cyclists but for pedestrians as well,” Balto says. Balto’s wish list is not an impossible goal. The cycling utopia of safe streets already exists in Copenhagen, Denmark, and Amsterdam, The Netherlands, where bikes are central to city planning. In the Danish capital, almost half of the journeys taken to school or work today are by bike, while the Dutch capital shows the power of parents who campaigned to force the city leaders to make the city safe for children to bike. In ten years' time, who knows how far bike buses will go in Barcelona, Shawlands, and Portland? *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

Study Suggests Electric Eels Can Alter Genes of Nearby Fish Researchers at Nagoya University in Japan, led by Professor Eiichi Hondo and Assistant Professor Atsuo Iida, have shown that the relatively powerful discharge (up to 860V) of electric eels is enough to alter the genes of nearby zebrafish larvae. This phenomenon occurred through a process known as electroporation or gene transport via electricity. In a study published in PeerJ—Life and Environment, Hondo and Iida hypothesized that since electricity is conducted through water, it is possible that it could affect organisms near the charge. Apparently, their hunch was right. Electroporation is a process in which an electric field creates temporary pores in a cell’s membrane, allowing DNA molecules to enter the cell. Quoted in a news brief by Science Daily, Iida said, “I realized that electric eels in the Amazon River could well act as a power source, organisms living in the surrounding area could act as recipient cells, and environmental DNA fragments released into the water would become foreign genes, causing genetic recombination in the surrounding organisms because of electric discharge." To test their hypothesis, the team exposed larvae in the lab to a DNA solution with a marker that glowed if the zebrafish had taken the DNA. Next, they induced an eel to discharge electricity. They found that about 5% of the fish contained markers indicating gene transfer. “This indicates that the discharge from the electric eel promoted gene transfer to the cells, even though eels have different shapes of pulse and unstable voltage compared to machines usually used in electroporation,” Iida said. Some of the larvae exhibited green fluorescence, whereas the control group without electrical stimulation showed little. This suggested to the team that electric organ discharge (EOD) from the eels could potentially be an electroporator to transfer DNA into eukaryotic cells or those with a clearly defined nucleus. The authors cautioned that their initial exploration does not serve to directly establish its significance within the natural environment, and further research is needed. But Iida thinks their results indicate that “electric eels and other organisms that generate electricity could affect genetic modification in nature." According to the Science Daily brief, Iida is intrigued by electric field research in living organisms. "I believe that attempts to discover new biological phenomena based on such ‘unexpected’ and ‘outside-the-box’ ideas will enlighten the world about the complexities of living organisms and trigger breakthroughs in the future." Sources: https://peerj.com/articles/16596/ https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/12/231205114816.htm

Growing Seaweed and Shellfish Helps Balance and Purify Seawater By Yasmin Prabhudas* The world’s oceans and seas absorb about 30% of the carbon dioxide that is released into the atmosphere, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. As human beings maintain or increase certain activities, such as burning fossil fuels and clearing land of trees, the amount of CO2 is increased—and more is absorbed in the world’s waters. When CO2 is absorbed by seawater, it sets in motion a series of chemical reactions that can result in acidification, or an increase in hydrogen ions. Acidification is believed to be generally harmful to marine species because it can reduce calcification in some species and affect some fish’s ability to find predators, for example, there has been an ongoing debate about clownfish being impacted. Acidification can also contribute to coral bleaching. Today's average ocean water pH stands at 8.1. Before the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s, when humans began using fossil fuels for manufacturing, the level was 8.2. The US Environmental Protection Agency says this drop in pH looks small, but it means that “the acidity of the ocean today, on average, is about 25% greater than it was during preindustrial times.” The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2016 estimated that the pH level* of the oceans could decrease, or become more acidic, by up to 0.287–0.29 pH units by 2081–2100 under a high emissions (RCP8.5) scenario relative to 2006–2015. That’s why the work of Havhøst, a Danish membership organization, is so important. Literally translated, its name means “ocean harvest.” It promotes regenerative ocean farming, combining seaweed, which can help alleviate the effects of ocean acidification, and shellfish, which can purify the water. What is Regenerative Ocean Farming? Bodil Sofie Espersen, project manager at Havhøst, explains: “Regenerative ocean farming is cultivation of edible marine organisms that have an overall net positive impact on the surrounding ecosystem. So, it’s zero-inputs cultivation—no fertilizers, no pesticides, no medicine, no nothing added to the water. The whole regenerative idea is to always give more than you take, so leave a positive print on whatever ecosystem you’re working with.” “When you cultivate mussels or oysters, they work as edible biofilters, so they filter the water. They take out excess nutrients, which is a big issue, especially in Danish coastal waters, because we have very heavy agricultural activities on the land,” Sofie Espersen adds. “When you cultivate mussels or oysters, they work as edible biofilters, so they filter the water. They take out excess nutrients, which is a big issue, especially in Danish coastal waters, because we have very heavy agricultural activities on the land.” Excess nutrients, she says, cause nutrification and loss of oxygen, leading to “ocean deserts.” The term refers to massive areas of ocean that don’t have enough nutrients for marine life to thrive fully. The deserts tend to lie about 30 degrees on either side of the equator—far from the biologically productive landmasses—and are also estimated to be the largest biome on Earth, occupying about 40% of its surface, according to the University of New Hampshire. However, seaweed turns CO2 into oxygen, and, combined with oysters and mussels, creates a “positive circular effect.” Benefits Havhøst’s role is to help set up community sea gardens across Denmark, which has more than 5,000 miles of coastline, offering excellent conditions for cultivating blue mussels, seaweed, and oysters. Many sea gardens are run on a voluntary basis, but more small business owners and local sustainable fishers are becoming involved. “We want lots of small-scale ocean farms, with fishers using the business to supplement other sources of income,” comments Sofie Espersen. Apart from economic advantages, the local community can benefit too, no matter what their reasons for getting involved. “Some [people] are together just to get food on the table. […] and some of them are fishermen trying to keep living on the ocean. […] But all have the same outcome—that they support local blue biodiversity, create healthy ecosystems—and they tell the story of the future,” says Sofie Espersen. Environmental Factors Before establishing new projects, environmental factors are considered. “We’re very aware not to put a farm on top of areas that have seagrass because seagrass is a key species, just like mussels and oysters and seaweed,” says Sofie Espersen. The risk is that shade may be created, which will affect the seagrass. “We’re very aware not to put a farm on top of areas that have seagrass because seagrass is a key species, just like mussels and oysters and seaweed.” Havhøst also concentrates on growing species in areas that can sustain production, taking into account the ocean’s current, the depth of the water, and potential pollution. Drawbacks But there are hurdles to overcome. For example, it can be hard to obtain the right permission to set up a community garden, because regulations often favor large-scale industries rather than small businesses. It’s also often difficult to obtain start-up funding. However, Havhøst managers have built up a wealth of expertise and can help groups get over these potential barriers. Community Gardens Some twenty-six community gardens, involving 15 to 200 members, have been created since Havhøst started out ten years ago. Small groups of people who decide they want to start a project can approach Havhøst for help with obtaining permission, applying for financial aid, and getting started. Bælthaven in Middelfart is the twelfth and largest association-based maritime garden in Denmark. It was created through a collaboration involving stakeholders such as the local municipality and the Nature Centre Hindsgavl. Its members farm mussels using long “socks” that hang from a platform over the edge of the sea, and seaweed is grown on ropes. Apart from cultivating sustainable marine food, the association organizes events where the public can find out more about regenerative ocean farming. For example, lunches and food tastings are arranged, and lectures held. As part of Nature Day in September 2023, local people were also invited to collect and cook mussels caught by local sea farmers. Education Part of Havhøst’s agenda involves imparting knowledge to students. It currently works with forty-six schools in Copenhagen alone, and there are nine “satellites” around the country. Pupils aged between ten and seventeen participate in activities such as ocean farm work and dissecting mussels. More than 6,000 students have attended Havhøst’s educational programs over the years. The seaweed field school course is just one educational initiative. It offers students the chance to visit Havhøst’s floating platform Bølgemarken, which showcases the sea’s edible produce. During the visit, students learn about the lifecycle of seaweed and the work of sea farmers. They also harvest seaweed from tang lines and learn about its role in counteracting the climate crisis. In the kitchen, pupils prepare and taste food, such as pesto and waffles made from seaweed. “We use the ocean farms as a platform to discuss a whole range of topics, from ocean ecosystems and organisms to global food production and sustainable development goals.” Sofie Espersen says: “We use the ocean farms as a platform to discuss a whole range of topics, from ocean ecosystems and organisms to global food production and sustainable development goals.” Nordic Initiative The message is also being disseminated across the Nordic countries through the Cool Blue project, a new collaboration between four partners, Havhøst, the University of Gothenburg in Sweden, Aktion Österbotten (Action Ostrobothnia) in Finland, and s.Pro, a specialist consultancy from Germany. The project aims to establish a network of small-scale regenerative ocean farming initiatives in Sweden, Denmark, and Finland. As part of the project, Havhøst will contribute its expertise in building community-based activities. Maria Bodin, Cool Blue project coordinator from the University of Gothenburg, outlines how the network aims to foster knowledge exchange: “We wanted to create the network so if people want to start something they can contact us and one person in each country can help them […]. We also want to increase ocean literacy to work more on how we can use the sea in a sustainable way.” New Technology The Cool Blue team is interested in how the scheme might use new technology, such as artificial intelligence monitoring systems, to gauge the positive environmental impact of regenerative ocean farming activities. A camera could, for example, be positioned on one of the farms to see if more fish and other species are attracted. Emphasizing the importance of promoting regenerative ocean farming more widely, Sofie Espersen says: “We’ve been talking about sustainability for thirty years, but it’s no longer enough to just not make things worse. Now we need to actively regenerate the ecosystem.” *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for non-profit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies. Editorial Note: The pH scale measures the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in water. It runs from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral, below 7 being acidic, and above 7 being alkaline. A change in pH by 1 represents a concentration change by a factor of 10.

