Global Maps Reveal the Vast Underground Networks Supporting Life and Storing Carbon Arbuscular mycorrhizae in the terminal roots of the Horse Gram plant. Rajarshi Rit/Wikimedia Beneath forests, grasslands, farms, and even city landscapes lies a largely invisible, living infrastructure that helps sustain life on Earth. A new global mapping effort has revealed the astonishing scale of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi—underground networks that connect with plant roots, transport nutrients and water, and help move carbon into soils. Researchers say these fungal networks represent one of the planet’s most important—yet least understood—ecosystems. The study, published in Science, provides the first global estimates of the density, length, and biomass of these underground fungal networks. The findings highlight both their immense ecological value and the potential risks posed by agricultural expansion and habitat loss. Key Data Points An estimated 110 quadrillion kilometers (68 quadrillion miles) of AM fungal networks exist in the world’s topsoils, making them one of the largest biological structures on Earth. The networks stretch a distance nearly 1 billion times greater than the distance between Earth and the Sun. AM fungi form partnerships with approximately 70% of all plant species worldwide, exchanging nutrients and water for carbon from plants. These fungal networks transfer an estimated 4 billion metric tons of CO₂-equivalent carbon into soils every year, equal to about 11% of annual human-related carbon dioxide emissions. Researchers estimate the global AM fungal network contains about 300 megatons of carbon or roughly four to six times the mass of all living humans. Grasslands contain about 40% of Earth’s AM fungal infrastructure, making them one of the most important habitats for underground fungal networks. Agricultural croplands are predicted to have approximately 50% lower fungal network densities than wild ecosystems. In healthy soils, fungal networks can increase the effective foraging area of plant roots by up to 100 times, helping plants access otherwise unreachable resources. Mycorrhizal fungi can supply more than 80% of a plant’s phosphorus needs, reducing reliance on soil nutrients immediately surrounding roots. Scientists analyzed more than 16,000 soil cores collected around the world to build the new global maps. The research team also examined more than 300,000 living fungal hyphae using robotic imaging technology to estimate global network length and biomass. Researchers estimate there can be as much as 10 meters (32 feet) of fungal network within a single teaspoon of soil. Grasslands are being converted to agricultural land at a rate approximately four times faster than forests, threatening some of the planet’s most important fungal ecosystems. Previous research cited in the study found that 95% of AM fungal biodiversity hotspots lie outside protected areas. The new fungal infrastructure maps provide estimates for every square kilometer of terrestrial land where sufficient data were available. Why It Matters Often overlooked in climate and conservation discussions, mycorrhizal fungi act as a planetary circulatory system, moving carbon, nutrients, and water through ecosystems while supporting the majority of the world’s plant species. The new maps suggest that protecting grasslands and other natural ecosystems may be critical not only for biodiversity but also for maintaining one of Earth’s largest natural carbon-storage networks. Source: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2026/06/260614011845.htm

How OceansWide Removes Abandoned Lobster Traps for Upcycling By Becky Hoag* OceansWide team hauling in a trap near Vinalhaven, Maine. Image courtesy of Laura Sitterly When Campbell “Buzz” Scott started his scuba diving and remote-operated vehicle (ROV) piloting classes years ago, he was hoping to inspire the next generation to fall in love with the ocean like he did. But as he surveyed the bottom of the Maine coastal waters with his first students, they couldn’t stop staring at the plethora of abandoned lobster traps below. “Ghost traps,” they’re called. Tens of thousands of them. An abandoned “ghost” lobster trap on the ocean floor. ©KGrif/istock “When we came out here and the kids were seeing the traps on the bottom, we realized we can do something about this—and it is a big issue, so we will do something about it,” Scott recalled. And just like that, his next venture was laid out in front of him. Scott founded OceansWide in 2007 to band together educators, students, researchers, and fishermen to promote ocean conservation and exploration and to remove lobster traps from the Maine ocean floor. Buzz Scott (at right) and team at work near Vinalhaven, Maine. Once a trap is spotted below by sonar and a diver locates it, a line is sent down to the diver who hooks it to the trap. The trap is hauled up and secured on the boat. Image courtesy of Laura Sitterly OceansWide has already removed more than 30,000 traps over the last five years, and the speed at which they’re removing traps is increasing exponentially as they gain more support. But the organization estimates there’s about 5 million to 10 million traps lost in the Gulf of Maine’s 36,000 square miles. “We realized we need to expand [our goal] to 500,000 traps per year in order to get the traps that are now on the bottom and keep up with the traps that [the lobster industry] is losing on an annual basis.” The organization estimates there’s about 5 million to 10 million traps lost in the Gulf of Maine. OceansWide hopes to reach this yearly target by 2028. Lifelong Dedication to the Ocean Founding OceansWide wasn’t too big of a leap for Scott, as he had already dedicated his life to learning how to help the oceans. Growing up fishing on Maine’s Matinicus Isle in the 1970s and 1980s, he saw firsthand the impact overfishing had on the ecosystems there. The catch was plentiful when he was a kid, but it got so low by the time he was in his 20s that the only fishing industry that hadn’t crashed was lobster. And even that industry’s catch fluctuated a lot. Suddenly, the ocean didn’t feel as impervious to human impacts as once thought, so Scott left his little island in search of how to help the oceans heal. “We’ve got to do something to fight for the ocean that gave us our livelihood,” Scott said. That search led him to earn a science and engineering degree before joining the Navy, working on research in the Antarctic and then becoming an ROV technician and pilot for the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) in California. MBARI conducts ocean research for deep sea exploration and marine conservation purposes. After gaining all this experience in the span of two decades, Scott felt the pull to head back to Maine and teach kids there how to explore the oceans through scuba diving and piloting ROVs. Scott’s many years of ROV operating brought him around the world, so he knew ocean debris was a big issue everywhere. Conducting research on the issue wasn’t the same as cleaning it up, though. “The researchers [I worked with] didn’t want to do anything about the trash,” Scott recalled. “They just wanted to do their research…which I understand. It’s what they are paid to do.” Now, back in Maine, looking beneath the waves with his new OceansWide students, Scott realized that he could actually do something about this problem. How the Graveyard of Lobster Traps Grew Outdated wooden lobster traps. Erik Maclean/Pexels When Scott was a kid, lobster traps were primarily made of wood. If a trap got caught on something on the bottom of the ocean, fishermen would have little choice but to cut it loose. And because traps were made of wood they would just decompose over time. In the 1980s, a new model of lobster traps hit the market. These traps were made of wire and several different materials, including plastic, that don’t decompose quickly, if at all. The $1 billion lobster fishing industry continues to lose traps like they did before, but now the traps just remain intact underwater. According to the Gulf of Maine Lobster Foundation, about 175,000 traps are lost in the Gulf of Maine every year, representing about 5% to 15% of the traps used. Scott thinks the real number lost is closer to 250,000 to 350,000 a year. According to the Gulf of Maine Lobster Foundation, about 175,000 traps are lost in the Gulf of Maine every year, representing about 5% to 15% of the traps used. “[The traps] are not purposely left there,” Scott clarified. “These things cost way too much to leave there on purpose. They’re $200 apiece.” Fishermen have tried to salvage traps by grappling the bottom of the ocean, but this method can disturb the life on the ocean floor. That’s why OceansWide advocates for fishermen to work with divers and ROV pilots to retrieve the traps instead. A diver working with a camera-equipped ROV. ©Yoleeth/Wikimedia CC BY-SA 4.0 There are so many traps already on the bottom that new traps are now getting snagged by old traps. Ghost traps roll along the bottom of the sea floor, ripping up mussel beds and tangling with each other to form bigger tumbleweeds of debris. “It just wreaks havoc on those [organisms] who like to live stationary lives on the bottom,” Scott said. Scott and his students have seen all kinds of organisms caught in these traps. One time he rescued a flounder that had been caught in a trap with its fins being eaten away as a result. The traps don’t always stay on the ocean floor, either. They can tumble onto the nearby beaches and sink into the sand, making shores hazardous for children to play on. Bringing Fishermen Onboard When Scott started his project, he worked with students to start cleaning up the ghost traps. He treaded lightly around the local fishermen because he didn’t want them to feel attacked or defensive about the issue. Scott knew getting fishermen on his side was essential to getting this work off the ground. Thankfully, when fishermen saw the work OceansWide was doing, it didn’t take much for them to get involved. “We want to make sure that [the fishermen] are seen as much a hero as you might think we are,” Scott told The Earth & I. “They’ve seen the issue. They’ve understood the issue. They’ve understood that they’re part of the problem and they are trying their hardest to help us out.” Lobstermen at work using modern traps. ©Mrosen99/Wikimedia CC BY-SA 4.0 “We want to make sure that [the fishermen] are seen as much a hero as you might think we are.” Despite spending every day out in the ocean, many fishermen don’t often see what’s beneath the water line. This can make the issue a bit “out of sight, out of mind,” Scott said. But when Scott’s students show interested fishermen what their ROVs capture, their urge to help tackle the issue grows. Additionally, lobster catchers can see a tangible difference in their catch quantities after a harbor is cleaned up. “The fishermen saw us taking all these traps off the bottom and said, ‘Well let’s go in and fish that area and see if that’s improved the fishing,’” Scott said. “And, sure enough, they went into a spot where they could barely catch a lobster and, all of a sudden, their traps were full!” After that, fishermen started volunteering to help clean up the traps and word-of-mouth kept Scott and his team busy visiting different fishing communities around Maine to tell them about OceansWide. Last winter, Scott was invited to visit fishermen in Vinalhaven to start work there. They’ve already removed 5,000 traps from one harbor alone. Full Scale Disposal OceansWide works with 27 divers and about 10 vehicle operators to help remove ghost traps. The organization utilizes high-tech sonar to survey how many traps are below. Fishermen volunteer to help remove and transport the recovered traps. The process goes further than just removing the traps too. OceansWide works with engineers to make sure every part of the trap is properly recycled or disposed of in a program called Traps to Treasure. The team of staff and volunteers separates the plastics, aluminum, and bricks from the traps before crushing the traps to be recycled. Then they properly recycle the aluminum and give the bricks to folks to reuse for structures like patios. OceansWide works with engineers to make sure every part of the trap is properly recycled or disposed of in a program called Traps to Treasure. “We have recycled almost 100% of the traps,” Scott said. “The only things that are getting us are the net heads and the [PVC] on the wire itself.” Piles of OceansWide’s salvaged ghost traps to be crushed and recycled through Traps to Treasure. Image courtesy of Laura Sitterly OceansWide is actively working to find ways to recycle or reuse those parts. They estimate that it takes $7 to $8 to recycle each trap, and over twice as much if the traps were recovered off an island’s coast, due to travel and other costs. The nonprofit compensates fishermen who help with this process. Big Wins Despite Little Money OceansWide’s work continues to be primarily funded by individual donations and family foundation grants. It has also received nearly $200,000 for marine debris removal, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA). Scott hopes this financial support will grow as their work continues. Like many Mainers, he sees the health of the fishing industry as vital to maintaining the state’s cultural heritage. “When we were kids, we had all these fisheries. Now we don’t,” Scott said. “If we could do something to bring them back so that our children and our children’s children can live in the culture we’ve lived in, we can continue the heritage we’ve had.” OceansWide works to restore Maine’s fishing heritage. Image courtesy of Laura Sitterly Scott also has hope for the future through seeing fishermen begin to grasp the importance of this work and teaching the next generation to love the ocean. He thinks he has another decade in him to continue this work before letting his former students take over. “I’m passionate about it, the kids that work with us are [passionate], and I think we’re inspiring the next generation,” Scott said excitedly. “I’m really enthusiastic about it and even some of the old, old guard in the fishing communities are changing their minds. And that’s a very hard thing to do: change a fisherman’s mind.” *Becky Hoag is a freelance environmental reporter. You can find her work on her site beckyhoag.com and through her YouTube channel https://youtube.com/beckisphere.

