By Yasmin Prabhudas* Zoological institutions have come a long way in the last fifty years. Those that are doing things well are creating wildlife sanctuaries, nurturing endangered species, and helping conservation efforts. But they’re also great education spaces, sparking the next generation of environmentalists. Institutions accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) (based in the US and overseas) receive more than 200 million visitors every year, including fifty-one million students. They train 40,000 teachers annually, provide support for science curricula, and offer practical opportunities for students. Creating an Inclusive Movement Karen Tingley, director of education at the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), headquartered at AZA member Bronx Zoo in the Bronx, NY, says: "The ultimate vision of the education department is to foster a diverse and inclusive movement of conservation advocates." The Bronx Zoo, one of America’s largest zoos, has more than four million visitors a year. It is among the WCS’s five zoos and aquariums across New York that aim to increase scientific literacy, empower people to act to protect the environment, and build the next generation of leaders. At the Bronx Zoo, these aims are achieved through a range of programs. Summer camps offer "an all-access pass" to the zoo’s 265 acres, where school children can learn about 10,000 animals and more than 700 species. In addition, volunteering, internship and employment opportunities are available for young people and adults, and there’s a graduate scholarship program for conservationists. The zoo also provides certification and educational resources for teachers. Conservation Action and Policy Change Advocating for positive environmental change is another primary focus of the zoo and its supporters. "On a policy level, we have people signing petitions, but also making drawings of why these natural spaces are important to us," says Tingley. "Currently we’re working to make the Hudson Canyon and the offshore area off the coast of New York City a marine-protected area. And, so, kids are drawing pictures about the wildlife that are there." People have also been involved in a campaign to reduce plastics, which has involved a trip to the state capital Albany to speak to government officials and key decision makers. Tingley explains: "Our goal is not that every young person who works, interns or volunteers at WCS goes on to be the head of the World Wildlife Fund or the Nature Conservancy. Maybe they’re a lawyer who, when they’re making a decision at work, they think about the environment. Maybe they’re a parent who advocates for more programming for their young people. Our goal is creating a well-rounded conservation ethic that’s integrated into whatever career you pursue." One of the most popular exhibits is the zoo’s groundbreaking Congo Gorilla Forest. At the 6.5-acre exhibit, visitors can see mountain gorillas and many other animal species, plus 400 types of plants. The exhibit, which offers live daily Congo Cams to watch at home, gives families a memorable connection to Central African wildlife while educating them about a critically endangered animal. Developing an Ethic of Care When asked about critics who warn that zoos harm animals and habitats, Tingley has a ready response. "I have never met people who care more about wildlife, who care more about animals, than people who work in zoos," she says. "I think that at the heart of it there is an ethic of care. Their care is not only for the animals that live here, but also for wildlife out in nature. And those are intertwined." For example, she adds: "We recently … released six purebred bison back into the wild in Oklahoma. Historically, we have been a part of the reason that bison still exist here in the US, and to be able to have animals that you know were born here at the Bronx Zoo and that are released out into the wild, that’s a beautiful story." Other ‘Immersive’ Experiences Aquariums are also playing a vital role in educating people about the Earth’s oceans and rivers. The Tennessee Aquarium, in Chattanooga, Tennessee, home to more than 12,000 animals, representing almost 800 species, has many popular educational exhibits, including the Deeper Dive guided tour. The tour provides groups of eight with a behind-the-scenes look at how animals are cared for. Participants can see creatures, such as the sand tiger shark, watch live feedings and learn about the flooded Amazon rainforest. And there’s also the IMAX 3D theatre, a sixty-six feet tall and eighty-nine feet wide cinema screen, with state-of-the-art technology, that allows audiences to feel immersed in waterways and oceans. Each movie is accompanied by educator resources that can be downloaded and used in the classroom. Reaching Out to the Community Another important part of the aquarium’s education program is community outreach. The aquarium recently partnered with the Urban League of Chattanooga to provide science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) experience to thirty eighth graders from Chattanooga Girls Leadership Academy. Natali Rodgers, the aquarium’s director of learning and evaluation, explains how the initiative offered "an engaging learning experience centered around conservation and providing the opportunity for these youth to understand the important work that we do at the Tennessee Aquarium Conservation Institute (TNACI)." The girls were able to interact with lake sturgeon—the massive, eight-feet-long fish that are now close to extinction because of overfishing, dams, and habitat degradation—that are the focus of one of the TNACI conservation projects. "It was very exciting to get to see them interact with the lake sturgeon and get to be able to touch or hold these fish," Rodgers said during the event. "That is the first time that these young ladies are even able to do something like that." She added: "Women are specifically underrepresented when it comes to STEM-faced careers …. This was an opportunity to bring awareness to these young ladies and expose them to these different career paths. And what's even more significant about this is, not only are they young ladies, but these are young ladies that come from diverse backgrounds. … I just wanted to spark interest and curiosity to learn more about what we do here at the Tennessee Aquarium. So, if we've done that, I know we've done a great job." A similar education outreach program was organized at the Chambliss Center for Children in Chattanooga, a nonprofit that provides early childhood education and care. Meanwhile, the aquarium’s Shaping Our Oceans outreach program includes discussions about the ocean ecosystem and the impact of microplastics pollution. "This program ties in with the important work that our partner Washed Ashore does to help address this huge problem that our environment is facing," states Rodgers. "Currently through October, guests can come to see several of the sculptures that Washed Ashore has created using plastic waste that was found in the ocean." Helping Species to Flourish Like the Bronx Zoo, the Tennessee Aquarium is working to make sure creatures are released into the natural environment. "The lake sturgeon reintroduction program at the Tennessee Aquarium is a wonderful example of how an AZA institution is doing just that," says Rodgers. "Not only are we reintroducing this species back into their native habitats, but we are also working to protect these habitats and engage the public on this important work so this species and many others can once again flourish." *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for nonprofit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