How EU Farm Reclamation Efforts Seek to Restore Prosperity to the Land By Kate Pugnoli* In countries around the world, the abandonment of small farms has resulted in a myriad of environmental, economic, and social problems. As farmland is deserted—in combination with human and climatic stressors—degradation of the land often follows, threatening rural ecosystems and the well-being of surrounding communities. To make matters worse, abandonment and degradation of land can contribute to natural disasters, such as the tragic wildfires that occurred recently in Maui, Hawaii [See The Earth & I, October 2023] and in 2018 in Greece [See The Earth & I, April 2023]. Small Farms Matter Smallholder farms are vital to millions of communities. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), about 600 million smallholder farmers are each utilizing less than five acres (two hectares) of land worldwide. But in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, these smallholder farmers produce as much as 80% of the food supply. These resourceful and hard-working farmers also contribute to ecosystem health and sustainable agriculture [See The Earth & I, April 2022] and tend to be more resilient than large-scale farming operations to disease, weather events, and pests. Land Abandonment Hurts Land abandonment refers to land that is no longer used for crops or livestock grazing for at least five years. Globally, small farm abandonment is often the result of worker shortages due to the remote locations, hard work, and isolation that typically comes with running a family farm. Poor soil conditions and adverse climatic, socioeconomic, and market factors can also drive people from the farms. When abandoned land loses its fertility and becomes unusable, there is potential for further land degradation. This can lead to soil erosion, desertification, flooding, and drought—and these increase the risks of wildfires. Estimates of the global degraded land stock are considerable, varying from below a billion ha to more than six billion ha. Estimates of the global degraded land stock are considerable, varying from below a billion ha to more than six billion ha (or 2.4 billion to 14.8 billion acres). One study found that 3.43 billion ha (8.4 billion acres) could be recovered through “natural processes if human intervention could be removed,” whereas about 878 million ha (2.2 billion acres) could “require active restoration.” In India, it is estimated that at least 30 million hectares (74 million acres) of degraded land will need to be restored in the remainder of this decade to reverse land degradation there by 2030. Reviving Small Farms in Mountainous Areas Small farms in mountainous regions are especially prone to abandonment, with environmental and social impacts felt “downstream.” The reasons for abandonment include steep and difficult-to-access pasture and crop slopes, poor soils, and limited available labor pools. This is particularly true in some mountainous areas of Europe—a continent faced with an ongoing decline in the number of farms and farmers—where efforts are underway to return some of these abandoned mountain farms to viability. These efforts may be a necessity, as a study requested by the European Parliament projects that by 2040, Europe may lose 6.4 million farms, leaving 3.9 million active farms. In a separate study, authors estimate that land abandonment risk in EU mountain regions is currently three times higher than in non-mountain areas. Another study, which compared data from 2010 to 2019, found the highest risks for farm abandonment were in countries with “difficult” farming conditions, such as Greece, Spain, Portugal, Romania, and Finland. Fortunately, projects to address this decline in rural mountain areas of the EU are already underway or in various stages of planning. MountResilience, for instance, is a broad partnership of organizations across the continent, from universities to local governments. It plans to “conceptualize, test, and scale up” solutions that address policy, social needs, and citizen behaviors to address climate impacts in the continent’s mountainous regions. MountResilience kicked off its operations in September 2023 and is funded by Horizon 2020 to run until February 2028. [A] Romanian demonstrator site ... will focus on increasing the fertility of mountain meadows [and] offer farmers field scanning and drone seeding services. The coalition is launching nine climate-related projects, including a Romanian demonstrator site in Râu Sadalui that will “focus on increasing the fertility of mountain meadows to support local farmers.” The partnership will offer farmers “field scanning” and “drone seeding” services. A Finnish Lapland demonstrator will target reindeer herding and tourism by providing coaching for stakeholders. Attracting Young Farmers In the upper valleys of the Rioja region in northern Spain, a government fruit tree inventory in 2017 has shown that “117 walnut plots (32 hectares) were semi-abandoned and 93 walnut plots (19 hectares) were totally abandoned.” A major concern is that local youth are not interested in going into walnut farming. A partnership called Innovation Operative Group for the Recovery of Abandoned Lands (GORTA) is responding to this problem. According to Nacho Ruiz, an agricultural technical advisor with CARNA, a lead partner in GORTA (as quoted on eip-agri, an official website of the EU), the partnership is using a social innovation approach or what they call “a business formula with social objectives” to modernize walnut farming while strengthening and protecting the social fabric and traditions of the region [see video]. GORTA’s aim, Ruiz explained, was to create a “holistic” model to engage policy makers, local stakeholders, and farmers. This approach—of focusing on land regeneration, community welfare and connection, and the farming experience versus a focus primarily on profit—should appeal to new farmers in the La Rioja region, he said. Meanwhile, in Italy, there is an urgent need for more olive growers. A National Strategy for Inner Areas in the Madonie has been crafted for a region of Sicily. To put it simply, local players co-designed and participated in the project, which addressed their concerns, strengthened community bonds, and helped new, young farmers succeed in this olive-growing region. According to il circolo, ”Young farmers profited from the local relationships and involvement … such as knowledge exchange and preferential land access.” They also benefited from working with different types of producers and players, such as manna farmers, schools, and NGOs. Selling young people on the idea of farming remains difficult. The EU Parliament is offering farming subsidies, but young olive farmers do not see government assistance as particularly helpful—they rue the added administrative burdens and bureaucratic disinterest in what younger farmers see as the value created by agro-regeneration work. The younger adults argue that regenerative value “might not be measurable in monetary terms” but should be considered when allocating funds. One alternative for abandoned farms is to “rewild” them. This tactic of releasing land back to its natural state can restore ecosystems at a landscape scale and help mitigate climate change, says the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Another outcome is to use the land for ranchers. A study of a successful shrub-clearing/cattle-grazing project in Spain’s Leza Valley highlights what the FAO calls the “cultural services” that agroecosystems can provide. These include “cultural identity” and the support  of traditional farming practices, biodiversity maintenance, recreational and tourism opportunities, protection against natural hazards, and food security. Despite the land abandonment problem in the EU and elsewhere, there are signs a small percentage of young people are turning to an agrarian way of life. This could be good news for the future viability of mountain agroecosystems, especially if policy and public sentiment encourage farming as a career and lifestyle. With just 6.5% of European farmers being under the age of 35 years, European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen declared in a September 13 speech that the time has come for “making business easier” for the continent’s future farmers. *Kate Pugnoli is an Arizona-based freelance journalist and former educator who works with nonprofit organizations. Her area of interest is in addressing environmental issues impacting marine biodiversity and conservation.