Invenergy Beech Ridge Energy Storage System at Beech Ridge Wind Farm in Greenbrier County, West Virginia. Z22/Wikimedia As nations add more solar and wind power to their electricity grids, battery storage is emerging as one of the fastest-growing energy technologies. Recent global data show that batteries are no longer serving only as backup systems or niche grid assets. Instead, they are increasingly helping utilities manage daily fluctuations in electricity demand, store surplus renewable energy, and maintain grid reliability. The rapid rise of battery storage reflects falling technology costs, expanding renewable energy generation, and growing demand for flexible power resources. In many regions, batteries are now taking on roles that were once dominated by conventional power plants, demonstrating how quickly electricity systems are evolving. Key Data Points Global battery storage installations reached 108 gigawatts (GW) of new capacity in 2025, representing approximately 40% growth over the previous year. Utility-scale projects accounted for roughly 87 GW or about 80% of all new battery capacity added worldwide. Battery prices have fallen by more than 90% since 2010, making large-scale deployment more economically viable. About 24 GW of new utility-scale battery projects were paired directly with renewable energy facilities in 2025. Australia added nearly 8 GW of battery capacity in a single year, making it one of the fastest-growing storage markets globally. Battery storage now represents about 18% of Australia's dispatchable electricity capacity, compared with 7% in China, 5% in the United States, and 4% across Europe. China remained the world's largest battery market, installing more than 63 GW of new capacity during 2025. The United States added around 19 GW of battery storage, a year-over-year increase of about 60%. Europe deployed around 6.2 GW of battery capacity in 2025, with utility-scale projects accounting for 4.6 GW. Battery additions in the Middle East exceeded 3 GW, more than tripling from the previous year. Chile installed nearly 1 GW of new battery capacity, largely to capture excess solar power and meet evening demand. The share of battery projects designed primarily to shift energy from one time of day to another grew from about 40% in 2015 to more than 90% in 2025. Projects focused mainly on ancillary grid services declined from roughly 45% of new installations in 2015 to about 7% in 2025, reflecting changing market needs. Why It Matters For decades, electricity systems relied primarily on fossil-fuel generators to respond to changing demand throughout the day. The rapid expansion of battery storage is creating a new model in which renewable energy can be stored when production is abundant and delivered when it is needed most. As deployment accelerates and costs continue to decline, batteries are becoming an increasingly important tool for building cleaner, more flexible, and more resilient power systems. Source: International Energy Agency, Analyst Consultant Commentary, 5/29/2026

But Authenticity Matters Gen Z on their phones. fauxels/Pexels Social media has become one of the primary ways Generation Z (ages 18 to 27) learns about the world—including environmental issues. A new two-part study from the Penn Center for Science, Sustainability, and the Media at the University of Pennsylvania examined how sustainability-focused TikTok creators communicate with young audiences and how Gen Z responds to that messaging. The research combined interviews with eight sustainability influencers plus a national survey of Gen Z TikTok users. Together, the findings suggest that young people are highly interested in sustainability regardless of political ideology, but that trust, authenticity, and practical advice are essential if influencers hope to inspire real-world environmental action. Key Data A cohort of 443 Gen Z TikTok users participated in the audience survey (Study 2), providing one of the larger datasets examining how young adults perceive sustainability content on TikTok. Study 1 was based on interviews with eight sustainability influencers. About 84% of the Gen Z respondents said they are either interested in learning more about sustainability or are already actively doing so, indicating broad interest in environmental topics among young social media users. Sustainability interest crossed political lines. About 88% of liberal-leaning respondents, 80% of conservative-leaning respondents, and 77% of moderates expressed interest in learning more about sustainability or said they were already engaged with the topic. About 56% of respondents identified as liberal-leaning, 25% as conservative-leaning, and 19% as politically moderate. The eight influencers generally had audiences composed of 80% women, with most followers falling between 18 and 35 years old; this closely matched the Gen Z and younger Millennial demographic they hoped to reach. Some creators reported even stronger gender skews on TikTok. They estimated that 90% of their TikTok followers were women, compared with roughly 68%–70% on Instagram, suggesting platform-specific audience differences. To qualify for the interview portion of the study, the eight creators needed more than 10,000 followers and a sustained focus on sustainability topics such as waste reduction, sustainable living, conservation, or plant-based lifestyles. TikTok's reach remains enormous. The report notes that the platform now has more than 150 million monthly active U.S. users, giving sustainability communicators unprecedented opportunities to reach younger audiences. Influencer marketing has become a major economic force, generating an estimated $13.8 billion in the United States and supporting more than 50 million active content creators across social media platforms. The study cites national survey data showing that 59% of Americans under age 30 use TikTok. This helps explain why sustainability influencers view that platform as an important venue for environmental education and behavior change. The eight creators said their messaging frequently focused on small, achievable lifestyle changes—rather than perfection—to make sustainable living appear more affordable, practical, and accessible for everyday users. In this way, they sought to normalize incremental improvements that millions of people can adopt. Source: Stephens, E. (2026). Sustainability-Focused Social Media Influencers on TikTok and Influence on Gen Z Perceptions of Sustainability and Behavior. Penn Center for Science, Sustainability, and the Media, University of Pennsylvania.