By Yasmin Prabhudas* Students are embarking on incredible ocean voyages, thanks to the long-standing work of the Sea Education Association (SEA). Through the organization, they are building nautical skills and enhancing their knowledge of all things affecting the sea—making them true advocates for the ocean environment. Founded in 1971 by renowned sailor Corwith Cramer Jr., and Edward MacArthur, the SEA aims to educate students through hands-on maritime experiences and rigorous academic programs. It is one of six scientific and oceanographic research institutions in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, on Cape Cod, and represents disciplines cutting across oceanography, history, anthropology, public policy, and natural science. The Ocean’s Critical Role in the Environment Douglas Karlson, SEA director of communications, explains why sea education is so important: “The ocean is 70% of the planet, and it plays a critical role in the environment and the climate of the planet Earth. Our students are very much aware of that.” Since the SEA’s beginnings, more than 10,000 alumni have explored the ocean on one of its three tall ship research vessels. The organization’s programs are for everyone—from high school pupils and young people on a gap year to undergraduates and adults. Upcoming courses offer students with a background in science, the environment, culture and history a variety of study options. They cover topics such as climate and society, shifting coastlines, food and water security, and environmental justice in the Caribbean. Building Ocean Stewards Karlson says: “We have one program called marine biodiversity and conservation, which is a pretty science-heavy program. And it's followed by a symposium on the Sargasso Sea, where we have experts from all over who are interested in conservation. The students report on their research projects, and they develop mentorships, and they meet people. Not all students are biology or environmental studies majors, some study a variety of other majors. Some programs are more geared toward maritime history.” He adds: “Students learn about the carbon cycle and ocean warming, and they're very concerned about what's happening to coral reefs. They're interested in conserving fish populations. So, they get to delve into those topics.” There is also a focus on personal growth, Karlson says. “It’s also about empowering students, teaching them leadership skills, and helping them to develop as ocean stewards.” Mareike Duffing Romero, an SEA alumnus, believes her experiences are invaluable: “In the little amount that we have been in the program, we have been sponges absorbing incredible amounts of knowledge. The challenges we face, the hard work, the different work hours, the classes, the research projects and the boat life during our SEA semester are all incredible life and educational lessons, which I believe will bring us far as ocean advocates and scientists.” On Board a Tall Ship Undergraduate students spend six weeks on campus learning nautical science or ocean science, depending on which program they opt for. They gain accreditation through Boston University. They also prepare a research project that they'll complete while they're at sea, which can be for up to six weeks. The seafaring element typically takes them to islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean. Once on board the vessel, students carry out tasks like adjusting sails, helping in the galley, standing watch, and inspecting the ship. As the ocean passage progresses, “they actually end up taking charge of running the ship,” explains Karlson. Contributing Research But that’s not all. The ships have a lab on board so students can examine specimens taken from the sea or measure the salinity and temperature of the water. In addition to working on their research reports, they also “muster” on the quarterdeck to have discussions with SEA’s faculty of oceanographers, anthropologists, nautical scientists, and historians. Students’ research contributes to a wealth of scientific information. For instance, when the world began to recognize plastics in the ocean as a serious problem, “it turned out that we had the best dataset of ocean plastics,” says Karlson, adding that SEA students “still sample for plastics, so we have these longitudinal studies.” SEA also conducts special plastics cruises—on one such expedition, twenty-one college undergraduates went on a month-long blue water voyage from Honolulu, Hawaii, to San Diego, California, gathering data on marine plastics pollution. Their data was added to information gathered over decades and is now part of a plastics lab website dedicated to this critical problem. When the world began to recognize plastics in the ocean as a serious problem, “it turned out that we had the best dataset of ocean plastics.” Some alumni have contributed to SEA Writer, a journal that highlights different scientific topics. The latest issues cover coral reef and climate change, and plastics and oceanography. Life at Sea Adam Ziegler took part in an SEA undergraduate program. In his blog written while on the vessel, he describes life on board: “Each day, you are on watch for six hours. Depending on the schedule, the six hours you and your assigned group work will vary in the day. During those six hours, you will be plotting the boat course, conducting science deployments, adjusting sails, and steering the boat. After the six-hour shift, you have the rest of the day off. “You can do assignments from your classes such as policy readings, data processing, work on your independent research, or just relax. Once a week, in addition to your daily work shift, you will have a policy class discussing readings on the upper deck and a brief lecture class on different scientific topics.” “Whenever you are anchored next to an island, the schedule differs, but you are guaranteed a day to explore the island and snorkel on the coral reefs—which are the best days.” He adds: “During the time at sea, all of the information you learned on land is applied in your independent research and policy discussions. Actually, being inside of a marine protected area and seeing its ecosystems while discussing how to better protect them provides more depth and gravity to the topic than just a lecture in a classroom.” Kate Hyder, another former student, is equally enthusiastic. “My time at sea was the best educational experience I’ve had since entering college,” she says. “I collected water and the accompanying environmental data, which I would then use to analyze microbial genetic diversity. “SEA is a truly unique experience for undergraduates to cross over major oceanographic features, understanding them in a way that many specialists in related fields do not,” she says. Building Skills for the Future Some 92% of SEA’s alumni have applied their skills in careers such as conservation, environmental policy, medicine, law, sustainable energy, and oceanographic research. Karlson sums up: “We do produce a lot of people who go on to have careers in science, but they're not all scientists. Some of them are humanities majors who may be interested in communicating about the environment, or they may go on to become businessmen. But at least they're interested in the ocean environment. It's a good opportunity for people who want to explore a career in science or in policy.” *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for nonprofit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies. Editorial Note: To enroll in courses at the Sea Education Association contact the admission office at Contact Admissions - Sea Education Association