What Can Be Done to Recycle These Tons of Ash? By Robin Whitlock* When certain fuels are combusted, it leaves a fine, powdery substance byproduct called ash. Two common forms of this type of waste are coal ash and wood ash. Of the two, coal ash can be the most problematic because it can take several forms and is the most difficult to recycle. In contrast, wood ash can be reintroduced into the soil as a fertilizer. What is Wood Ash? Wood ash is a waste product remaining from the combustion of biomass (as opposed to pyrolysis, which results in biochar). Its chemical composition varies depending on factors such as the type of wood, combustion, and temperature. However, it generally contains large amounts of plant nutrient, specifically calcium—particularly calcite, calcium oxide, and calcium manganate. This can make it highly valuable as a fertilizer to increase crop yields if used properly. Wood ash also contains toxic ingredients, such as mercury, lead, and arsenic. In small amounts, wood ash is good for gardens, having a liming effect and delivering potassium, calcium and magnesium to the soil, alongside various trace elements. Still, adding wood ash to the soil is generally beneficial by increasing its pH, neutralizing acid, and increasing the soil’s cation exchange capacity (CEC). This in turn improves the ability of soils to retain nutrients. In small amounts, wood ash is good for gardens, having a liming effect and delivering potassium, calcium, and magnesium to the soil alongside various trace elements. Wood Ash’s Impacts on People, Animals, and the Environment The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated in 2019 that 60% of total energy use in sub-Saharan Africa is from burning solid biomass—it’s almost three-quarters if South Africa is excluded—primarily due to using inefficient,  “three-stone” cookstoves to prepare meals, when more fuel-efficient options are available. The IEA further estimated in 2022 that more than 80% of the population in sub-Saharan Africa relies on biomass for residential energy. All this wood ash waste could be plowed into farmlands or used in urban agriculture projects to improve local food production. Instead, a common mode of wood ash disposal is taking it to poorly regulated dumps. Research Outreach reported in their November 2020 paper that the sub-Saharan region produces around nineteen megatons of ash every year. This waste contains hundreds of tons of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, more than a kiloton of mercury, and three kilotons of lead. Communities in the countries of Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Nigeria, and Guinea-Bissau could see as much as 4,000 kg (8,818 lbs) of wood ash dumped on one square kilometer of land every year. Wood ash also adds to air pollution, and “[c]onsumption of these kinds of pollutants is known to lead to permanent loss of cognition, disability, reduced lifespan and even death,” the Research Outreach report said. An improvement in the design and construction of stoves, resulting in more efficient combustion, could reduce emissions and the amount of ash produced. However, the most important factor is how the ash is disposed of in terms of collection, transportation, treatment, and recycling or disposal. [T]he most important factor is how the ash is disposed of in terms of collection, transportation, treatment, and recycling or disposal. According to a 2022 Canadian paper published in the journal, Environmental Reviews, there is mounting evidence that wood ash can be used to help counter the loss of nutrients in calcium-deficient soils and also boost forestry productivity. There is also evidence to suggest that wood ash from wildfires entering the ocean may increase phytoplankton growth at certain times of the year when there is a nutrient deficiency. What is Coal Ash? Coal ash results from the combustion of coal in coal-fired power plants. There are four specific forms of coal ash—fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, and flue gas desulphurization material. As with wood ash, it contains large amounts of calcite, calcium oxide, and calcium manganate. Fly ash is a fine, powdery material that mostly consists of silica, unburned carbon, and other inorganic substances. Bottom ash is primarily made of silica, ferric oxide, and alumina—its particles are too large to be lifted up through the smokestacks and remain in the bottom of the coal furnaces. Boiler slag is a smooth, molten form of bottom ash that becomes porous after cooling with water. Flue gas desulphurization material is left over from the process of reducing sulfur dioxide emissions from a coal-fired boiler by adding a source of calcium. This typically results in calcium sulfite or calcium sulfate (calcium-based desulfurization ash) or a dry, powdered material containing sulfites and sulfates. Coal Ash’s Impacts on People and the Environment According to the IEA, world coal production reached 6,122 Mtce (million tons of coal equivalent) in 2022. This large, persistent, global demand for coal for energy is viewed as a serious threat to the environment and human health, as well as the source of vast amounts of coal waste. Coal combustion residuals (CCR) contain many toxic substances, including mercury, lead, chromium, and arsenic. Advocacy groups like the Environmental Integrity Project warn that these substances are still leaching into the environment, while the Physicians for Social Responsibility reported in 2009 the adverse health effects of coal pollution on the respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurological systems, including lung cancer, cardiac arrhythmia, and ischemic stroke. In 2018, the physicians’ group linked toxicants from coal ash to kidney disease, reproductive issues, and gastrointestinal issues. [T]he Physicians for Social Responsibility reported … the adverse effects of coal pollution on the respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurological systems, including lung cancer, cardiac arrhythmia, and ischemic stroke, [and] … linked toxicants from coal ash to kidney disease, reproductive issues, and gastrointestinal issues. Unregulated or improper management of coal ash and waste presents significant risks to health and the environment. Coal ash impoundments (storage locations) are known to be susceptible to catastrophic failure—such as in Tennessee (2008) and North Carolina (2014)—resulting in dangerous pollution of the local environment. In the former, about 5.4 million cubic yards of coal ash spilled into Swan Pond Embayment and three sloughs, while in the latter, 27 million gallons of coal ash wastewater and 30,000–39,000 tons of coal ash spilled into the Dan River. Management and Disposal of Coal Ash Coal ash and its byproducts can be recycled into products such as concrete (from fly ash) or wallboard (from gypsum), helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the costs of disposal. Incorporating coal ash in some products may also improve their strength and durability. For example, the use of fly ash in fresh and hardened Portland cement concrete can improve workability, decrease water demand, increase ultimate strength, and reduce permeability. Municipal bottom ash may also be used for cement applications, such as for aerated concrete. There is also research to extract rare earth elements from coal ash. Coal ash and its byproducts can be recycled into products such as concrete (from fly ash) or wallboard (from gypsum), helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the costs of disposal. Power plants dispose of coal ash in different ways. Some plants retain it in pools or ponds on the surface called impoundments, or send it to landfills. Other plants discharge it into nearby water courses under a water discharge permit. In the US, the American Coal Ash Association released its 2021 survey results that indicated decreased production of all combustion coal products. Beneficial reuse accounted for over one-third of the amount of coal ash produced, with the rest sent to a landfill or kept in impoundments. The Environmental Protection Agency is currently getting comments on a proposed rule that would expand regulations to inactive surface impoundments at inactive facilities. In Europe, The Netherlands reuses almost all of its fly ash for building materials production; its landfills are reserved for cases in which recovery or incineration of waste are not possible. Germany has used fly ash to refill and reclaim depleted lignite mines, with other usage for soil beneficiation, surface recultivation, and production of cement and concrete. In addition, German company Zaak Technologies GmbH implemented a Smart Sand pilot plant through a 2016–2020 project in which they utilized fly ash to produce artificial sand. Meanwhile, in the Czech Republic, a project called the Eden Silesia project seeks to convert a former coal mining region into greenhouses, a research center, and tourist attractions. A feasibility study for this was started in 2022. A ‘Plateau’ on Coal? According to the Boom and Bust Coal 2023 report, the US retired the most power from coal—13.5 GW—in 2022. In contrast, China increased its coal usage by 26.8 GW, which completely offset all coal plant retirements from the rest of the world. Meanwhile, Peru and the United Arab Emirates joined four other countries that have phased out coal (Austria, Belgium, Sweden, and Portugal). Global hard coal production increased in 2022 to 7.9 Gt, and the IEA said it is now expecting a “decade-long plateau” of coal supply and demand, based on the European Association for Coal and Lignite’s first market report in 2023. If transitioning away from coal is truly the global goal, countries need to work together toward finding alternative energy sources and keeping their commitments. *Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests, including green transportation.