Will Lessons Learned From Germany’s ‘Green Belt’ Help Protect Biodiversity in Korea’s ‘Death Strip’? By Dr. Chi-hyun Park* A section of the barbed wire barrier marking the southern border of the Korean Demilitarized Zone, a 248-kilometer-long (154 miles), 4-kilometer-wide (2.4 miles) strip cutting across the Korean Peninsula. Photo courtesy of Gyeonggi Provincial Government Two infamous demilitarized zones (DMZs)—one stemming from the 1950–53 Korean War and the other from the post-World War II Cold War—cruelly divided people, yet life found unexpected refuge within those boundary sectors. Now, both Korea’s and Europe’s DMZs have becomes ribbons of biodiversity blossoming with wildlife, greenery, and vital ecosystems. The two DMZs have different origins: Korea’s formed after the 1953 armistice that ended Korean War hostilities between North and South. Europe’s “Iron Curtain” DMZ was created after World War II when the Soviet Union refused to release its grip on the countries of Eastern Europe. Both spent years as heavily guarded “no-man’s-lands,” with guard towers, armed troops, and impassable barriers. But when people withdrew, forests returned. Wetlands revived. Endangered wildlife began to claim these spaces as habitat. Today, these DMZs have experienced different fates: Korea’s no-go zone remains a dangerous military demarcation line marked by barbed wire, landmines, and guard posts. In Europe, the Iron Curtain borderland, once known as the Cold War’s infamous “Death Strip,” began removing its concrete barriers and antipersonnel mines in 1991, as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Now modernization on Europe’s Green Belt, a 7,700-mile-long ecological corridor, is in full swing. The challenge is to preserve the space along which animals can freely move to hunt, forage, and breed even as infrastructure development—highways, railways, high-voltage power lines—moves in, despite strong pro-environment regulations. The European DMZ development thus raises a question for the still-hostile Koreas: When their barriers come down, can the ecological miracles they have sheltered be preserved? Germany: From ‘Death Strip’ to European Green Belt In Germany, the Berlin Wall and the East–West German border were once iconic symbols of the Cold War. But after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, German environmental groups and a groundswell of ecologists began to see the space differently—not as land for development but as an ecological legacy worth preserving. Today, the former 1,393-kilometer (865-mile) East–West German Cold War border is the backbone of a vast, serpentine ecological corridor known as the European Green Belt. The total length of that corridor is 12,500 kilometers (7,768 miles)—from the Finland–Russia border on the Barents Sea above the Arctic Circle down to Greece on the Adriatic Sea and Turkey on the Black Sea. This continuous landscape of forests, grasslands, rivers, and wetlands has become one of Europe’s most important wildlife corridors. The European Green Belt Association describes it as “the backbone of a Pan‑European ecological network” extending across 24 countries, forming an extraordinary ecological corridor and replacing the former Iron Curtain. Bears, wolves, the Balkan lynx, migratory birds, plus old forests, wetlands, and other vital, natural habitats are being reclaimed, said EuroNatur, one of the conservation organizations monitoring the European Green Belt. Political barriers disappeared, and ecological connectivity remained. Aerial view of the hiking trail along the Green Belt at the Borderland Museum Eichsfeld in central Germany. Wolkencratzer/Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0 Germany, however, also offers a warning. After the border opened, roads, railways, and tourism development fragmented parts of the ecological corridor. The German Association for Environment and Nature Conservation (BUND Naturschutz) has documented how, after the border opened, roads, railways, and tourism fragmented parts of the ecological corridor. It also showed how agricultural and industrial development pressed on Green Belt borders and threatened sensitive species' habitats. Peace for the ecology of the long north–south strip was not assured with the tearing down of barriers. In many ways, the harder challenge began afterward. Korean DMZ areas (beyond the border fence in the foreground) are strictly off-limits to civilian activity, allowing diverse natural ecosystems to remain preserved. Photo courtesy of DMZ Museum Korean DMZ: A Core of the Peninsula’s Biodiversity The Korean DMZ, though still off-limits to the public, is internationally recognized as a region of exceptionally high biodiversity-conservation value, despite the continued military and political tensions surrounding it. The DMZ stretches east to west for 248 kilometers (154 miles) and spans 4 kilometers (2.4 miles) in width along the Military Demarcation Line. This ribbon-like landscape begins in the rugged mountain spine of the Baekdudaegan range in the east, continues through central rivers and wetlands, and reaches the Han River estuary and tidal flats in the west. [The DMZ’s] uninterrupted mosaic of forests, grasslands, rivers, wetlands, farmland, and mudflats give it ecological functions far more powerful than isolated protected areas. Its uninterrupted mosaic of forests, grasslands, rivers, wetlands, farmland, and mudflats give it ecological functions far more powerful than isolated protected areas. In ecology, connectivity is considered essential for species movement, genetic exchange, food web stability, and adaptation to climate change. Connected ecological corridors thus offer far greater survival potential than fragmented reserves. According to surveys by the South Korean National Institute of Ecology, more than 5,900 species of wildlife have been identified in the DMZ region, and 37.8% of Korea’s endangered wildlife species inhabit the DMZ or adjacent areas. Within this narrow military boundary lies a concentrated core of the Korean Peninsula’s biodiversity. Endangered wildlife, including the yellow-throated marten—a top predator despite its charming appearance—inhabit the DMZ ecosystem. Photo courtesy of the South Korean National Institute of Ecology The ecological value of the Korean DMZ does not lie merely in the presence of rare animals. More importantly, it is a space of coexistence, where living organisms sustain intricate relationships with one another. In the Cheorwon Plain, endangered red-crowned cranes and white-naped cranes move between wetlands and farmlands in search of food. In rivers, otters function as apex predators, maintaining food web balance. In the eastern mountains, rare mammals, such as long-tailed gorals and musk deer, help shape vegetation structure, which in turn alters habitat conditions for insects, birds, and smaller mammals. In the western Han River estuary, tidal flats serve as breeding and resting grounds for black-faced spoonbills and countless migratory birds. The DMZ is more than wildlife habitat. It is a living system of life, in which species sustain one another through a web of ecological interdependence. The Korean DMZ is more than wildlife habitat. It is a living system, in which species sustain one another through a web of ecological interdependence. The endangered long-tailed goral, a protected wildlife species discovered in the DMZ. Photo courtesy of the South Korean Ministry of Environment An Asiatic black bear, photographed by an unmanned sensor camera in the DMZ. Photo courtesy of the South Korean Ministry of Environment An Ecological Laboratory Born of Military Tension The Korean DMZ is often imagined as a pristine primeval forest untouched by humans. In reality, it is not. Limited wildfires, disturbances around guard posts, maintenance of military facilities, and certain forms of human management have continued over the decades. Yet despite these disruptions, the DMZ has maintained extraordinary biodiversity precisely because limited disturbance has created an array of habitats. Ecologist Joseph Connell’s Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis helps explain this phenomenon. If disturbance is excessively severe or absent altogether, biodiversity declines. But moderate levels of disturbance create a patchwork of grasslands, shrublands, forests, and wetlands that allow more species to coexist. The DMZ was never intentionally designed as such but, in effect, the Cold War created a vast ecological laboratory. War destroyed forests, but military tension prevented large-scale development. Here lies a paradox rare in both ecology and politics: Human hostility became a shield for nature. Invisible Death: Landmines and Wildlife North Korean soldiers laying landmines in the Demilitarized Zone. The inset photograph shows a mine exploding during emplacement operations. Photo courtesy of Republic of Korea Joint Chiefs of Staff The DMZ’s ecological miracles in Europe and Korea are also home to one of war’s most brutal legacies: landmines. Hundreds of thousands of mines are still believed to remain in the Korean DMZ and DMZ-border areas. Hidden underground and largely invisible, they pose deadly threats not only to humans but also to wildlife. Cases of wild boar, water deer, gorals, and other large mammals being killed or severely injured after triggering mines have been repeatedly reported. The damage caused by landmine explosions extends beyond individual casualties. Mines disrupt soil structure, destroy vegetation, and leave behind contamination from heavy metals and chemical residues. The danger is particularly acute for large mammals that follow established movement corridors. Yet the damage caused by landmine explosions extends beyond individual casualties. Mines disrupt soil structure, destroy vegetation, and leave behind contamination from heavy metals and chemical residues. For wildlife, landmines are invisible instruments of death. To protect wildlife, international demining experts have proposed a new approach that might be called “ecological demining.” Rather than indiscriminately excavating land in search of buried explosives, this approach combines high-resolution terrain analysis, drone-based thermal sensing, wildlife movement data, and low-disturbance equipment so that mine removal can be carried out while minimizing ecological damage. Some international specialists have also proposed identifying major wildlife migration routes first and securing ecological safe corridors as a priority. In Korea’s DMZ, however, such systematic wildlife-oriented protection measures have yet to be meaningfully established. Is the Korean DMZ the Quietest Prelude to Reunification? In Korea, political rhetoric still uses the language of confrontation. Military exercises continue on both sides of the zone. The barbed wire does not rust away, and the surveillance lights continue to illuminate the border night after night. Yet within those boundaries, a completely different order has long been at work. Cranes cross the border. Otters move along waterways. Plants scatter seeds on the wind. Rivers do not learn military demarcation lines, and migratory birds do not ask for nationality. Life does not recognize the divisions humans create. A portion of the Korean DMZ in winter. Photo courtesy of Gyeonggi Provincial Government The DMZ is not merely a military boundary. Nor does it belong exclusively to either South Korea or North Korea. It is a shared ecological asset born of division. Political scientists and experts in environmental diplomacy have long proposed transforming the DMZ into a Peace Ecology Zone for the Korean Peninsula. Ideas such as joint ecological surveys, designation as an international biosphere reserve, cooperative wetland management, and cross-border migratory bird protection have been proposed as trust-building mechanisms capable of easing military tensions. Human societies have yet to reach agreement, but nature has maintained an order of coexistence for decades. Germany transformed the wounds of division into a Green Belt. At the same time, it showed how quickly development after opening can destroy ecological corridors. After 1991, Germany transformed the wounds of division into a Green Belt. At the same time, it showed how quickly development can complicate ecological corridors. Korea, too, may one day face the same dilemma: When the barbed wire comes down, will the land be filled with roads and industrial development? Or will it be allowed to remain a corridor of life for future generations? The DMZ raises a question for both Koreas that is as practical as it is profound: After decades of separation, is it possible to find a way to live together again? Nature does not offer a political solution, but it does provide a powerful example. For decades, the forests and wildlife of the DMZ have shown that life can return, connections can be restored, and coexistence can emerge even in a landscape shaped by conflict. *Chi-Hyun Park is a longtime Korea-based environmental journalist who holds a PhD in engineering.