What Can Bangladesh Learn from Its Indigenous People About Coping with Disasters? By Yasmin Prabhudas* Bangladesh, as a low-lying country on the Bay of Bengal, is among those nations facing the impact of frequent, damaging floods. Catastrophic weather events are not new to its people—many have learned over the decades how to deal with them. Now their indigenous knowledge needs to be honed to help others facing the consequences of environmental devastation. Predicting Extreme Weather In his paper, Indigenous Knowledge and Practices in Disaster Management: Experiences of the Coastal People of Bangladesh, Dr. Mahfuzul Haque, from the Bangladesh University of Professionals in Dhaka, looks at the kind of traditional knowledge people in Bangladesh have been gathering. Coastal people, for instance, believe that a wind blowing from the southeast is likely to create a storm, while a northeasterly wind could generate a cyclone. Haque’s research adds: “The wind direction is also associated with other attributes, i.e., a rise in sea water temperature, red colored cloud, and the appearance of a rainbow (if it is daytime) implying the formation of deep depression in the sea. … Abnormal behavior of the birds residing in trees is regarded as a signal of rapid storm approach. Also, cloud in the shape of an elephant’s trunk is considered to be a symptom of tidal surge.” An Indigenous person from Rangamati in southeastern Bangladesh, interviewed by sociologist Joydeb Garai’s team for Climate change and cultural responses of indigenous people: A case from Bangladesh, said: “We can understand about the upcoming climatic events by analyzing winds directions, animals’ behaviors, weather conditions and take initiatives accordingly. If the wind comes from [the] west corner and the sky looks dark black, it means that the nor’ wester may occur, if the cloud looks thin brown and wind blows heavily, it means rain may not occur, but if the cloud looks dark brown and no wind blows, it means that heavy rain may come. After seeing these natural symbols, we make ourselves prepared to overcome it.” Coping with the Effects of Climate Change But it is not just predictions that Indigenous people are making; they are also developing ways of dealing with extreme weather events when they do happen. People in flood-prone areas, such as in the charlands (shoal land surrounded by water) in northeastern Bangladesh, cope by building their homes on raised platforms on top of bamboo poles, making sure to reinforce them every year. The foundations of houses are plastered with mud, jute fiber, and husks, which protect the plinth (base) from flood water. They also plant a tropical species of grass, hemarthria protensa, around their homes to prevent waves from damaging them. And they get around on boats and rafts made of banana trunks. One interviewee for the Garai study said: “We build our house in the upper place of the hill that flash flood cannot inundate our house. We also make the floor of the house 3/4 feet high from the soil by bamboos and woods as water cannot enter the house during flood. Moreover, to protect the house from strong flow of wind/cyclones, we plant different wooden trees and bushy jungles surrounding the house as the wind cannot hit the house directly.” Haque explains how charlands, in particular, are vulnerable to erosion, floods, and cyclones: “The people there, almost every year they lose their land, and they shift their house from one shoal land to another shoal land, maybe ten to fifteen times in their lifetime. “But they're not leaving those places, they're staying there because they know the techniques—how to survive in a very unfriendly environment.” Adapting to Maintain Livelihoods The charland people have adapted their crops so they can continue to maintain their livelihoods. Haque’s research states: “Indigenous knowledge in agricultural cropping is the adjustment with respect to crops before and after flooding. Selection of crops is very vital for the charland people. Usually, groundnuts and sweet potatoes are sown at the highest level of the land where the soil is slightly sandy. At the waterfront, the people plant Aman paddy [rice], which is adaptable to high flooding. ... There are also practices like inter-cropping to accommodate the risk of crop failure. The short-term flood sensitive Aus [rice] is sown together with the long-stemmed flood-tolerant Aman in the same field. Normal flooding would give two crops, while a dry year will give a good Aus but no Aman crop; abnormal floods will favor Aman but will affect Aus production.” After flooding, farmers prepare floating seedbeds by placing banana trunks horizontally on the water, covering them with water hyacinth and mud. This is known as baira cultivation or floating gardens. As the hyacinth rots, seedlings are able to grow. In areas where drought is prevalent, such as in the Barind region, farmers use traditional methods to protect fruit trees and other crops. Da jhoro is a way of watering plants by making a hole in the bottom of a bottle or earthenware vessel, pouring water into it, and placing it close to the plant, so that water drips at its base. Influences on Disaster Management Practices Does religion or culture influence Indigenous people’s responses to climate change? Haque does not believe they play a major role, apart from discouraging women from entering cyclone shelters. “There was the question of security and washing facilities and hygiene. Nowadays, special rooms are available for women,” he says. But the influence of religion on their reactions to climate change have been documented by other academics. One of Garai’s interviewees comments: “During climate change extremity, we worship trees and pray (God and Goddess) to overcome it by singing, dancing and performing ritual activities. We also take shelter in the temple as we can save ourselves and our family from [the] evil power of hazards.” According to the research, those in some parts of southeastern Bangladesh “perform different cultural and religious festivals/rituals in their community, which increase their … community feeling to adapt to the adversity.” Preserving Indigenous Knowledge Traditional knowledge is passed to new generations in oral form. Haque says: “These people, their parents and grandparents have been following these practices.” “But this is mostly in the rural community. Urban people don’t understand