Non-Binding Pact Acknowledges Move Away from Fossil Fuels Negotiators at the 28th Convention of the Parties (COP28) to the United Nations Framework Convention of Climate Change, held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE), produced a document of agreement on December 13 (Dubai time) following a 24-hour flurry of last-minute negotiations. The symbolism of a meeting led by Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber, the Minister of Industry and Advanced Technology and CEO of the UAE’s state oil company, shaped media coverage of the gathering, as did the event’s floated target: locking down a commitment to phasing out all fossil fuels. The resulting document broke new ground in wording, but contained no legally binding enforcement mechanism to spur action on fossil fuel phaseouts. Bloomberg’s Green Daily described the pact as a “call to transition energy systems away from fossil fuels—the first time oil and gas had been included in a COP agreement,” and credited its wording for winning over “those demanding strong action” as well as oil producers and developing countries who favored the freedom to chart their own course to net zero. The agreement also included calls for tripling renewables and taking steps toward creating a loss and damage fund. COP28 President Al Jaber declared, “This is a true victory for those who are sincere and genuine in helping address this global climate challenge. This is a true victory for those who are pragmatic, results-oriented and led by the science.” Despite receiving a standing ovation from attendees from nearly 200 nations ("parties" are those signee nations to the UN’s 1992 climate agreement), reactions to what Al Jaber has called “The UAE Consensus” have been mixed. EU Commission President Ursula von der Leyen said, "It is good news for the whole world that we now have a multilateral agreement to accelerate emission reductions towards net zero by 2050, with urgent action in this critical decade." Dr. Ella Gilbert, of the British Antarctic Survey said, “The COP28 agreement finally puts into words what scientists have been saying for decades—that continued fossil fuel use must be eliminated to avoid the worst consequences of climate change.” Gilbert added, however, that “[Though] this eleventh-hour intervention is welcome, it will not be strong enough to avoid the worst impacts, including ice loss from the polar regions and devastating extreme events.”

Master Herbalist David Christopher Explains Why Whole Foods are Key to Good Health This is Part 2 of The Earth & I’s exclusive interview with Master Herbalist David Christopher on why he thinks eating whole foods is the best long-term medicine for humans—and their pets. [See Part One at The Earth & I, October 2023] The Earth & I: Why eat whole foods and herbs? David Christopher: The key [to good health] is to eat whole foods. That is why we use whole herbs instead of drugs, because they are in their whole state. A lot of the drugs on the market today came from herbs or are still taken from herbs because the drug manufacturers cannot seem to duplicate the chemical that is in the herb. So, what they are saying is, "We found this herb that's wonderful, it works really well, and this is the substance in it that has the medicinal quality we’re looking for." [Manufacturers] will extract that ingredient out. And if they can, they will duplicate it chemically. That is why drugs can be stronger and faster acting than herbs, but certainly not safer. You can lose the safety when you discard the other parts of the plant. We like to say, "The whole is greater than the part." But that is not the way modern science is today. Today it’s "the part is greater than the whole." They take the part out of the whole and say, "This is what's effective." We say, "It may be effective, but it's not safe, because you've got buffers and you've got adjuvants that are in the plant naturally, and you just took those out—and it's not going to be as effective in the long run." “A drug might have a quick action to it, but it is not going to be healing in the long-term like a whole herb would be, with everything in there that is supposed to be in there.” A drug might have a quick action to it, but it is not going to be healing in the long-term like a whole herb would be, with everything in there that is supposed to be in there. Many people—and this is not just about drugs—call me and say, "I'm having problems with my vascular system. I've got varicose veins; I've got vascular problems in my eyes.” And I tell them, "Eat some oranges. It's the white parts you're after because, in the white parts, you're going to find one of the flavonoids, rutin, that's specifically for vascular integrity." They say, "Okay, I'll just go buy rutin." But you are not going to get the same effect. I tell them, "If you're going to use a rutin supplement, take it with oranges to make sure you get all those other parts that are supposed to be there.” I usually tell them to take a carrot peeler and peel off the colored part of the outer orange, so you have a big white mass. Cut that up and eat it, or put it in a blender with some fresh squeezed orange juice and do a Julius, which is very pleasant. Or you can make a smoothie, and put blueberries in it, and the blueberries would really help. We like to deal with foods. And then they might say, “Are there any herbs we can take?” I say, “Yeah, there are herbs. Let's talk about that now, too.” So, that is generally how I operate. It is food first. Food First—for People, Pets E&I: We have not treated nature well. We've ultra-processed nature until we have turned it into microplastics that are now found in seawater and human blood. We have poisoned land, air, and sea with chemicals. Over half of our calories come from highly processed foods that can sit on store shelves for years, and so on. What role can whole herbs play in unraveling the damage that all these processes have inflicted? David Christopher: When I was growing up, nobody had pets with chronic problems. Pets had acute problems like getting run over by a car, but I do not remember pets having chronic problems. I remember visiting my sister-in-law and her family. They had a dog with chronic problems, but the dog was eating the same things they were eating. They were getting a little hefty, and so was their dog. The dog's chronic problems were caused by its diet. It was not eating what it should be eating. We see today that dogs are chronically ill. I get so many calls from people. "My dog needs to have heart surgery" or "My dog's got liver problems." Those are the same issues we have because pets are eating the same foods we eat, except maybe worse. They buy dog food, like you said, that can sit on the shelf for years and nothing changes. As far as our pets are concerned, I do not remember anybody going to the vet when I was a kid, but when they started vaccinating pets and giving them food that had nothing live in it, then they were going to the vets all the time. Our animals were going to the vets more than we were going to doctors, which is amazing because we are going way too often. Then they came up with products like vitamins and greens for dogs. If dogs have bad breath, these products take care of their bad breath and stop their farting and a lot of problems that can make dogs unpleasant to be around. Suddenly, the dogs were running around like little puppies. And people look at those dogs and say, "That's fantastic." But what about people? "Oh, no, I don't need that stuff." I think if we all started getting these super nutrients that are in live produce, we would see a big difference in our health. One of the things that we can do to lower our carbon footprint on the Earth is to grow food in our gardens, harvesting wonderful produce. At our house, we are living out of our garden. One of the things that we can do to lower our carbon footprint on the Earth is to grow food in our gardens, harvesting wonderful produce. At our house, we are living out of our garden. I don't grow everything we need, but when we shop, we spend our money in the fresh produce section. That is where we shop, and that is what we eat. I think that helps keep us healthy. I think I have seen medical doctors maybe once or twice in my life. The Vascular System—Whole Foods vs Drugs E&I: What happens when a patient with ... let's say a life-threatening heart condition … comes to an herbalist for help? Give us some examples, please, of how that would work; I know your father used herbs like lobelia and cayenne successfully in treating some very serious cases. David Christopher: Cayenne pepper is one of the first herbs we turn to for a heart condition. When the heart pumps blood through the body, it goes through the vascular system into tiny little vessels that feed the heart, but sometimes the heart’s not getting the benefit of the blood being pumped. The blood is supposed to go into those little capillaries. A lot of times those little capillaries are worn out or destroyed or lacking nutrients that are not being replaced. The capillaries are often clogged up with waste, like damaged cholesterol and triglycerides. And when we get a lot of triglycerides—when we eat a lot more food than we need, if we are not moving our bodies and exercising—we are going to have a lot of waste, and the body is going to go, "Oh, I need this," so it stores the waste. And that is where we get the triglycerides: It sticks to your vessel walls, and then it builds up, and then your blood cannot get through, and then the heart, or anything else, isn't going to get the nutrients it needs. You have trillions of cells in your body that do what they're supposed to do. You have cells in your heart that know exactly what they are supposed to do, and they all function well our whole lives. But then we eat the wrong foods and we clog up the vascular system, or we're uptight and we're making it so the blood can't get through the vascular system, or we're doing some drug every day that tightens the vascular system. That does not allow the blood to flow through. Instead of stopping the drug, people take another drug to counter that drug. Do you know which drug I am talking