How America’s Original Woodland Ecosystems Can Be Restored, Plot by Plot By Leniva Leon* A forest needs to be shrewdly managed to restore it to its original character. Pixabay Conventional wisdom says the best way to protect a forest is to leave it alone. Forester Ethan Tapper says such advice can doom many of America’s woodlands. Sometimes, he argues, the most loving thing a person can do for a forest is to pick up a chainsaw. That unsettling idea lies at the heart of Tapper’s forest philosophy. Drawing on his experience restoring a badly degraded Vermont woodland, he challenges the assumption that human intervention is inherently harmful. His argument reflects a growing body of research by forest ecologists and Indigenous scholars suggesting that many forests—especially those already transformed by centuries of logging, farming, invasive species, and climate change—require thoughtful stewardship rather than passive protection if they are to become healthier, more resilient, and closer in character to the virgin forests of three and four centuries ago. In 2017, Tapper paid $150,000 for 175 acres of forest in Bolton, Vermont. He named his plot Bear Island, though by his own description, his “island” of trees in the middle of a larger forest was a wreck. It had every problem you could imagine for a patch of woods. It had been high-graded—meaning the best timber was stripped away long ago, leaving only low-value trees of poor form to fill the space. Invasive plants had moved into the gaps, and the soil in logging roads, hastily built decades ago, was actively washing away. From the road, it looked like a forest, but it was really just a forest in name only. “When I first walked this land in 2017,” he told The Earth & I in an email exchange, “I saw this forest as a symbol of everything that was wrong with the world—a forest with every problem that a forest could have.” The overlogging was evidence of the planet’s rampant human greed, and the lack of compassionate management signaled human callousness toward the natural world. But now, he says, “I see it as a symbol of what is possible—a symbol of hope.” Tapper is a professional forester, so he knew what he was looking at. He bought it anyway, and spent the following years doing something that still makes many conservationists uncomfortable: cutting some trees in order to save others. Creating gaps in a forest’s canopy can be good for allowing native trees to grow. Dominik Gryzbon/Pexels His book How to Love a Forest: The Bittersweet Work of Tending a Changing World, published in September 2024 and winner of the 2025 New England Book Award for nonfiction, is built around a provocation he states plainly from the start: “Only those who love trees should cut them.” Tapper did not take a straight path into forestry. After just two semesters at the University of Vermont, he stepped away from college to join a six-month wilderness expedition that changed the course of his life. For the next year, he knew that he wanted to continue spending as much time outdoors as possible. He went on to work as a wilderness guide, lived for a year in an uninsulated yurt with a floor made of fir boughs, and apprenticed with a logger who worked with draft horses. When he eventually returned to the university, “I chose ‘forestry’ out of a list of majors, not because I knew what it was, but because it had the word ‘forest’ in it.” His studies soon changed his understanding of forestry. He learned that the profession involved much more than cutting trees. In the current era, he said, “forestry is sometimes practiced with that old-school mentality, [but] I see modern forestry, especially in the eastern US, as much more ecologically focused.” “Today,” he said, “I identify as an ecologist as much as a forester.” The Problem with ‘Leave It Alone’ The forests of the northeastern United States carry a complicated history. Between the 17th and 20th centuries, European settlers cleared more than 99% of the forests in New England and New York—not just once but two or even three times, first for agriculture and timber, and then for industry. Most farms were eventually abandoned, and whatever could survive the transition grew back. Then came high-grade logging—a practice described as “cut the best and leave the rest”—which, as Penn State Extension explains, leaves woodlands containing mostly low-value, undesirable species and trees of poor form, with very little future potential. High-grade logging—a practice described as “cut the best and leave the rest”— … leaves woodlands containing mostly low-value, undesirable species and trees of poor form. What many hikers call “the woods” are actually just ecosystems struggling to recover, and they aren’t always heading in a good direction. Japanese barberry and glossy buckthorn are among the most problematic invasive shrubs in the Northeast: Their seeds are spread by birds; they leaf out early and block sunlight to native plants; and many states—including Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine—have banned their sale. But they are not going away on their own. Tapper’s argument is not that humans should manage every forest. His point is that in forests where human decisions have already altered the path, opting out of further decisions does not return the forest to anything it was before. It just cedes the next chapter to whichever species can take advantage of current conditions. What Active Management Actually Looks Like The practical work Tapper describes is simpler than the argument. Selective thinning—removing crowded, low-quality, or invasive trees to give better individuals more light and space—is the main tool. The goal is to accelerate what the forest would eventually do on its own, given centuries and stable conditions. The hillside above Tapper’s house offers a clear example of Bear Island’s transformation. To improve his degraded forest, he rented an excavator to stabilize the eroding logging roads and build new, more resilient trails. Then, using a chainsaw and skidder (a heavy-duty log puller), he began managing the forest through a technique known as “crop tree release.” The method involves identifying healthy trees and cutting back the less healthy or invasive ones competing with them. On the hillside, he said, “I found a red oak, then another, then another. I found a sugar maple, then a yellow birch, then a basswood, then another oak, and released all of them from competition. Today, I walk through that same stand that I once thought was hopeless and I see a forest of healthy trees, filled with promise.” Tapper also looks to birds for evidence of the forest’s recovery. Birds are bio-indicators, he explains, meaning that the species present in an area can reveal a great deal about the habitat and environmental conditions. Since he began managing Bear Island, he has witnessed a remarkable and profound increase in bird biodiversity. The target is structural complexity: varied tree ages, canopy gaps, debris on the forest floor—the features that make old-growth forests resilient and ecologically rich. A degraded forest can be moved in that direction, but it takes knowledge, time, and cuts that initially look like damage. “Mother trees” are exceptionally large, and their roots act as the heart of a colossal network of fungal filaments spreading out to many other parts of a forest, nurturing them. Hans/Unsplash Most landowners don’t have that knowledge. Most state forestry programs don’t have the funding to provide it. And the results, if they come, may take decades to show. Roots and Obligations Dr. Suzanne Simard, a professor of forest ecology at the University of British Columbia (UBC), has shown through many years of research that forests are not simply collections of competing trees. Using DNA forensics, Simard identified “mother trees”—enormous trees that act as central hubs for vast underground fungal-filament networks, supporting seedlings by infecting them with fungi and sending them the nutrients they need to grow. These findings are detailed in her 2021 memoir Finding the Mother Tree. Industrial logging removes those trees first. But selective management identifies and protects them—and that difference, Simard’s work suggests, is what can keep a forest healthy. “Indigenous territorial jurisdictions around the world have the highest carbon storage and biodiversity, whereas the colonial model of industrial forestry is very low.” Helping lead the way in creating healthy woodlands are Indigenous forest management methods. “I’m pretty optimistic as we build better relationships between Western science and Indigenous ways of knowing,” Simard told the UBC website. “Indigenous territorial jurisdictions around the world have the highest carbon storage and biodiversity, whereas the colonial model of industrial forestry is very low. We need to go back and learn from our Indigenous partners and use our Western science tools.” Botanist Robin Wall Kimmerer, a State University of New York Distinguished Teaching Professor and enrolled member of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation, reaches a similar conclusion from a different starting point. In her landmark book Braiding Sweetgrass, she argues for a relationship of reciprocity with the natural world—one in which humans are not merely consumers of nature’s resources but participants with a responsibility to give back. Applied to forestry, it means the decisions of what to cut, what to protect, and what to restore are not purely technical. They are relational. A landowner operating from that framework tends the land differently than one who sees ownership as a passive right. According to the Congressional Research Service, most forests in the United States are in the eastern half of the country, and most of that forest land—83%–is in private ownership. If more of those private landowners operated from a sense of reciprocal obligation, more degraded forest would be managed. But reciprocity, as Kimmerer frames it, is not just a philosophy. It asks something specific of the person standing in the woods. The Weight of Caring The passive observer has a simple relationship with a forest: If the trees are standing and the place feels peaceful, everything seems fine. But the active steward sees the same landscape differently. A standing dead tree, for example—which untrained eyes might dismiss as scenery or ordinary decay—tells a different story to someone responsible for what happens next. It may signal disease moving through a stand, a canopy gap soon to be colonized by invasive shrubs, or a structural problem that will shape the next generation of the forest for the worse. That shift in perception is the product of knowledge combined with accountability. One person is passing through. The other cannot just walk past. Buckthorn is a common invasive bush and small tree in northeastern US forests. Its berries are inedible for humans. Oleg Marchak/iStock That responsibility is hard to sustain in a culture oriented toward quick returns. Forest stewardship works on a timeline measured in decades, sometimes generations. The person making cuts today may never see the canopy those cuts were designed to create. Tapper is direct about this in How to Love a Forest: The work is “counterintuitive, uncomfortable, even heartbreaking.” It also tends to be underfunded and largely invisible to the people who benefit from it most. [Proper forest management can be] “counterintuitive, uncomfortable, even heartbreaking.” Which points to a gap that rarely gets addressed. The hiker, the town drawing clean water from a managed watershed, the region that depends on connected wildlife corridors and wildfire prevention—all of them benefit from decisions made by people they will never meet, on land they will never own. That relationship has no name and no structure. And when stewardship asks everything of the person doing it while returning almost nothing, the number of people willing to take it on will keep shrinking. Wildfire Prevention Tapper points out that his approach to managing forests could help even with wildfire prevention. Thinning overcrowded forests, diversifying tree species and tree ages, and reintroducing what he calls “good fire” can all help. “Good” fire is characterized by controlled, prescribed burns that mimic natural fire cycles. In ecosystems that evolved with fire, these small, deliberate blazes clear out hazardous fuelwood and revive local ecology. “Another important nuance,” Tapper says, “is letting [naturally caused] fires burn whenever possible. And another important nuance to that is reforming the way we regulate development—concentrating development, rather than letting it sprawl across the landscape, fragmenting habitats and creating structures and people everywhere that need to be defended, thus inhibiting our ability to let [natural] fires burn.” The Limits of the Argument None of this means that active management is always right. Poorly executed thinning can damage soil, open forests to new invasives, and prioritize short-term appearance over long-term resilience. The chainsaw is not self-correcting. Forest management decisions driven primarily by carbon credit markets rather than local ecological goals can replicate the extractive logic they claim to replace, just with better branding. Forest management decisions driven primarily by carbon credit markets rather than local ecological goals can replicate the extractive logic they claim to replace, just with better branding. Tapper is aware of these limits. He writes in How to Love a Forest that the world “is degraded both by people who do too much and by those who do nothing.” His case is not for management as a universal answer. It is for management as a serious option—one that requires exactly the kind of person he describes: someone who loves the forest enough to do hard things on its behalf. The shift Tapper is describing is less technical than it is psychological. It asks landowners to accept that their presence on the land is not automatically a problem and their absence is not automatically a solution. It asks for a different kind of engagement: slower, more observant, willing to make decisions whose results will arrive long after the person who made them is gone. Tapper donated a conservation easement on Bear Island in 2022—protecting the forest forever. He is not managing it for profit or for his own timeline. He is managing it for what comes after. That may be the most honest definition of stewardship available—and also the hardest one to scale. *Leniva Leon is a freelance author living in Prince George’s County, Maryland.