this language because it’s not the language of science. It’s not communicated to others since it’s not in written form. But there is a growing idea among the policymakers perhaps this has to be recognized, but it is still yet to be accepted.” The contribution of indigenous knowledge to climate change strategies has been acknowledged under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, when the Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples Platform was established at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris in 2015. But there’s still some way to go nationally. Haque claims: “In Bangladesh we have got something called the Standing Order on Disaster and other disaster management policies as well. But the problem is that we are yet to acknowledge the contribution of indigenous knowledge and practices. It is still at a community level.” The government’s National Adaptation Program of Action, which relates to climate change, tries to accommodate “some indigenous knowledge, but not much.” “The scientists are to be convinced; the meteorologists are to be convinced that indigenous knowledge has a role to play,” claims Haque. “The scientists are to be convinced; the meteorologists are to be convinced that indigenous knowledge has a role to play,” claims Haque. Disaster management is improving, which might lead some to the conclusion that indigenous knowledge is working. The number of deaths from cyclones in Bangladesh has declined. According to a study Reduced death rates from cyclones in Bangladesh: what more needs to be done?, “… cyclone-related mortality in Bangladesh has declined by more than 100-fold over the past 40 years, from 500,000 deaths in 1970 to 4,234 in 2007.” A few scientists are beginning to validate some traditional knowledge. For example, in 2014, those tracking golden-winged warblers in the US found that the birds left their breeding ground in eastern Tennessee to fly four hundred and thirty-five miles away, shortly before over eighty tornadoes struck the area. Meanwhile, some wildlife experts think that animals’ acute senses might help them to detect an approaching disaster before humans are able to. Empowering Local Communities When it comes to spreading local know-how, the Bangladesh Resource Center for Indigenous Knowledge (BARCIK) is at the forefront. It enables individuals to pass on their valuable knowledge. Lakshmi Rani Mandal, who lives in a village in Shyamnagar upazila (sub-district) in Satkhira, in southwestern Bangladesh, is a farmer who is in touch with BARCIK. She has been growing taro seeds for about 10 years but has had to adapt to deal with the climate. She says she used to cover her taro with straw, but the straw would dry and crumble because of the intense heat. When it rained, it would rot and prevent the taro from growing. That’s why she uses water hyacinth instead of straw, which means the soil remains moist for several days. The water hyacinth also acts as a fertilizer. Meanwhile Abdul Jabbar, another farmer, based in the Poba upazila in the Barind region, explained: “We cover the roots of the pulses/trees with leaves and even kachuri leaves to protect them from the scorching heat. As a result, the roots of the tree remain wet during this drought.” In the northeastern haor (freshwater swamp ) area, Nilima Sarker manages to rear livestock and grow vegetables, fruit, and medicinal trees, despite her land being underwater for almost seven months of the year. She creates gardens by hanging pots and other items on her home’s fences and on wooden pillars. Her innovative way of working has led her to become almost completely self-sufficient. *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for nonprofit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

Focusing on the ‘Rot’ and ‘Repurpose’ of the Five Rs By Yasmin Prabhudas* One billion ​tons ​of food is wasted every year​—​that amounts to one third of all food produced globally, according to the United Nations Environment Programme’s Food Waste Index Report 2021. About 8​% to ​​10% of global greenhouse gas emissions are associated with food that is not eaten. But a growing awareness means more people​—​whether at home or in their place of study or work​—​​​are looking at reducing, reusing​,​ and repurposing what they consume. The Five Rs The Five Rs are an extension of the Three Rs​—​​Reduce, Reuse, Recycle​—​​​a slogan that became popular in the 1970s to encourage people to cut down on waste. Today it is common to talk about the Five Rs, which extends the original idea to cover ​“​Refuse, Reduce, Recycle, Reuse, Rot.​”​ Bryan F​.​ Staley, president and chief executive officer at the Environmental Research and Education Foundation states: “Overall, the Five Rs provide a person with perspective on how their habits can influence how much waste they create and how they can take specific actions to make these actions more sustainable. In that respect, it is notable to point out that the Five Rs are essentially a recipe for changing individual behaviors. In many cases, to follow them may require multiple changes, which may result in a substantial change in one’s lifestyle.” Refuse and Reduce People should say “no” to single-use items, like coffee cups and plastic cutlery​,​ ​as well as ​other free material such as magazines, flyers​, or pens, and buy and consume less so that waste can be reduced. People should say ‘no’ to single-use items like coffee cups and plastic cutlery​,​ ​as well as ​other free material such as magazines, flyers​, or pens and buy and consume less. Linda Norris-Waldt, deputy director and director, advocacy, corporate and chapter relations at the US Composting Council, says: “Reduce food waste—find ways to stop generating the amounts of food waste by shopping more carefully, ordering at restaurants more carefully, and better aligning the supply chain (farmers growing what is “on demand” from their customers so as not to create surplus, and the supply chain accepting imperfect produce, for example).” Reuse and Recycle Instead of sending things to landfill, reuse, repair, or recycle them. In the case of food, “Reuse = the rescue of food for both people and animals,” says Norris-Waldt. Rot and Compost Hannah Blaufuss, program analyst, materials management branch at the Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery at the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), claims that although “rot” refers to composting, the terms are not interchangeable. That is because rotting is a general term in which organic matter decomposes, while composting is an aerobic process that takes effort and is part of a circular economy. She explains: “In biological systems, such as the food system, circularity includes reducing the production of surplus food, ensuring that surplus food feeds humans first, and then recovering nutrients from food waste. We can do so through composting, for example, returning nutrients to the soil to promote soil health, crop productivity, and climate resilience.” Composting Food Waste at Home The EPA suggests that food that can be composted at home should be divided into nitrogen-rich material known as “greens” and carbon-rich material, known as “browns​​.”