about? Caffeine. E&I: You surprised me with that. David Christopher: Caffeine tightens your vascular system and does not allow the blood to flow like it needs to. And if your vascular system is clogged or tight and cannot get the oxygen and nutrients; if that oxygen and those nutrients cannot get to the cells, then those cells that are working perfectly now start to work erratically. And if it goes on long enough, the cells will atrophy; they'll die. So, before they die, they send off a distress signal that they're not getting the nutrients they need. The central nervous system picks up that distress signal, and the life-saving mechanism sends the signal to the circulatory system to raise the blood pressure to force blood out to those cells so they do not die. “If you artificially lower the blood pressure of people that aren't getting the nutrients out to their cells, that's the worst thing you could do for them. If you artificially lower the blood pressure, you assure that those cells die.” If you artificially lower the blood pressure of people that aren't getting the nutrients out to their cells, that's the worst thing you could do for them. If you artificially lower the blood pressure, you assure that those cells die. So, I tell people, if you want to die of kidney disease, liver disease, or heart disease, take high blood pressure medication. But that is not to say to just jump off your medication! Your body gets the signal to raise the blood pressure, and if you block it using the medication...the body is going to go, "I sent a signal,” so it sends a bigger signal, and you block it, and it keeps sending a bigger signal. And then you suddenly take out the blocks and you've already got this signal that's "kaboom!" and you blow out your vascular system. So, that can be very dangerous getting off high blood pressure medication. Think about high blood pressure medication. What does it do? The most common one. You've got all these beta cells all around your heart that all contract at the same time. And they've got this drug that just wipes half of them out. So, then your heart doesn't beat hard, it beats softer. And that lowers your blood pressure, you see. But it doesn't get the blood out to the cells where they're needed. And what else have you got, your calcium channel blockers? Your muscles need calcium to contract, so your heart muscles, if they are denied the calcium, they can't contract as hard, see? To me, that is a terrible thing to do. We use an herbal diuretic, but we don't use it for the same reason. We use it to make it more efficient for the body to get rid of waste and to keep the blood pressure where it is supposed to be. Do you know what they use diuretic drugs for? Getting rid of a lot of the water in your system so your body can't make blood cells. So, now you've got less blood, so you have less pressure. Cayenne and Hawthorn We do something very simple like use cayenne pepper to increase the circulation, to get the nutrients out to those cells, so they don't have to malfunction and die. As far as the heart is concerned, we give it the food it needs to strengthen and be able to pump the way it is supposed to. Hawthorn is the specific herb for heart disease. With any heart disease, we want to get hawthorn in the patient. Most herbs have a myriad of uses. Hawthorn has one—food for the heart. We use the berries. Hawthorn is a food. People make hawthorn jam and jelly and syrups and other things out of it. We don't need all the sugar, but hawthorn is exactly what we want. We have all this hawthorn in our area that's wild, crataegus rivularis, and some other varieties that are found around streams. The Dr. Christopher company has people that go throughout the whole state, harvesting fresh berries in the fall. That is what they make the hawthorn syrup out of. I think that is why it is not only popular, but so beneficial. One of the things our students love most is touring Wholistic Botanicals, the manufacturer of the Dr. Christopher products. They do quality control that is just amazing, manufacturing at such volumes I would have never dreamed of when I first started in the business. Back then, we were putting the capsules into herbs and sticking them together by hand for a while, and then we had a little machine that helped, but it was almost impossible to do a big volume. They now put out more in a day, I think, than we put out the whole year. Things have changed quite a bit in the herbal industry. Can I say one more thing? E&I: Absolutely. David Christopher: Do you know what I love about my field [herbs]? No one is dependent on me or on Dr. Christopher. No one is dependent on Wholistic Botanicals or anybody. We can teach you the herbs. We have [educational] materials at Christopher Publications, and The School of Natural Healing has the materials that you need to learn it yourself. Even the internet has a lot of that information. You can learn it yourself. You do not need us. You can go pick your own herbs and use them. As far as looking out for the environment is concerned, please do not harvest them all. You never want to take all the herbs in an area. You want to leave some to propagate. And they can propagate well, like purslane does, for instance. It creates tens of thousands of seeds, so once you have purslane growing where you are, you have it for a long time. E&I: Thank you for sharing with us, David. This is why we love our jobs, too. David Christopher: Good. *David Christopher is a Master Herbalist and Director of The School of Natural Healing, founded by his late father and renown herbalist John R. Christopher. David speaks to international audiences about using whole foods and herbs to manage such conditions as high blood pressure, diabetes, and autoimmune diseases, and has helped establish Herbal Schools in England and Ireland. He and wife Fawn host “A Healthier You” podcast. In 1993, David wrote An Herbal Legacy of Courage as a tribute to his father. Editorial Note: For The Earth & I, Jerry Chesnut spoke with David Christopher. Disclaimer: Please consult your physician when making any changes to your health regimen.

Scientists Think Restoring the Earth’s ‘Living Crusts’ Can Aid Ecosystems By Mark Smith* Just as the human body is covered by skin that protects and nourishes it, so, too, are some of the driest parts of the Earth—they are covered by their own sort of “skin,” known as biological soil crusts. These “biocrusts” are microbial communities that live in open areas on the soil surface and partially within the soil of arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Teaming with microbial life, biocrusts play a vital role in enabling the resident ecosystems to flourish under such harsh, arid conditions. But despite biocrusts’ importance, it is only in the past few years that they have attracted mainstream scientific attention. Scientists who study climate change and other ecological issues have become concerned that biocrust erosion could have major unforeseen consequences. The race is now on to both understand biocrusts more fully and to discover how to regenerate these ecological environments. Such techniques could present mankind with useful tools to combat wider climate change. Why Biocrusts Are Important Biocrusts exist within the top few millimeters of soil in parts of the world where harsh conditions, i.e., cold or dry environments, prevent the growth of vascular plants. Sparse ground vegetation permits sunlight to reach Earth’s surface, thereby providing conditions for a community of organisms such as mosses, lichens, fungi, and bacteria to colonize the soil. These organisms essentially help to “knit” loose soil together, thereby providing a layer that protects the surface from erosion and dust storms, increases soil fertility, and helps soil retain moisture. These organisms essentially help to “knit” loose soil together, thereby providing a layer that protects the surface from erosion and dust storms, increases soil fertility, and helps soil retain moisture. This living crust also helps capture carbon from the atmosphere and influences the water cycle. Since drylands cover 45% of the Earth’s surface and support 2.5 billion people, the importance of biocrusts becomes even clearer. Biocrusts Under Threat There is growing evidence that climate change, droughts, and human activities, such as off-roading and agriculture, are having negative impacts on biocrusts. Between 10%-20% of dryland ecosystems have already been degraded, and that percentage is expected to grow. While biocrusts are generally able to cope with harsh conditions, environmental changes are having a negative impact, says Sasha Reed, research ecologist at the US Geological Survey. She warned that patterns of increased temperatures and decreased precipitation are predicted to cause conditions to become more extreme, resulting in less tolerant organisms disappearing from biocrust communities altogether. Dr. Reed also described the vulnerability of biocrusts to direct human activity. She told The Earth & I: “While resistant to environment stresses, biocrusts are quite fragile and can be easily crushed and destroyed by human activities, such as overgrazing and construction.” She warned that losing biocrusts would mean more dust storms, lower soil fertility, and big changes to hydrology, biogeochemistry, and biodiversity. “What happens to biocrusts could affect all of us, because of their importance and prevalence and because of how connected ecosystems are even at the global scale.” Once destroyed … it can take decades for biocrusts to recover. Once destroyed, she said, it can take decades for biocrusts to recover. “An example of the impact of widespread degradation of biocrusts is the dust storms that have increasingly plagued some major metropolitan areas in the Southwest USA,” she said. Increasing Attention But it is only recently that the subject of biocrusts has started to find its way into mainstream scientific debate. Corey Nelson, a research fellow at Spain’s University of Alicante, has been studying biocrusts since 2014. Nelson says that while the subject remains something of a niche area, it has been gaining increasing attention for several reasons. “Unfortunately,” he