Rajasthan communities flourish with education, revival of traditional water management tactics By Yasmin Prabhudas* Rajasthan, the largest state in India, is home to 69 million people. It also overlaps with 77,000 square miles of the Thar Desert, which means it is hot, semi-arid, and very prone to drought. Water scarcity can have a devastating effect on people’s lives, but thanks to the long-standing work of Dr. Rajendra Singh—through Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS), the NGO he helped create—communities are learning to cope. From Humble Beginnings to “Waterman of India” Rajendra Singh, the “Waterman of India,” at the National Water Convention 2021 in Gwalior, India. ©Rajendra Singh/TBS Singh was born a farmer’s son in Daula, a village in Uttar Pradesh. A trained doctor in Ayurvedic medicine, he worked in government in the 1980s, overseeing adult education. However, Singh longed to offer his knowledge further afield. “In 1984, I decided to follow my hunches and quit my job. I then boarded a bus in Jaipur and traveled to Kishori, a small village in the Alwar District of Rajasthan. It was there that the true adventure of my life began,” he said in a biographical statement for the People’s World Commission on Drought and Flood, which he heads. He began to offer Ayurvedic medicine to the local people and to educate their children, but he soon discovered it was water that they needed. Pooja Bhati, one of Singh’s colleagues at TBS, says: “What is scarcity in itself? It starts with kids not going to school, especially girls because they have to fetch water. If there’s no water, there’s no irrigation. If they don't have water for irrigation and animal grazing, people migrate to cities for jobs. But they don’t have the skills to survive in the cities, so another struggle starts.” “What is scarcity in itself? It starts with kids not going to school, especially girls because they have to fetch water. If there’s no water, there’s no irrigation.” Singh and others came together to form TBS to help victims of a campus fire at the University of Jaipur. He became TBS chairman in 1985 and began to expand its mission. Singh would soon become known as the “Waterman of India.” Gram Swaraj Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s principle of gram swaraj (village self-development), Singh set out to harness the efforts of rural communities to create sustainable sources of water. He began reintroducing traditional rain-harvesting methods, such as johads (pond-like water structures), which had been abandoned due to a government scheme to introduce taps in every household. (Singh has said it’s not a tap that people need in every house. It's the water in the tap that is required. What if you turn on the tap and there’s no water?) River rejuvenation has also been a prominent part of TBS’s work. A johad in Thathawata, Rajasthan, India. ©Photo by LRBurdak/Wikimedia (CC BY-SA 3.0) TBS contributes about 70% toward a project, while the community funds the rest. Locals also volunteer to work on the construction. Volunteering gives villagers a sense of ownership, so they continue to look after the structure. “Women’s participation in decision-making is also vital,” adds Bhati. “Dr. Singh always asks women what they want. As a result, there are a lot of changes in their lives—the biggest one was the removal of parda pratha [a custom in which women must segregate and cover themselves in a veil].” [Watch the video Neer Nari Nadi (Water, Women, River)] Impact and Accolades Since its founding, TBS has helped about one million people, including 400,000 women, mainly across Rajasthan, but also in Maharashtra and Karnataka states. It has assisted communities in building 13,800 johads, which has meant 25 billion liters (5.4 billion gallons) of water have been conserved every year, benefiting 1,500 villages. Women typically transport the water and also work in the fields. ©Rajendra Singh/TBS The work has also transformed the local ecology—thirteen rivers have been rejuvenated, forestation has increased by 30%, and 70% of previously barren land can now be cultivated. Water security has also been established for one million families and agricultural productivity has increased by 100%, with income levels doubled. And 75% of girls now attend primary school, compared with 5% previously. Water security has been established for one million families and agricultural productivity has increased by 100%, with income levels doubled. And 75% of girls now attend primary school, compared with 5% previously. Singh has received numerous accolades for his work, including being on The Guardian’s list of “50 people who could save the planet,” being awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for community leadership in 2001, and winning the Stockholm Water Prize in 2015. He also received a lifetime achievement award in 2022 from the Central University of Rajasthan. Recent Projects But how does TBS go about setting up a project? Puneet Bhalla, another TBS representative, explains: “We do a needs assessment of the rural villages where there is water scarcity. Then our field workers start communicating with the gram panchayat (village council) and with local communities. After getting permission from the gram panchayat and the community, we start construction.” “We also have to find out which area is most affected by floods when there is rainfall,” Bhalla adds. “So we construct the rainwater structure in the form of a johad in that area.” Two areas in eastern Rajasthan have benefited. In Karauli, 393 johads have been constructed (watch a video of TBS’s work in Karauli). Water is scarce because of the rocky terrain, high levels of deforestation, low levels of groundwater, and porous soil that lacks the capacity to retain water. Unpredictable monsoon rains also lead to frequent droughts. Traditional water management practices are no longer being used, and modern water-management systems have proven inadequate, making irrigation difficult. These have impacted agricultural productivity and livestock rearing, but with TBS’s help, it is expected that the local rural communities’ fortunes will turn around, resulting in better access to water. They will also obtain the know-how to conserve and manage water. TBS restored the Baindi ki Pokhar (pond) in Karauli, India. ©Rajendra Singh/TBS In the thirty villages in Alwar, not only have 1,607 johads been built, benefiting 200,000 people and conserving 8 billion liters (1.75 billion gallons) of water, but irrigation systems have also been improved, further strengthening farmers' resilience to climate change. Anticipated outcomes include a 30% reduction in the loss of water and a 20% increase in income from agricultural produce per acre. TBS has also helped local people rejuvenate Rajasthan’s Sairni River. It now meets the community’s needs and enables wildlife to thrive. TBS helped increase biodiversity of the Sairni River through rejuvenation efforts. ©Rajendra Singh/TBS Singh’s vision includes encouraging local communities to build their knowledge of water management—some 100,000 people have become “water literate” since TBS began its work. Meanwhile, the Waterman Academy raises water conservation awareness among the next generation through online courses. Harnessing Local Knowledge Three ways of making sure any water conservation project is a success are: 1) get the community involved, 2) make sure women participate, and 3) help initiate a change in people’s behavior. In the words of the Waterman of India: “Let us use the wisdom of local communities and global indigenous knowledge systems to fight the modern global problems of climate change.” He declared: “The environment has been exploited by humans by taking excessive amounts of resources from it. […] I have devoted my entire life to bridging the gap between people’s hearts and minds and the rivers and environment in which they live.” *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for nonprofit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

Over One Million Homes Were Lost After Catastrophic Flooding *By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe Architect Yasmeen Lari sits in front of dwellings designed by her foundation. ©Wikimedia/BBC Urdu (CC BY 3.0) Designing safe, sustainable dwellings for those without means or access is beginning to have its day. One determined Pakistani architect is at the forefront of this response. The 'Barefoot Architect' After a storied career as a pioneering Pakistani architect, Yasmeen Lari pivoted away from designing glitzy modern architecture—with its high carbon footprint and other drawbacks—to address the plight of Pakistan’s disaster-plagued poor. Lari has turned her focus to designing environmentally friendly disaster-relief dwellings for a populace that faces periodic earthquakes and flooding. Known today as the “barefoot architect” for the “poorest of the poor,” Lari repurposed her professional career—she calls her former self a “starchitect”—and set up Barefoot Social Architecture (BASA), which, according to Dezeen magazine, works to “uplift impoverished communities without impacting the planet.” Descended from a compassionate, public-minded father who sheltered Muslim refugees at the time of Partition, Lari has long been committed to the preservation of her heritage, having set up the Heritage Foundation of Pakistan in 1980 with her historian husband. With the same determination that led young Lari to study architecture and succeed as the first woman to register as an architect in Pakistan, Lari’s foundation set about preserving historically important architectural treasures, such as those of the once-prosperous Sethi family in Peshawar, among many others. A view of the Sethi Mohalla, preserved by Lari’s Heritage Foundation. ©Wikimedia/Teseum (CC BY-SA 4.0) The foundation’s urgent work to address disaster relief housing for the poor followed later—with a particular concern for women and children whose lives in Pakistan have traditionally revolved around the home. Empowering people to create their own safe, affordable, nature-based housing and communal structures—carrying “the sweat and pride” of the community—eventually became more important to Lari than designing prestigious commercial structures. Since her career pivot, considerable attention has been paid to her work. In 2023, at the age of 82, she was awarded the Royal Gold Medal, considered one of the world’s most prestigious architectural accolades. Sustainability In Service to Women and Children Yasmeen Lari’s designs prioritize using locally sourced, renewable materials and incorporating traditional techniques and vernacular architectural styles. In an interview with BBC Urdu in 2020, she described her design motto as “low-to-no cost, zero carbon, and zero waste.” (See video) Houses built with support from Lari’s foundation (2020). ©BBC Urdu/Wikimedia Her approach is highly regarded by architects, environmentalists, and humanitarian organizations. With many women and children in Pakistan spending much of their lives near the home, designing disaster-resistant homes with natural, nontoxic materials is a necessity. Disaster mortality rates are generally higher for women and children. [See The Earth & I, April, 2021]. The women and children of Sindh Province. ©DFID/Wikimedia Feminist architect Nourhan Bassam, founder of the think-tank GamingX, spoke with The Earth & I about the importance of Lari’s work in addressing this need. “By acknowledging the distinct impact of these disasters on women, we understand that ‘disasters are a feminist issue’,” Bassam