​ Greens include fruit and vegetable scraps, grass clippings, coffee grounds and filter paper, paper tea bags​,​ and eggshells. They can be combined with “browns​​​,”​ such as dry leaves, twigs, shredded paper that is not glossy or colored, as well as brown bags and cardboard (without any coating, tape, or glue) and untreated wood chips. Food that cannot easily be composted at home include meat, fish and bones, cheese and dairy products, pet litter, fats, oils and grease, glossy paper, diseased or pest-infested plants, compostable bags, or cooked food. Blaufuss explains: “All food can be composted, but not all food may be accepted at the compost site that is locally available. For instance, food waste sent to a large composting facility will likely take bones, dairy, and other animal products because they can ensure the compost temperature gets high enough to kill off any pathogens these materials may carry. On the other hand, if your food waste goes to a backyard or community compost pile or bin system, animal products may not be appropriate or accepted because of the temperature or time required to break down these materials.” “If your food waste goes to a backyard or community compost pile or bin system, animal products may not be appropriate or accepted.” Norris-Waldt adds: “For backyard/community garden composting, bones, fats, grease and oils can be collected for industrial composting.” So, it is important to know what kind of food a local facility accepts. Brenda Platt, director, Composting for Community Project at the Institute for Local Self-Reliance, offers advice on what a home compost needs: “It’s an aerobic process, which means it needs oxygen. Piles that don’t have enough air can smell. You also need to have adequate moisture to make the composting microbes happy and feed them a balanced diet.” She suggests adding twice as much brown material as green material. In urban areas, pickup services can collect homeowners’ food scraps for composting, or there might be drop-off sites. Residents can also produce their own compost in their own back yards using several methods. A vermicompost involves using worms to break down the material, while a traditional composting method involves breaking down the material in a pile or bin. Less common methods include bokashi (which consists of fermenting food waste) and using soldier flies. In rural areas, composting can also range from backyard piles to industrial facilities. On farms, composting might only consist of material generated on site, like manure and crop residues. Or farmers might collect food waste from surrounding communities. Composting in an Industrial Setting Industrial facilities can break down a larger range of material than home composting piles, for example, through windrows and aerated static piles. Blaufuss explains: “Windrows are long piles that are turned regularly by hand or machine to maintain appropriate temperature and levels of moisture and oxygen. Aerated static piles use systems of pipes to allow air to penetrate the interior of the piles. In-vessel composting is another large-scale method and is like a bin. This type of enclosed system allows for good control of the environmental conditions, such as temperature, moisture, and oxygen. The compost is mechanically turned or mixed to make sure it stays aerated.” Community Composting In Fayetteville, Arkansas, food makes up 18% of all waste sent to its landfill. The city authority hopes to divert 40% of all waste away from its landfill by 2027. With a population of 97,000, covering 22,000 households, it owns and operates its own composting facility. In 2018, it started a commercial collection program for schools and restaurants. In the fall of 2022, it began a residential program, in which residents drop off their food waste at one of seven sites for free. All fruit and vegetables, cooked meats, compostable food service items,​ and bags are accepted. The compost that is created can be bought from the city or is given away to community gardens free of charge. At Boston College, Massachusetts, a student compost program increased the amount of food it saved from being wasted by ​students by ​about 27% from 2016 to 2017​—​​from about 300 to 380 tons. It has now expanded its compost program to other locations at the college, including two of its dining halls and a student-run café. Boulder County Jail in Colorado achieved close to a 60% increase in the amount of material composted between 2015 and 2017, through its kitchen composting program. The kitchen, run mainly by inmates, serves up three meals a day ​to 800 prisoners. The jail increased its compostable food collection from 10.64 tons in 2015 to 15.68 tons in 2016 and 17.79 tons in 2017. Listen to a podcast about community composting in Atlanta​ by the Institute for Local Self-Reliance with Khari Diop, the founder and CEO of ThinkGreen Inc​. Benefits to the Environment Composting has numerous environmental benefits. They include less methane in the atmosphere, reducing or eliminating the need for chemical fertilizers​,​ and improving agricultural crop yields. The process can also renew habitat by improving soil, enhancing water retention​, and helping capture and store carbon dioxide. And compost can, of course, be used to grow food or support other agricultural activities. Composting can help renew habitat, enhance water retention, capture and store carbon dioxide, and grow food or support other agricultural activities. Negative Effects of Composting If properly managed there are few negative effects, claims Blaufuss. ​But material that is contaminated with plastics, heavy metals, and chemicals can produce adverse effects. That’s why it’s important to separate food waste from packaging and other non-compostable material carefully. Recent Developments Norris-Waldt says there is an “awareness around the world that food is not waste, it is scrap that can be handled at any level of the food waste hierarchy.” And there have been policy developments too. Staley adds: “Increasingly, policies are shifting more towards organics diversion with composting being a key activity to achieve this. Communities as well have begun increasing education around composting and working to develop solid business cases for integrating composting as an option, which enhances convenience and ultimately the level of people that will participate. While the pace is slow, things are advancing.” Meanwhile, composting technologies are also getting better—for example, a variety of supplements can be added to enhance the process, and mathematical modeling and optimization have helped to cut costs and offer optimum solutions. A Last Resort The EPA is keen to promote practices that reduce the amount of food being wasted in the first place. Composting is a good solution for food waste that would otherwise be sent to landfill, but the focus must be on following sustainable food management practices. *Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for nonprofit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