said, “a large driver of this is the increasing global desertification caused by climate change. Many researchers and government-funding agencies are looking at biocrusts as a tool to mitigate land degradation and slow desertification.” He added that biotech companies were also starting to realize that biocrusts could be an innovative tool to provide sustainable solutions to a wide number of problems. “For example,” he said, biocrusts can be used for “dust suppression in solar energy infrastructure” or “to stabilize mine tailings and capture toxic metals.” Restoring Biocrusts—Environmental Benefits Under additional pressure from droughts and climate-related issues, biocrusts often need restoration, but it takes a considerable amount of time for nature to complete that process. So, scientists are searching for ways to speed it up. To this end, Nelson has been working on several projects. One focuses on investigating how biocrusts form by studying the microbial interaction within biocrust communities. “We found that biocrust-forming cyanobacteria can form a symbiotic relationship with other soil bacteria to survive and thrive in nutrient-poor soils.” “We found that biocrust-forming cyanobacteria can form a symbiotic relationship with other soil bacteria to survive and thrive in nutrient-poor soils,” he said. “This symbiotic partnership involves the trading of resources; the cyanobacteria provide sugars to its partners, and in return, these beneficial nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide a source of nitrogen to the cyanobacteria. Without this resource trading relationship, biocrusts would not be able to form.” Nelson said that one way to help restore degraded soils was growing biocrust components like cyanobacteria in a lab or greenhouse setting and then seeding them in. However, many early attempts to grow biocrusts for restoration purposes ended up failing for unknown reasons. “Applying the knowledge of the symbiotic partnership from my previous work, we were able to develop a microbial nursery to grow biocrusts that used both cyanobacteria and beneficial bacteria,” said Nelson. “We found that when we seeded degraded areas with both the pioneer cyanobacteria and beneficial bacteria together, they developed very quickly into biocrusts three times faster than only cyanobacteria.” Currently, he is diving deeper into the impact of climate change on how biocrusts function. “We know that microbial interactions within biocrusts are very important for their formation and functioning, but we have no idea how global change might affect these interactions,” Nelson said, adding that he has been looking at 15 years of data. “I’ll be investigating how the biocrust microbial communities in these experiments have changed over this period and using it as a peek into the future to predict how well biocrusts communities will be able to tolerate change.” Dr. Reed is also excited about the progress being made to grow biocrusts. “There’s work on how we can turn biocrusts into little living pellets that could be dropped from airplanes after a wildfire, which is the same way we deliver seeds.” “There’s work on how we can turn biocrusts into little living pellets that could be dropped from airplanes after a wildfire, which is the same way we deliver seeds. It’s fun to think about little biocrusts dropping from the sky, ready to stabilize soils, add fertility, and help the ecosystem recover,” she said. She added that there is ongoing research to better understand how biocrusts can be added to disturbed areas in liquid form, spraying photosynthesizers onto damaged soils to help biocrusts keep the soil in place. New Tool Against Climate Change? In addition to the benefits biocrusts provide to the land, they could also play a pivotal role in helping to combat climate change. Along with fellow U.S. Geological Survey scientist Cara Lauria, and in partnership with the US National Park Service and Northern Arizona University, Dr. Reed is currently working on trying to quantify how much carbon dioxide is being removed from the atmosphere. “The research will also mean we can include biocrusts into the mathematical models science uses to predict future climate, which would be an exciting research advance.” She said, “The research will also mean we can include biocrusts into the mathematical models science uses to predict future climate, which would be an exciting research advance.” Data is showing that the way lands are used can strongly affect the health and function of biocrusts, and also that biocrusts have high resilience. “An improved understanding of biocrusts’ awesome role in the carbon cycle helps us put all this information into a global context,” Dr. Reed said. Challenges Ahead Despite the growing understanding of biocrusts and the role they play—not just in local water cycles and ecosystems, but the wider climate picture, too—there is still the belief it is something of a niche science. There is also, according to Nelson, no quick fix. He said: “One of the biggest challenges to mitigating the detrimental impacts on biocrusts is that, at the moment, there are no easy solutions… Current solutions for the restoration of biocrust are costly, time intensive, and hard to achieve at large scales.” With the ability to regenerate biocrusts, mankind may be able to implement measures to mitigate several pressing environmental issues. But, as with most nascent endeavors that hope one day to become mainstream, it will take funding, commitment, and time. *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

The Sustainability Board, with support from Chapter Zero, released on November 15 its annual ESG preparedness report for 2023. The report looks at how Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) matters are integrated into the management of the world’s 100 largest publicly owned companies. Beginning with the 2023 report, additional US companies (61) were included, to bring the US representation to 100 companies and provide future trend data for the US. More than 2,400 corporate directors were surveyed about ESG engagement, ESG board policy, and involvement of female directors. The report found that: The number of global boards that have ESG or “sustainability oversight” written in their corporate documents rose from 50% in 2019 to 88% in 2023. Ninety-five percent of US companies had a written board policy on ESG. However, director “engagement” with ESG went backwards: While the number of “ESG-engaged” directors on relevant committees initially rose from 16% in 2019 to 45% in 2022, it slipped to 43% in 2023. In the US companies, this baseline measure was even lower, with 41% in 2023. Regarding director diversity, the number of global female corporate directors remained unchanged, at 32% globally. In the US, women comprised 34% of board director positions. Female directors remained enthusiastic about ESG-engagement—64% were ESG-engaged in 2023, up from 60% in 2022—but in 2023, fewer women reported sitting on relevant committees—only 13% compared with 24% in 2022. Regarding ESG qualifications in directors, 85% of directors worldwide (88% in the US) were deemed ESG-engaged because of their corporate experience in sustainability strategy. However, very few directors—7%—have formal credentials in ESG management. Both the number of global directors assigned to relevant committees and those with ESG engagement have risen. In 2019, among 1,224 directors, 232 reported being on relevant committees and 36 had ESG engagement. By 2023, among 1,256 directors, 396 reported being on relevant committees and 169 reported ESG engagement. Sources: 2023 Annual ESG Preparedness Report: https://www.boardreport.org/_files/ugd/f6724f_f07a3996b3b94437baa1545b93105855.pdf Chapter Zero: https://chapterzero.org.uk/ Forbes’s 2023 “The Global 2000”: https://www.forbes.com/lists/global2000/?sh=10e335a15ac0

International Treaty Negotiators Discuss Economics While Scientists Raise Concerns About Human Health By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe* Every year, around 400 million metric tons of plastic waste ends up in landfills and oceans or strewn somewhere around the globe. Now, a new but growing body of research is finding evidence that very tiny pieces of plastics—microplastics—are finding their ways into the bodies of humans, including newborns and infants. Plastic trash breaks down into microplastic particles (smaller than 5mm in length). Scientists have now discovered these flakes and particles in breast milk, blood [See The Earth & I, Aug 2022], lung tissue, and other organs. They are even found in infant feces. With global annual plastic production expected to increase to around 590 million metric tons by 2050—an increase of over 30% compared with 2025—the United Nations put forward a legally binding agreement in 2022 to deal with the problem. Still, rather than curbing the worldwide use of plastics, much of their attention seems focused on implementing a “circular economy” in which excess or unneeded plastics are eliminated, products are kept at their optimal use for as long as possible, and nature systems, such as forests or farmland, are regenerated. A drawback of this circular economy approach, which features market caps and recycling, is that it does not appear to address concerns regarding the direct impacts of microplastics on the health of humans, especially that of the unborn, infants, and children. "Health is not even mentioned in the treaty to date," said non-profit EarthDay.org (EDO), referring to the third session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-3) held in November in Nairobi. EDO has released a new report, Babies vs. Plastics, exploring the dangers of microplastics, especially for children. EDO reviewed over 100 scientific papers to better understand the global prevalence of microplastics and the potential harm they can cause to children. “What we discovered shocked even us,” the organization stated. “[P]lastic has so many ingredients and combinations of ingredients, and it is associated with so many health issues, [that] it is hard for the public to understand the scale of the issue.” “The big takeout is that plastic has so many ingredients and combinations of ingredients, and it is associated with so many health issues, [that] it is hard for the public to understand the scale of the issue,” Aidan Charron, director of the End Plastic Pollution initiative at EDO, told The Earth & I.  “Tobacco is easy to fathom; if you smoke cigarettes, you will stand a good chance of getting lung cancer. Plastics are worse,” Charron stated. There is evidence that the public finds the issue of microplastics concerning. But this is an unexplored area—published studies on public attitudes about plastics are “extremely scarce,” said a 2019 article in Resources, Conservation and Recycling, a journal published by Elsevier. Discovering Microplastic Ingestion Scientists have found a correlation between specific exposure to plastic chemicals and microplastics in some populations, especially islanders and fishing communities. “Microplastics may act as vectors that transport toxic chemicals and bacterial pathogens into tissues and cells. Toxic chemicals added to plastics can disrupt endocrine function and increase risk for premature births, neurodevelopmental disorders, infertility, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and cancers,” said the August 2023 newsletter of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, citing one of its studies on microplastics. Along with other non-governmental organizations, EDO wants to see health concerns related to plastics to play a pivotal role in the treaty. The organization believes "the most powerful way to enact change is parent power, informing readers of the risks." In its November report, EDO sets out what scientists know about the presence of microplastics in fetuses, infants, and children. It explores the connection between microplastics—unknowingly eaten or inhaled—and multiple illnesses and issues. None of the microplastics are specifically related to one particular illness, Charron noted. "The big solution is less plastics," Charron said. "We need to stop using them in everything, and we need to make sure babies are protected from overexposure." Searching for Impacts on Human Health Since the existence of microplastics in humans has only recently been confirmed, scientists are now working to answer questions about their health impacts. Scientists are assessing hundreds of potential associations between microplastics and the onset/presence of illnesses and conditions. The human brain is the chief operating system and the most complex organ. Yet, the study of how microplastics might affect the brain is relatively new. A 2023 University of Rhode Island study published in the International Journal of Molecular Science sought to understand further how microplastics and additive chemicals impact the brain. “We found that microplastics were able to cross the blood-brain-barrier and enter into brain tissue, as well as into other peripheral tissues such as heart, liver, kidneys, and spleen, after only three weeks of exposure via drinking water.” The study focuses on the lifecycle of microplastics in healthy mice, both young and old. “We found that microplastics were able to cross the blood-brain-barrier and enter into brain tissue, as well as into other peripheral tissues such as heart, liver, kidneys, and spleen, after only three weeks of exposure via drinking water,” Dr Jaime Ross, assistant professor, George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience College of Pharmacy, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University of Rhode Island, told The Earth & I. “To our surprise, we found that the mice exposed to the microplastics also had altered behavioral patterns and displayed signs of cognitive dysfunction,” added Ross. Reports have already identified microplastics in tissues and bodily fluids from newborn humans, including placentas, breastmilk, fecal matter, brain, and many other peripheral tissues, Ross said.  “Given results from our work, I would be concerned that exposure to microplastics might have detrimental effects during development.” Elevated Risks to Babies and Children New evidence suggests that babies, perhaps more than any other demographic group, could be more susceptible to ingesting microplastics. Babies and small children, typically from the age of 6 months until a year old, spend much of their time crawling. This means coming into contact with household dust, some of which contains microplastics. "This is probably why the level of microplastics found in the feces of babies, as reported by a small study from 2021 by the NYU Grossman School of Medicine, appeared to be over ten times higher than that found in adults," says Charron. Plastic baby bottles also account for 80% of all baby bottles worldwide, most of which are made of polypropylene. A research paper published by Nature Food found using this type of plastic bottle releases microplastics directly into the liquid in the baby's bottle. Plastic baby bottles also account for 80% of all baby bottles worldwide, most of which are made of polypropylene. A research paper published by Nature Food found using this type of plastic bottle releases microplastics directly into the liquid in the baby's bottle. Scientists from Trinity College, Dublin, in Ireland, published a study in October 2020, which estimated infants could be exposed to an average of one million microplastic particles per day when fed from polypropylene baby bottles. “We don’t want to be alarmist,” the two study authors wrote. “We don’t fully understand the risks to human health through exposure to these tiny plastic particles yet, but this is an area of research that we, and other teams, are actively pursuing.” A US plastics industry trade group said baby bottles are carefully monitored. “The safety of plastics used in contact with foods, including baby bottles, is ‘very well regulated’ in the U.S. and Canada with the help of expert scientists,” the American Chemistry Council’s Plastics Division said in a statement on NBC’s Today show for their 2020 report on microplastics and plastic baby bottles. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration factors in temperature changes, such as heating the bottle, as part of its regulatory approach to food contact, the industry group added. Baby bottles aren’t the only area of concern for infants. In a study from 2023, scientists found microplastics had been released into disposable storage bags used for expressed breast milk. According to EDO, the scientists reported finding microplastics, most commonly polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate14 (PET), and nylon-6, equating to “an average daily breastmilk intake” of 0.61–0.89 mg of microplastics when the breastmilk was stored in the disposable bags. Researchers suggest that parents seeking to reduce exposure to microplastics in baby bottles are advised to switch to glass or stainless-steel feeding containers. If they want to stay with plastic bottles, they should frequently rinse the bottles, prepare the formula in a non-plastic container, and avoid using microwaves to heat or reheat the bottles. Holding Discussions with Negotiators EDO says there needs to be an independent scientific body to assess plastics and safety. “While the additive chemicals in plastics have been studied to the moon and back, the big area that needs more research is the microplastic particles and fibers themselves,” said Charron. Research in this area is only just starting. Meanwhile, “the public doesn't know that microplastics are everywhere, and they don't know we are all ingesting and inhaling them," said Charron. *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 10 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences. Sources: Interview with Sarah Davies, Director of Media and Communications at EarthDay.Org Interview with Dr Jaime Ross, Assistant Professor, George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience College of Pharmacy, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences at University of Rhode Island

Researchers at Tufts University studied childhood diet trends in American youth from 1999 to 2016. Overall diet quality did improve during that period, but the researchers rated it as poor. They divided youth diets into three rankings of Poor, Intermediate, and Ideal. Let’s take a closer look at what they found: Researchers analyzed the daily eating habits of more than 31,000 youths, ages 2 to 19. The percentage of children with low-quality diets decreased from 77% to 56% between 1999 and 2016. Intermediate-quality diets increased from 23% to 44%. Ideal-quality diets remained very low at less than 1%. Older youth (ages 12 to 19) had lower diet quality than younger children, with 67% of older youth eating poor quality diets. Differences related to household income, parental education, and food security—having access to enough food—were stable or worsened over time. Average daily consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages decreased from two servings to one. Dietary sodium intake increased—and greatly exceeds current guidelines. Rankings were based on the AHA 2020 continuous diet score and the Healthy Eating Index 2015 score, which is based on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Source: US National Institutes of Health (NIH) report