said. “Through her foundation, Lari has not only influenced architectural practice but also inspired a broader conversation on intersectionality and cross-cutting topics of sustainability, feminism, and disaster resilience in the field of architecture,” said Bassam. Strong Collaboration Required Providing adequate safe housing for a population as large as Pakistan’s is not easy. “Designing disaster-resistant, affordable housing from local and sustainable materials is a complex process that requires a holistic approach,” Maulik Patel, managing partner at UniquesCadd, an architecture firm focusing on disaster-resilient architecture, told The Earth & I. Various stakeholders need to be involved. “Addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary collaboration, community engagement, and innovative approaches to design and construction,” Patel added. Dezeen reported that from 2012 to 2014, [Lari’s] foundation provided 40,000 new shelters that housed about 300,000 people following severe flooding in Sindh Province. Lari’s track record suggests that her foundation is uniquely qualified to help address the disaster housing challenges of Pakistan’s poorest populations. Dezeen reported that from 2012 to 2014, her foundation provided 40,000 new shelters that housed about 300,000 people following severe flooding in Sindh Province. Addressing Pakistan’s Floods Catastrophic flooding in Pakistan (2022). ©zms/iStock Lari’s foundation was severely tested when heavy rains led to catastrophic floods in Pakistan in 2022. A third of the country was submerged and 33 million people were forced from their homes or otherwise impacted. (See video here). According to UNICEF, half of those affected were children. A total of 1.4 million homes were destroyed in what the World Economic Forum (WEF) described as a “climate-fuelled catastrophe” that claimed at least 1,700 lives. In the aftermath of the devastating floods, Yasmeen Lari and the Heritage Foundation of Pakistan launched a plan to build a million flood-resistant homes throughout the country by 2024. The initiative also aims to ensure that every affected household has essential resources. While Lari’s plan addresses the urgent need to focus on disaster relief, it also emphasizes the need for disaster preparedness—such as safety shelters for communities. Video on shelter assembly. ©2024 Heritage Foundation of Pakistan The shelter project draws heavily on Lari’s expertise and experience working closely with local communities and utilizing indigenous, renewable materials—such as lime, mud, and bamboo—to create durable, yet easily replaceable structures. In a 2023 interview with RIBAJ, Lari said the know-how to complete one of her shelters was already freely available through a YouTube channel that had over 5,000 subscribers at the time. Through the channel, anyone can learn to build one of the foundation’s houses via detailed step-by-step instructions. Lari envisions positioning shelters on elevated roads that normally are not submerged during flooding. These structures can be relocated to permanent foundations for long-term use. Durable, sustainable, personalized—Heritage Foundation shelters. ©2024 Heritage Foundation of Pakistan Lari said it is possible to construct 25 shelters a day wherever the foundation has people “on the ground.” In the RIBAJ interview, Lari said it is possible to construct 25 shelters a day wherever the foundation has people “on the ground” to facilitate skill-sharing among villages. The WEF reported that about 1,000 homes had been completed in heavily stricken Sindh province as of September 2023. In addition to providing basic shelter, Lari also aims to provide water, toilets, and Lari’s “eco-alternative” Pakistan Chulah Cookstoves, which are self-built from local mud and CO2-absorbing lime plaster. Lari-designed chulahs can be self-made from local natural materials. ©2024 Heritage Foundation of Pakistan The stoves, which are fueled by agricultural waste, cut wood use by 50% to 70%, Lari told Dezeen magazine. The result was a healthier cooking environment compared with the traditional Pakistani wood-burning chulah. According to Dezeen, the health benefits of replacing open fires with Lari’s cookstoves include reduced air pollution, skin burns, and likely lowered rates of respiratory or heart diseases. The reduced need for firewood also impacts deforestation rates and time spent searching for firewood. Resting on a solid raised platform, they are also less likely to be swept away during a flood. ©Claude Renault/Wikimedia (CC BY 2.0) ©Muhammad Amjad/iStock Traditional indoor (left) and outdoor (right) wood-burning chulah cookstoves. Progress and Frustration The WEF reported that Lari’s foundation had, as of November 2023, helped 2022 flood victims build approximately 4,500 homes with the goal of doing so for “at least 350,000 households.” According to the WEF report, Lari has been frustrated by the UN’s humanitarian system “and institutions like the World Bank” for handing out aid “without building the capacity of the people,” and for constructing concrete structures in Pakistan following disasters. The WEF report included responses from a World Bank representative and the Sindh People’s Housing Foundation (SPHF), set up by the Sindh government to address the province’s flood disaster housing needs. Mariam Altaf of the World Bank of Pakistan told WEF the bank preferred permanent “brick and mortar” houses, which she said “are more resilient housing options than mud-based ones.” The SPHF told WEF they were aware of Lari’s work, but preferred “burnt brick and cement” structures over mud-based, which they said had been the majority of those washed away during prior flooding. *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 10 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences. Editorial notes Sources: Interview with Nourhan Bassam, architect, feminist urbanist and founder of GamingX, a think-tank focusing on community development and empowerment. Interview with Maulik Patel, managing partner at UniquesCadd.

By Alina Bradford* ©K. Riemer/Pixabay Modern homes are typically built to keep people cozy or cool inside. But these tightly sealed, insulated dwellings can also trap noxious chemicals, allergens and more. People who live in homes with poor air quality can experience health problems ranging from frequent colds and allergies to life-threatening diseases. On the bright side, most people can easily upgrade the air at home. Here are some tips on getting started. Why People Should Care about Air Quality Poor air quality can lead to many different long and short-term health problems, say groups like the American Lung Association (ALA). These include: Allergies Trouble breathing Migraine headaches Asthma attacks Nausea Vomiting Dermatitis Neurological problems Cancer Liver and kidney damage These symptoms and problems are typically caused by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the air. VOCs are gases emitted from thousands of different types of natural and man-made products, many of which are found in homes. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) says that indoor concentrations of many VOCs are consistently higher—up to ten times higher—than outdoors. Poor Air Quality Culprits There is a multitude of everyday things that contribute to poor air quality at home. Some of the more obvious contributors include pet dander, smoke from burning a meal in the kitchen, and cigarette smoke. However, there’s a wide range of other things that can make indoor air less than healthy. A common contributor to indoor pollution is building materials. New homes or renovations, which use pressed wood products like plywood as well as carpeting, paint, and adhesives, can release formaldehyde and other VOCs, according to the ALA. Even older materials, like some drywall and flooring, can release toxic chemicals into the air. Cross-section of particle board. ©wikipedia Air fresheners and cleaning products are supposed to make homes cleaner and more enjoyable, but they, too, can contribute to poor air quality. Studies show that these products can release toxic VOCs, such as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes, into the air. Cooking indoors with wood can increase health risks. ©Nuzree/Pixabay The air in kitchens with wood-burning or natural gas stoves can also be toxic. Studies over the past forty years show that natural gas stoves and other gas appliances can release methane and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the air, even when they aren’t in use. Particles released from wood-burning stoves can cause bronchitis, pneumonia, and asthma. Indoor cooking with wood can increase health risks. ©Pixabay Measuring Air Quality An easy way to test for poor air quality at home is to use an air quality monitor. The cost of these monitors can range from around $30 to $200, depending on the features. Some of the fancier versions will send an alert via phone when air quality reaches unsafe levels. When shopping, be sure to look for a monitor that measures CO, CO2, VOC, and formaldehyde (HCHO). It’s also important to get one that can detect dust mites and other allergens. Devices that can detect these air quality menaces are labeled as PM 2.5 (for particulate matter less than 2.5 micrometers in size). How to Keep Air Clean at Home Once people understand what can cause poor air quality and how to track it, they’re ready to make their indoor air safer. Here are some things that can be done right away: Stop using air fresheners or look for products that are “non-toxic.” Use natural cleaning products. Eat more raw foods or steam or bake foods to reduce the smoke caused by frying and searing. Stainless steel (left) and bamboo food steamers. ©Kowloonese/Wikimedia (CC BY-SA 3.0) Smoke or vape outside only. Clean with a vacuum with a HEPA filter regularly to rid the home of pet dander and dust. Use HEPA air purifiers throughout the home. Change HVAC, air purifier, and vacuum air filters regularly, and ensure that the filters use HEPA filtration. Open windows on low-pollution days to let out VOCs and let in fresh air. Throw out food before it becomes moldy. Clean home air vents regularly. Modern residential building codes require kitchen ventilation, so use ventilation hoods on stoves whenever cooking. Spider plants are popular indoor plants. ©Peter-coxhead/Wikimedia Some long-term solutions to consider include removing carpeting—if air quality levels remain poor after one’s best efforts—or switching to electric appliances over gas water heaters, ovens, and heaters. There has been a lot of buzz online about the air benefits of houseplants, but don’t get too excited. While houseplants have also been shown to improve indoor air quality, the effects are small, at best. According to the EPA, it would require 680 plants in a house to keep the air clean. Don’t Forget to Take Outdoor Breaks While practicing all of these ways to improve the quality of the air indoors, people shouldn’t forget to simply get outdoors for some fresh air. For those who live in an area with low pollution, the air outside can be up to ten times cleaner than indoor air. Get out and enjoy some fresh air! ©joenomias/Pixabay Also, when at work, take a stroll outside during breaks or eat lunch outside. During the weekends take up an outdoor hobby, take a swing in a hammock, or go for a picnic with the family. Find any excuse to go outside for a more grateful and healthier respiratory system. *Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert that has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com.