By Tasfia Tasnim and Sakib Rahman Siddique Shuvo* While growing up, children are taught in school that nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface is covered with water. However, only 3% is freshwater while the rest is saltwater. Since the dawn of civilization, people have been consuming this 3% of water. Everything in life, from basic thirst, people’s livelihoods, industries, transportation, and technologies, on top of ecosystems and biodiversity, cannot be sustained without water. Water is life. However, in recent years, water is becoming both one of the most vulnerable sectors and a medium through which nature and human societies experience most of the impacts of climate change. In basic terms, climate change is disrupting global weather patterns and resulting in extreme weather events including more frequent and intense cyclones, floods, droughts, and other water-related hazards. All these factors are leading to unpredictable water availability, exacerbating water scarcity, and contaminating water supplies. As a result, a growing number of people are experiencing “water stress,” mainly in African and Asian regions. Water Access Threatened by Poor Management and Climate Change African communities, rich in culture and surrounded by natural diversity, rely heavily on access to rivers and lakes for their basic needs. Lake Chad and Lake Victoria are two of the many major sources of water on the continent, some of which are becoming sources of conflict. A video report by Yale showed the dire consequence of climate change-driven water stress—scarcity and conflict are both increasing. This video features four pastoralist tribes that are heavily dependent on Lake Turkana which is spread between two countries, Kenya and Ethiopia. Due to various climatic events, the lake is shrinking. Local nomadic tribes have no option but to cross national boundaries to reach needed water, thus leading to an international conflict in the disputed land between South Sudan and Kenya, known as the Ilemi Triangle, that also borders Ethiopia. Due to the shrinkage of the lake, people from Ethiopia also try to trespass on this piece of land which further intensifies the regional tension. Turkana people, who have lived in this region since before these modern countries even existed, face various political problems which directly hamper their lives and livelihoods. Unsustainable irrigation projects, the disruption of incoming rivers, soaring temperatures, and scarce rainfall are the main causes of the shrinkage of Lake Chad. Similar types of problems are occurring throughout the world. A report by DW illustrates similar types of problems in different parts of the world. Bolivia’s once-mighty Lake Poopó dried completely due to adverse effects of El Niño, increasing temperatures, and the redirection of its source river to agricultural lands and mining operations. Lake Chad, one of the largest lakes in the world and the source of food and water for millions in the region, is also vanishing at an astonishing rate. Since the 1960s, it has been reduced to an area of just 1350 square kilometers, down from 25,000 square kilometers. Unsustainable irrigation projects, the disruption of incoming rivers, soaring temperatures, and scarce rainfall are the main causes of the shrinkage of Lake Chad. The Dead Sea in the Middle East and the Aral Sea in Europe are also facing the same fate. Fed by the Jordan River, the Dead Sea survived evaporation for centuries, but increasing population and temperature rise are heavily disrupting the equilibrium. Water is also being diverted for domestic and industrial use, such that the Dead Sea is decreasing annually by around one meter. Uzbekistan was once the world’s largest cotton exporter. The cotton industry relied upon water from the Aral Sea, which was once the fourth-largest lake in the world. Heavy irrigation and industrial use of the Aral Sea caused continuous shrinking from the 1970s. The receding water left behind desolate former harbors and destroyed both the ecosystems that relied on it and the livelihoods of the local populations. In coastal Bangladesh, both surface water and groundwater supplies have become contaminated by severe salinity over the past few decades due to anthropogenic reasons and changes in the climate. Thus, the communities living in those area are facing severe crises regarding access to potable water and the ability to produce crops on their agricultural land. Currently, salinity has intruded more than 100 km (62 miles) inland into Bangladesh’s domestic ponds, groundwater, and agricultural land through various estuaries and water inlets, which are also interlinked with the major rivers. This is exposing millions of people to public health risks. Excess salinity in water has been found to cause preeclampsia and gestational hypertension in pregnant women. Water Scarcity Can Benefit from Nature-Based Solutions Many developmental organizations, environmental organizations and government agencies are working to solve the global water crisis. For example, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), in an issue brief, outlined several strategies for policymakers to consider in responsibly managing water resources. These include investment planning for climate change adaptation and promoting the management, restoration, and sustainability of “natural infrastructure” around waterways, among other ideas. In a policy brief, UN-Water identified some of the key points required to meet this challenge, including improving water management, ensuring transboundary cooperation in adaptation, and rethinking climate financing in this sector to support climate resilience and job creation at the local level. In the meantime, organizations like the United Nations and IUCN are now heavily promoting nature-based solutions (NbS) to help address climate change and other environmental problems. NbS use or mimic natural processes to contribute to improved water management and tend to deliver groups of ecosystem services, even if only one is being targeted. Water-related issues can be addressed by NbS initiatives since ecosystem degradation is one of the main consequences. To start, managing the availability of water can be supported by NbS, such as natural wetland management or improving the water retention of soil. Other NbS, such as properly maintaining surrounding forests and grasslands to filter sediment pollution, can also improve water quality in concert with man-made infrastructures and wastewater treatments. Furthermore, conserving green infrastructure such as floodplains can greatly support water-related risk management. Finally, through enhancing water security by improving water availability and water quality, NbS support social, economic, and environmental co-benefits. These are a few of the many opportunities that NbS bring in addressing the issue of global water security in a changing climate. *Tasfia Tasnim is a researcher in the field of environment and climate change. Currently, she coordinates the Nature-based Solutions (NbS) Programme at the International Centre for Climate Change and Development (ICCCAD). Her research interests lie in NbS, climate-change adaptation, and climate finance. She can be reached at tasfia.tasnim@icccad.org. Sakib Rahman Siddique Shuvo is a geographer whose primary research interests are social-political-environmental issues, climate change, and critical geographies and geospatial technologies. He can be reached at shuvosrahman@gmail.com.