Dr. Eric Larson* The following article is the first part of Prof. Eric Larson’s presentation, entitled “Negative Emission Technologies in U.S. Decarbonization Pathways,” at the Twenty-Eighth International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences (ICUS XXVIII) in 2022. I would like to speak today about negative emissions technologies, and in particular, the role that these might play in the decarbonization of the United States economy. I will begin by explaining why negative emissions are needed and then describe different negative emissions technologies (or NETs).  Finally, I will discuss possible roles of NETs in technological pathways for the United States to reach net-zero emissions by 2050. Cumulative CO2 Emissions Determine Warming Remaining Emissions “Budget” for 1.5-2 °C Is Shrinking I will start by reviewing the science that we understand about the relationship between global warming and the emissions of greenhouse gases, especially CO2. Figure 1 shows a graph from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C. (I will not go into all the details here.) This graph tells us that the warming that we can anticipate for the world is a function directly related to the cumulative emissions of carbon dioxide that we have put into the atmosphere since the preindustrial period, starting with the mid-1800s. With this understanding of the relationship, we can estimate the remaining amount of carbon budget that we can emit before we hit certain thresholds of temperature increase. As of December 2018, when this study came out, there was a 50% probability that we could stay below 2 °C warming globally if we emit no more than 1500 Gt of CO2 cumulatively from that point forward. To stay within a 1.5 °C carbon budget, it would be, of course, much lower—closer to 600 Gt. If we want to stay within 1.5 °C of warming, we have about ten years left of emissions at the current global emissions rate before we hit that threshold. Since that estimate was made, we have, as a world, already emitted an additional 150 Gt [as of 2022]. We have spent some of our budget already, which means you can estimate that if we want to stay within 1.5 °C of warming, we have about ten years left of emissions at the current global emissions rate before we hit that threshold, and we have a bit more time if we are satisfied with staying below 2 °C. When we look at a graph like in Figure 2, it shows the trajectory of global CO2 emissions to stay below the 2 °C threshold. This graph was made a few years back, and scientists at the time started their modeled emissions trajectory with the year 2005. As we know now, emissions from 2005 to 2015 continued to increase beyond the modeled level. Global Emissions Trajectory for a Carbon Budget Corresponding to a Warming of 20C The pathway is not precise here, but it is reflective of the kind of change that the world needs to see to stay below 2 °C of warming: the world would need to reach zero emissions by about 2070; in other words, the world would have used up its carbon emissions budget by that date. This budget can essentially be extended if we allow for the possibility of negative emissions. In this case, we are on the pathway shown in Figure 3. Again, these are modeling results, and this pathway results in higher emissions than following the budget to 2 °C, but we compensate for that by negative emissions, beginning as early as 2030 and growing considerably beyond that. This then allows us to stay on a net-zero emissions trajectory for 2 °C. Cumulative Emissions Can Be Reduced Using Negative Emissions Technology (NETs) Essentially, negative emissions allow us to increase our budget of positive emissions and to still stay below our temperature targets. There are a variety of negative emissions technologies, and we understand many of these quite well, such as those in Figure 4. Essentially, negative emissions allow us to increase our budget of positive emissions and to still stay below our temperature targets. For example, through restoration and management of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, we can absorb CO2 out of the atmosphere. We can do the same by changing agricultural practices—so-called carbon farming. We can increase the carbon content in soils, which takes CO2 out of the atmosphere. These are largely biological measures (left side of Figure 4). As we move to the right in Figure 4, we move toward more engineered measures, starting with bioenergy with CO2 capture and storage. This is based on plant matter that has absorbed CO2 from the atmosphere as it has grown.  The plant matter is then converted into a convenient form of energy, for example, electricity, and the by-product CO2 of the conversion process is captured and stored underground. Negative Emissions Technology (NETs) More fully engineered negative emissions systems include direct air capture (DAC), where we are taking the CO2 directly out of the air by a chemical process and then storing the CO2 below ground. There is also enhanced mineral weathering, which is basically creating carbonate rocks using CO2 and natural rocks that combine to make carbonate rocks and thereby store CO2. Biological processes tend to be less costly per ton of CO2 that is removed. They are closer to deployment in part because they are less costly and because we know how to do these quite well. Biological processes tend to be less costly per ton of CO2 that is removed. They are closer to deployment in part because they are less costly and because we know how to do these quite well. On the other hand, they are more vulnerable to reversal—that is, soil carbon can be rereleased to the atmosphere if the methods are not properly managed. On the other hand, there are environmental co-benefits with carbon and soil that often increase the productivity of the soil, which is a positive result of that system. As we move toward the more engineered systems, we see that they are generally more costly and often need more research and development and certainly more complicated deployment and demonstration of commercial capability. On a positive note, they are less vulnerable to reversal. Potential co-benefits would be technology leadership for countries or companies that are at the forefront in developing these potentially new employment opportunities. Among the various negative emissions technologies, two are generally considered to be the most prospective in terms of the role that they can play in net-negative emissions overall: bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and DAC with CO2 storage. Figure 5 shows the carbon flows for a BECCS system. The widths of the arrows in this picture are roughly equivalent to the magnitude of the carbon flows. There are emissions at various points along this process, from tractors that might be used in the cultivation and harvesting of biomass, from unavoidable emissions at the conversion plant, and if a hydrocarbon fuel is being made, some carbon will return to the atmosphere when the fuel is used. However, a large amount of the by-product CO2 in the conversion process is captured and put underground for storage. This carbon had been removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis as the biomass grew. Looking at the net balance across all arrows, there is a net flow of carbon from the atmosphere to the subsurface on an annual basis. Carbon Flows for Bioenergy with CO2 Capture and Storage (BECCS) Technologies for the biomass conversion process are rather well understood. My group has analyzed many of these. There are other researchers around the world who also have been looking at these technologies. The challenge has been primarily over their cost because most of these processes are not economical under today’s conditions. Therefore, although we have a quite good understanding of how these technologies work from an engineering perspective, they are not widely deployed commercially today. Direct air capture (DAC) concepts are also well understood, but the technologies themselves are at a relatively early stage of development. Direct air capture (DAC) concepts are also well understood, but the technologies themselves are at a relatively early stage of development. Two of the leading concepts are shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7. One involves passing air over a dry sorbent that then selectively pulls the CO2 molecules out of the air. The sorbent is then regenerated through some means, typically by heat addition to drive off the CO2. That CO2 is collected and compressed for transportation through a pipeline to an underground storage site. The scheme in Figure 6 uses such a dry sorbent. One company has now built a 4000 t CO2/year capture facility in Iceland. That is a relatively small facility by comparison to the levels of CO2 capture that we want in order to address the 2 °C or even the 1.5 °C challenge, but it is a start. Process flow diagram for dry-sorbent DAC Figure 6 Green lines represent gaseous flows, and blue lines represent liquid flows. The dashed green line from the contactor to the vacuum pump represents the initial phase of desorption where residual air is removed from the contactor to prevent dilution of the produced CO2 after evolution from the sorbent. (McQueen, et. al. “A review of direct air capture (DAC),” Progress in Energy, 3, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1088/2516-1083/1bf1ce) Process flow diagram for the liquid-solvent DAC process Figure 7 Green lines represent gaseous flows, blue lines liquid flows, and brown lines solid flows. The H20 streams undergo temperature changes not represented in this diagram. (McQueen, et. al. “A review of direct air capture (DAC),” Progress in Energy, 3, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1088/2516-1083/1bf1ce) The other concept (Figure 7) is centered around a liquid solvent—potassium hydroxide—that captures the CO2 and then goes through a process to separate the CO2 from the solvent so that the solvent can be recycled and used again. The captured CO2 is then compressed and stored. A different company is developing this concept and has plans to have a 1 million t CO2/year facility starting up in 2024. This begins to get to the commercial scale that will be needed in the longer term. With both BECCS and DAC, plus storage, there is a requirement for underground storage resources. Fortunately, around the world, there are many geological formations that have the capacity to store CO2. However, the distribution of these resources varies from country to country. The United States is particularly well endowed with CO2 storage geology. On the order of 40 million t CO2/year is currently being captured and stored across the world, not just in the US, via a number of demonstration projects. We understand the CO2 storage process rather well. The challenge is characterizing the subsurface sufficiently so that one can have confidence that the storage is secure. *Eric Larson has a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and is the Senior Research Engineer at the Andlinger Center for Energy and the Environment, Princeton University, USA.