By Alina Bradford* Washing produce has many benefits. ©kcvelez/Pickupimage Fresh produce often comes straight out of the ground, so it’s born dirty. Though it looks clean by the time it gets to the store, don’t assume that it is. Even organic produce can be covered in bacteria and other contaminants. Here’s what consumers need to know about the cleanliness of produce and how to make it safer to eat. How Dirty Is Produce? It all depends. Each piece of produce that ends up in a shopping bag took a different journey to the store. Fruits and vegetables are often exposed to rodents; unwashed hands; bugs; airborne germs; and particulates, fertilizer, and more as they travel. Moreover, most produce is exposed to pesticides. The Environmental Working Group's 2022 Shopper's Guide to Pesticides in Produce listed strawberries and spinach as the two top produce items that contain the highest levels of pesticide contamination. Next on the list were kale, collard and mustard greens, nectarines, apples, grapes, and varieties of peppers. Try to buy produce locally. Shorter shipping distances mean that contamination is less likely. It’s best to assume that the fresh fruits and vegetables brought home are pretty filthy. Though this may make some people wary of eating store-bought produce, there’s no need to avoid it. Produce can be made safe to eat. How Can Consumers Make Produce Safe? The safest way to ensure that raw food won’t cause an illness is to wash it, and then cook it, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The heat from cooking can kill any bacteria that might remain after washing. Also, try to buy produce locally. Shorter shipping distances mean that contamination is less likely. Of course, the safest produce is homegrown, garden-to-table food since consumers know exactly what the fruits and vegetables were exposed to. What Is the Right Way to Wash Produce? Produce should be cleaned as soon as possible so this step won’t be forgotten later. Plus, clean produce won’t contaminate the refrigerator or countertops. Wash your hands for at least 20 seconds with soap and water. ©National Cancer Institute First, start with clean hands. Wash your hands for at least 20 seconds with soap and water. Also, make sure your kitchen surfaces, like your sink and countertops, have been cleaned and sanitized. Once the surfaces are clean, remove the "extra parts" of the produce. Remove the outer leaves from lettuce, the loose, outer skins of onions, and eyes from potatoes, for example. Also, discard berries or leaves that are damaged. Next, scrub the fruits and vegetables under lukewarm running water. Vegetable brushes are nice, but they are not required—the running water and clean hands are fine, according to the Colorado State Extension Office. Conversely, a brush may help get the dirt off of root vegetables like potatoes, carrots, and turnips. Do Consumers Need a Special Cleanser for their Produce? Use clean, not soapy, water. ©SabineD52/Pixabay The CDC, US Department of Agriculture, and federal Food and Drug Administration don’t recommend washing produce in anything other than water. That means consumers can skip those fancy veggie washes seen in stores or the well-intentioned homemade cleaning recipes posted on the internet. Fruits and vegetables are porous. They can absorb the washes, and possibly cause a sickness or alter the taste of the food. Besides, these washes haven’t been proven any more effective than water. When the first batch of produce is cleaned, place it into a clean colander while the other items are washed. What About Produce with Inedible Peels? Wash produce with inedible peels. ©7`o’7/Wikimedia Commons Yes, even if the plan is to remove the banana, avocado, melon, orange, grapefruit, or lemon peel, the produce should be washed. Hands or knives touching the peel can contaminate the fruit underneath. Moreover, washing bananas when they first come into the kitchen can banish any fruit-fly eggs that tagged along. Does Organic Produce Need to Be Washed? Even if the produce has never been touched by pesticides, there is a good chance it has been touched by dirty hands, rodents, and bugs. So, give organic produce a good wash, too. How About Pre-washed Packaged Produce? The CDC says that food that’s labeled as washed doesn’t need further cleaning, but many consumers do so anyway. In 2021, eighteen people became sick with listeria after eating Dole pre-packaged salads. There have been other recalls of contaminated pre-packaged produce in the last few years, as well. What Happens if the Produce Isn’t Washed? At the very least, consumers will ingest the waxy preservatives the store uses to keep the produce looking fresh. At the worst, they could consume pesticides or dangerous bacteria. Around 1 in 6 Americans (or 48 million people) get sick, and 3,000 die, from foodborne diseases. While a lot of times foodborne illnesses come from animal products, produce is often contaminated, too. For example, in early 2022, a recall was issued over contaminated baby spinach. Four people needed to be hospitalized after fifteen became ill. E. coli bacteria. ©Geralt/Pixabay Some common food contaminants include Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Norovirus, and Listeria monocytogenes. They can cause diarrhea, headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, fever, hallucinations, paralysis, and death. While most people will just suffer what is thought of as a "stomach flu" when exposed to these contaminants, they are particularly dangerous to children, pregnant women, the elderly, and those with compromised immune systems. So, the best bet for healthy eating is to always wash fruits and vegetables. While it doesn’t always get rid of every contaminant, it’s the best line of defense against bacteria and pesticides. *Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert that has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com.

By Robin Whitlock* The Maldives government have adapted infrastructure in capital city Malé to the threats of climate change and rising sea levels, including beginning to build a wall around the city. ©Shahee Ilyas, CC BY-SA 3.0 Rising Sea Levels Sea level rise, as eloquently explained by NASA’s Global Climate Change webpage, is caused by two factors. One of these is the amount of water added to the oceans by melting ice, while the other is the expansion of seawater as it gets warmer. The graph below shows how global sea levels have risen since 1900. According to the US government’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), there has been a mean global sea level rise of about eight to nine inches (twenty-one to twenty-four centimeters) since 1880. Regionally, differences in sea level rise happen due to natural variability in the strength of winds and ocean currents that influence where and how much heat is stored in the deeper layers of the ocean. Sea level rise since 1993-present, based on satellite sea level observations. NASA’S Goddard Space Flight Center. This matters because numerous communities—including eight of the ten largest cities in the world—are located near an ocean shoreline, according to the UN Atlas of the Oceans. In the US, almost 30% of the population lives in a densely populated coastal area. Melting Ice Caps and Sea Level Rise The Arctic ice cap covers the North Pole and consists wholly of floating sea ice that is constantly shifting. Some of this ice forms and melts according to the polar seasons, while the remainder persists as ice throughout the year. In the South Pole, only part of the Antarctic ice cap consists of sea ice. It melts completely and reforms on a seasonal basis, thus the seasonal decrease of sea ice is greatest in the Antarctic. The remaining portion of the Antarctic ice cap consists of ice sheets covering land, ice shelves, and glaciers. Leopard seal on an ice floe in Cierva Cove, a quiet bay on the Antarctic Peninsula. ©iStock Of the two ice caps, it is the Arctic that plays the larger role in regulating the climate, according to current thinking. It does so by regulating the exchange of heat, moisture, and salinity in the polar oceans. The thickness of Arctic sea ice and the area it covers can vary significantly and change rapidly. In late winter, sea ice tends to cover an area of fourteen million to sixteen million square kilometers (8.5 million to 9.9 million square miles). In late summer, this falls to around seven million kilometers (4.3 million square miles). In contrast, in Antarctica, the ice is around seventeen million to twenty million square kilometers (10.5 million to 12.4 million square miles) in late winter. By late summer, this shrinks to between two million and four million square kilometers (1.2 million to 2.4 million square miles). According to a 2012 study on passive microwave satellite data, winter Arctic sea ice has decreased by about 3% per decade since 1979. Other evidence—compiled by scientists from satellite data, data from earlier ice charts, and other observations to form a chronological record from 1900 onward—shows that the area covered by sea ice in the Arctic has been declining since at least the early 1950s. The edge of the Greenland ice cap is marked by a glacier’s moraine and a meltwater stream. A Musk Ox grazes in front. ©neill4real A recent article by Chris Mooney of The Washington Post cites a study published August 29 in Nature Climate Change. The study shows that the largest source of potential sea level rise is due to the melting of the Greenland ice sheet, which is one to two miles thick. The rate at which this ice is melting has accelerated since 2000 because temperatures in the Arctic are rising faster than anywhere else in the world. Temperatures in the Arctic are rising faster than anywhere else in the world. This potentially unstoppable melting suggests that the global sea level could rise by nearly 10.8 inches even if humanity stopped producing greenhouse gases instantly. This prediction is also viewed as a low estimate: If there are years in which there is a greater amount of melting, such as in 2012, this could mean a sea level rise of thirty feet. Indeed, many scientists agree that if all the ice on Greenland were to melt, it would cause a sea level rise of twenty feet. “We have caused the ice sheet to go out of equilibrium,” said David Bahr, co-author of the study and a University of Colorado Boulder glaciologist, speaking to USA Today. “We’re melting it faster than the ice can move downstream and replenish areas that are melting.” There’s no indication yet of when this world-changing sea level rise may occur, but scientists suggest that most of it will have occurred by 2100. However, another scientist, Ted Scambos, who did not contribute to the study, argues that a longer time frame is probably more accurate. Impacts Whenever it happens, sea level rise will have “huge societal, economic and environmental impacts” across the world. Low-lying island nations and countries with coastal and delta areas—a common feature in the developing world—will be more adversely affected than nations with higher topographies. Even a small amount of sea level rise can have disastrous effects on wildlife habitats, due to erosion, flooding of wetlands, and salt contamination of aquifers and agricultural land. A road collapsing into the sea due to sea level rise on the Holderness coast, in the northeast of