By Tasfia Tasnim* Climate change threatens all nations and our environment through rising temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, and rising sea levels. Evidence suggests that natural disasters will become significantly more frequent and more severe in the coming years as the effects of climate change increasingly worsen. However, due to geographic location, hydro-ecological and socioeconomic factors, and political landscape, different countries and communities face particular risks and hazards differently. Bangladesh, located in South Asia within the major Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta and having added socio-economic challenges, is considered the seventh most vulnerable country in the world. The nation’s low-lying southwestern region is especially prone to natural disasters, both of the rapid-onset variety (heavy rainfall, coastal cyclones, tidal surges, coastal and river flooding) and slow-onset variety (rising salinity, drought). These climate disasters are exacerbated by high population density and poverty. These impacts also will have a significant bearing on the country’s major natural ecosystems, such as wetlands, terrestrial ecosystems, forests, mangroves etc. A study by the Asian Development Bank predicts that overall rice production likely will decline by 17% by the year 2050 due to increased temperature and CO2 levels, which would put a lot of pressure on the highly valuable agricultural sector. Rising temperatures due to climate change, together with changes in rainfall patterns and salinization, also will lead to scarcity of freshwater, further affecting lives and livelihoods. Furthermore, heavy rainfall and flooding will pollute drinking water, giving rise to the spread of water-borne diseases like cholera and diarrhea, resulting in major health consequences. These trends create great concern for the lives and livelihoods of the communities who are particularly dependent on natural resources. Communities, Practitioners, and Governments Adapt However, people at the grassroots level have been adapting to climate change over the years by using their knowledge and available technology. Adaptation has always been a priority for countries like Bangladesh. Sometimes communities anticipate disasters through early warning systems and preparations—we call this incremental adaptation. This can happen through adjustments to cropping systems via new varieties, changing planting times, or using more efficient irrigation. Another notion is transformational adaptation, which is vital to building the overall resilience of climate-vulnerable communities. This involves more forward-looking aspects of adaptation and long-term planning to improve communities’ conditions and minimize damage. This can happen, for example, by changing livelihoods from cropping to livestock, by migrating to nearby towns and cities for alternative livelihoods, or by taking innovative nature-based solutions. National and local governments, NGOs, communities and individuals are implementing various adaptation measures, both small-scale and large-scale. Communities are undertaking adaptation activities to increase their resilience to the adverse impacts of climate change. The Community Climate Change Project (CCCP) is an example of a successful adaptation project implemented by the Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation (PKSF), financed by the Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund, and engaging around 41 NGOs. The project undertook many adaptation and development activities in the areas of Bangladesh that are prone to flood, drought, and salinity. Access to water resources for the communities was guaranteed through effective rainwater harvesting, pond sand filtration, and building desalination plants. Flooding was mitigated by re-excavating canals and ponds and lifting the foundations of homes. Additionally, desperately needed road and healthcare facilities were constructed. To diversify households’ livelihood in a changing climate, the CCCP project provided vermicompost (composting using worms) to improve the soil quality and resilient fodder cultivation (Napier grass) in drought-prone areas; cage culture in flood-prone areas; crab fattening and home gardening using gunny sacks; saline-tolerant seeds and cropping practices in saline-prone areas; and poultry and livestock supports. The adaptation practices in the project were fully internalized by the communities, and thus the project reached more than a half-million direct and indirect beneficiaries. After the project period, the communities were tagged to microfinance institutions for continuous financing of their livelihood activities. Results-based monitoring evaluated the effectiveness of the adaptation actions. Many local grassroots organizations are raising awareness and extending essential services to communities to tackle the compounding effects of climatic disasters and COVID-19. Satkhira, a coastal district in southwestern Bangladesh, frequently is affected by medium- to high-intensity cyclones and salinity intrusion. As most of the inhabitants are engaged in fish-farming and agriculture, due to their close proximity to rivers and to the Sundarbans, the world’s largest mangrove forest, their livelihoods are greatly affected. Jannatul Mawa, a 28-year-old woman from Kaliganj Upazila in Satkhira, is leading a local organization called Bindu—which has been working on community outreach programs for almost a decade. The organization advocates in that region for gender equity, women’s empowerment and right to education, and climate justice. In addition to providing relief and other emergency services, her organization focuses on building capacity and leadership within vulnerable communities. Bindu supports women farmers by providing seeds and organic fertilizers to begin their harvests after cyclone hits to promote women-friendly agricultural practices. Because women have less access to resources and opportunities, they are less resilient to climate change. To address gender inequality, a program called Participatory Research and Ownership with Technology, Information and Change (PROTIC) is training women farmers from three different climatic hotspots to use mobile technology to access climate information. The project has focused on women’s adaptive capacity by providing them with customized knowledge regarding climate-adaptive farming techniques and strategies. Eventually, it has strengthened women’s leadership roles within the community. Their overall economic conditions have improved, and some have learned to use mobile phone technology to run their small businesses. Adaptation can focus on an ecosystem- and nature-based approach. Two important examples of coastal afforestation (the establishment of forests) as the basic means to improve community resilience are the Community Based Adaptation to Climate Change through Coastal Afforestation project (2009-2013), funded by the United Nations’ Least Developed Countries Fund; and the Climate Resilient Participatory Afforestation and Reforestation project (2013-2016), funded by the Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund. The projects took innovative approaches to seedling raising and plantation techniques, managing land tenure in the plantation sites, tackling social conflict over land use, convincing and managing the local political leadership, ensuring local participation in protecting the plantation, and overcoming the effects of natural calamities in these remote areas by involving local agencies. Communities Are the Leaders for Effective Adaptation Actions However, sustainability of good interventions is still a challenge, as they are still donor-driven and government priorities and finance do not always support adaptation actions. Proper monitoring, evaluation and learning of adaptation projects also are not always consistent. In addition, true involvement of communities is another missing dimension. The International Institute for Environment and Development has reported that less than 10% of climate relief funding makes it to local communities. However, effective and sustainable climate-change action can be achieved at the local level. This is because local people are vulnerable and know the ground realities; they have the indigenous knowledge and coping mechanisms needed for effective adaptation actions; community trust, bonding and networks cannot be controlled and understood by “outsiders”; community-based organizations and local government are closer to the communities