England. ©iStock Moreover, sea level rise is suspected of influencing the behavior of hurricanes and typhoons—pushing storms toward the extreme end of the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind scale, or affecting their speed or rainfall. Fiercer storm surges force people to move to higher ground while threatening basic services for people who remain behind. Mitigation Measures In response to increasing sea level rise, many coastal cities are already planning to implement a range of adaptation measures. These include building higher sea walls, rerouting roads, and other transport corridors, and planting vegetation in threatened areas to stem the incoming sea water. A global network of city mayors, called C40 Cities, has published a guide explaining how cities can respond to sea level rise. The first stage is to understand the local topography and how it affects the community’s vulnerability to sea level rise. This could involve examination of a risk map and production of a climate change risk assessment. Towns and cities can follow this up by collaborating with other settlements in the region—sharing monitoring and alert systems, for example. A regional board can be established to coordinate action in the area. The increased frequency of high-tide flooding is affecting more communities: A high-tide flood spills into the downtown Annapolis harbor, Maryland. ©City of Annapolis Improving coastal flood defenses generally consists of two options, which can be employed in collaboration with each other. One is the reconstruction and strengthening of natural barriers through restoration of habitats and ecosystems, such as coastal wetlands, coral reefs, marshes, and mangroves. The second option is building physical synthetic features, such as sea walls, dikes and levees, and flood barriers. As with other climate change predictions, an extreme sea level rise could become a “new normal.” This makes it all the more important for communities to be forward-thinking and start planning and implementing measures to protect against sea level rise right now. *Robin Whitlock is a freelance journalist based in the Southwest of England, UK. A correspondent for Renewable Energy Magazine since 2011, he specializes in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, and also follows transport issues, particularly rail, bus, and coach, and green motoring.

How Tribology is Aiding the Fight Against Climate Change By Rick Laezman* Mechanic disassembling car engine. ©FabficaCr As pressure mounts to enlist all resources in the fight against global warming, energy efficiency is taking on an expanding role. One particular field of study is taking the concept of efficiency to another level, literally. Efficiency on an Atomic Level Tribology is the study of kinetic properties, or properties related to motion, that have a direct impact on efficiency. Specifically, it examines three related phenomena: friction, wear, and lubrication. The study of these elements of physical resistance often takes place at an atomic or slightly larger nanoscale. The Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE) defines the specialty in relatively mundane terms. It describes the practice simply as the “study of surfaces moving relative to one another.” A closer look at the three areas of focus provides more detail. Friction is defined as the resistance to motion between two contacting objects or materials. Wear is the loss of mass or material as the result of friction. Finally, lubrication is the use of solutions or solids to help reduce the incidence of friction and wear. The three areas of study encompass various fields. As a result, tribologists draw their expertise from many different specialties, including mechanical engineering, materials science and engineering, chemistry and chemical engineering, and others. Gears in motion highlight the intricate mechanism of tribology. ©Ji Tribology also has relevance to many different industries and devices because friction and wear occur in so many different processes, and the reduction of both is important to all. Manufacturing, healthcare, sports, and music are a few of the many fields where tribology is applied. For example, tribology can improve the performance of automobile tires. Friction is essential to a secure grip between the tire and the road. This aids acceleration and safety. On the other hand, all consumers want to minimize wear so their tires will last longer. Tribology, Energy Efficiency, and Global Warming Speaking of cars, tribology is proving to be extremely valuable to the broad field of energy efficiency. Because so much energy is lost to friction in mechanical components, reducing this waste is one of the most effective ways to cut down on energy use. Reducing the energy intake and carbon output of vehicles, buildings, appliances, and any energy-consuming process becomes just as important in the fight against global warming as the use of renewable fuels like solar and wind power. “[F]inding ways to minimize friction and wear through new technologies in tribology is critical to a greener and more sustainable world.“ As noted by the STLE, “finding ways to minimize friction and wear through new technologies in tribology is critical to a greener and more sustainable world.“ Advances in tribology that improve energy efficiency are mostly occurring in one of three sectors: energy, transportation, and manufacturing. Not coincidentally, these are also some of the biggest energy consumers. In the field of energy and power, tribology can increase efficiency in many ways. There are numerous opportunities to reduce energy loss throughout the industry, from the initial phase of primary resource production through the generation of electricity, distribution of power, and energy consumption. For example, lubricants can increase the efficiency of steam and gas turbines used to generate electricity. Similarly, materials applied to bearings and gearboxes increase the efficiency of wind turbines. Changes to the materials used in the inner workings of cooling and heating systems, as well as other appliances, can improve the energy efficiency of buildings. In the field of transportation, tribology improves the efficiency of all sorts of moving vehicles. It impacts efficiency through improvements to the inner workings of power trains, including gearboxes, engines, transmissions, driveshafts, axles, bearings, and brakes. It also improves traction and reduces the wear of tires and wheels on cars, trucks, and trains. Assembling and constructing a gas turbine. ©industryview These improvements can be achieved in many ways. This includes the development of new lubricants and super small, nano composites that reduce friction and wear of gears and bearings. It even extends to innovative engineering of coatings for turbine blades and road surfaces that help reduce friction. Finally, tribology aids the manufacturing and industrial sectors by increasing the efficiency of machinery and equipment. When tribology methods are applied to transportation and energy production, they can reduce temperatures, increase the lifespan of implements and equipment, improve efficiency, and lower energy consumption in the manufacturing and delivery of products and materials. Tribology in the Real World With all these possibilities, tribologists are hard at work exploring new ways to increase efficiency through the reduction of friction and wear and the innovative use of lubricants. Scholarly articles in peer-reviewed journals describe various research topics where experts are pursuing advances in the field. Some of these advances are pushing the boundaries of imagination. As science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described, “any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.” Tribology may not qualify as magic, but it is taking innovation to levels that the human eye cannot see. Some researchers have achieved superlubricity using different materials, both solid and liquid, including graphite flakes, graphene, polymers, and even water. Take, for example, the concept of superlubricity. This occurs when friction has been nearly eliminated. Much of the work in this field has been theoretical. However, the topic has gained increased attention in recent years. Some researchers have achieved superlubricity using different materials, both solid and liquid, including graphite flakes, graphene, polymers, and even water. Achieving superlubricity in a practical application on a wide scale is still a long way away, but researchers are zeroing in. The benefits could be remarkable. Friction is believed to account for about 30% of the world's total energy consumption. If tribologists could develop methods to achieve superlubricity in practical applications like manufacturing or transportation, the savings would be incredible. Earlier this year, scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) announced they invented a “superlubricity coating” that could dramatically reduce friction in common load-bearing systems with moving parts. The coating reduces the friction of steel rubbing on steel at least a hundredfold. The invention could be a significant breakthrough because it would make superlubricity accessible to a wide variety of common applications, including vehicle drivetrains as well as wind and hydroelectric turbines. According to Jun Qu, leader of ORNL’s Surface Engineering and Tribology group, “the main achievement is making superlubricity feasible for the most common applications.” [The] U.S. economy loses more than $1 trillion (about $3,100 per person in the US) to friction and wear every year. According to ORNL, the novel coating could be a boon to the U.S. economy, which it says loses more than $1 trillion (about $3,100 per person in the US) to friction and wear every year. Another sub-specialty—high-temperature tribology—has attracted increased attention in recent years. When solid surfaces interact in moving situations, like machinery or engine parts, they create intense pressure and heat. This can dramatically impact the surfaces, creating wear and impacting the efficiency of the process. Much of the research in this area has focused on the automobile manufacturing industry. Vehicles require lightweight materials that must be formed at high temperatures. Advances in tribology can support the production of lightweight materials, improve the efficiency of the process, and increase the longevity of the implements and machinery that are used. Consuming Energy without Waste In his 1938 book, Nine Chains to the Moon, architect and futurist R. Buckminster Fuller coined the phrase “ephemeralization.” It refers to the ability of technological advancement to do “more and more with less and less until eventually you can do everything with nothing.” Advances in energy efficiency are a long way off from allowing humanity to do “everything with nothing,” but research and development are certainly finding new ways to do more while consuming and wasting less. If society is to win the war against carbon emissions and global warming, efficiency may prove to be one of its most important resources, and in that regard, tribology will play a part. *Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California, US. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has covered renewable power and other related subjects for over ten years.