for adaptation support and investment; local people know their adaptation and development priorities. The Shift to Locally Led Adaptation and the Way Forward Until now, we have been focusing more on community-based adaptation, but there remains a tendency for adaptation to be driven by donors, external experts and resources, which often consider the communities as “beneficiaries.” Thus, the community-based adaptation approach sometimes can limit the scope of local self-empowerment and overall adaptive capacity of the communities. As a result, in recent years there has been a shift to locally led adaptation (LLA) in which “external agencies ‘partner’ with communities and put resources in the community’s control”; thus local communities lead the initiatives happening in their locality. LLAs focus on a wide range of ingenious solutions to climate-related challenges which can offer direct and indirect social, economic, and environmental benefits to the communities. Global processes such as the Global Commission on Adaptation and the COP26, are showing collective interest in locally led adaptation actions. In addition, Bangladesh formally took over the leadership in the Climate Vulnerable Forum (CVF), which therefore can lead the way in sharing knowledge and implementing LLAs effectively. Country’s national funds and policy-planning documents, such as–The Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund; the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100; an updated Nationally Determined Contributions 2020; an updated Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan; and the National Adaptation Plan (due in 2021)–are creating real opportunities for Bangladesh to prioritize LLA actions and find innovative approaches to implement them. The Gobeshona conference in January 2021 chose LLAs as its theme, and around 90 sessions focused on the effectiveness of developing and implementing solutions that come from the local level. The recently happened 15th Community Based Adaptation (CBA) conference also emphasized on the sharing and learning components of the good adaptation practices which would help in challenging assumptions and collaborating with communities to drive ambition for a climate-resilient future. Going forward, there is a need to take a nature-based and people-centric approach to enable transformative outcomes through community-driven climate action. There is also a need to have a space for innovation and mobilize national funds to support LLA actions. Most importantly, adaptation actions must be evaluated from the community’s perspective. We need to have a shift in mindset so that communities are considered as agencies or partners rather than as mere beneficiaries–where everyone (practitioners, local representatives, government actors, researchers, donors and private sectors working at all levels and scales) has a role to play. *Tasfia Tasnim is a researcher in the field of environment and climate change. She is a senior research associate at the International Centre for Climate Change and Development (ICCCAD). Her research interests lie in nature-based solutions, climate-change adaptation and climate finance. She can be reached at tasfia.tasnim@icccad.org.

By Stuart Nathan* In one of the more fondly remembered hits of the 1980s, a group called Buggles sang that “Video Killed the Radio Star.” They may have been right. However, it was their less well-remembered follow-up that was truly prescient. We are indeed "Living in the Plastic Age." According to some geologists, the Earth is now in an epoch known as the Anthropocene—a period where humanity’s impact on the planet will be obvious to future generations from examining geological samples. The term is not yet formally recognized, but geological societies around the world are considering it and using it informally in publications and conferences. While some believe that the epoch started with the Industrial Revolution and that its identifying characteristics will stem from the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, one of the most obvious markers will certainly be the presence of plastics from the 1960s onwards. Every region of the globe, from the deepest oceanic trenches to the tops of the highest mountains, has been found to contain traces of synthetic polymers. Synthetic polymers are now ubiquitous. Every region of the globe, from the deepest oceanic trenches to the tops of the highest mountains, has been found to contain traces of them. One of the most worrying categories of plastics are microplastics. Microplastics are defined by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as any particle of plastic less than 5 mm in length, although many are much smaller. They are generally formed through the mechanical breakup of larger pieces of polymer, with notable mechanisms being laundering of clothing made from synthetic fibers and disposal of plastic waste in the oceans. Microplastic waste in the oceans can interfere with marine ecosystems. They accumulate in the stomachs and tissues of fish, other marine life and creatures that feed on them, alter marine behavior, reduce growth, and restrict reproduction. Although microplastics have not been proven to be directly toxic to humans, they are certainly non-nutritious and are bio-accumulative. As levels build up in the food chain, the amount of plastics in the human gut will likely increase. Aside from possible toxic effects of microplastic bioaccumulation, free-floating pollutants (such as polychlorinated biphenyls, heavy metal compounds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) tend to stick to the surface of microplastics, allowing these harmful substances to enter the body when the particles are ingested. These circumstances may well lead to negative health effects in the future. For this reason, health authorities are eager to reduce the amount of microplastic within the food chain. One way to remove microplastics from the food chain is to clean up the habitats of animals that occupy the food web. However, implementing and maintaining such a comprehensive removal process may be difficult and laborious. A more feasible means of removing microplastic waste from the environment may be to concentrate on reducing levels found in water supplies. As many of the sources of microplastics are domestic, removing them at water treatment plants serves a double purpose: it eliminates microplastics from drinking water, and also from treated water that is disgorged into rivers and the sea. A review of research into removal of microplastics by wastewater treatment processes was published in January 2021 in the journal, Environment International. Carried out by environmental scientists from three Chinese universities: Beijing University of Chemical Technology, the Beijing Technology and Business University, and Henan Normal University, the review centered around a meta-analysis of twenty-three primary papers covering microplastics in global wastewater treatment plants. Microplastic pollution comes from a variety of sources including nylon, synthetic clothes, polystyrene, and tires. The study looked at incoming waste streams containing from 0.28 particles per liter to 3.14×10,000 particles per liter and considered both the liquid and sludge effluents from the treatment plants. They found that filter-based treatment technologies performed best at removing microplastics. Fibers and particles of size 0.5 to 5 mm were easily separated by primary settling, while polyethylene and small size microplastics particles (less than 0.5 mm) were trapped by bacteria in the activated sludge of bioreactor systems. The papers analyzed in the Chinese study identified twenty-nine types of polymers in microplastic waste; of these, six polymer types were dominant: i) polyamides; ii) polyethylene terephthalate and polyester (that mainly originated from textiles and synthetic clothing); iii) polyethylene; iv) polypropylene, v) polystyrene and solid polyesters (that originated from the mechanical crushing of plastic products, and tire and textile manufacturing); and vi) rubber particles in road dust (that mostly originated from tires). Some other types of microplastic waste were region-specific; for example, wastewater specifically from Glasgow, Scotland, contained alkyds, which are widely used in industrial coatings. The Chinese study looked at the removal efficiency of a variety of treatment processes. These processes ranged from primary-stage procedures, such as grit and grease removal and settling procedures; secondary-stage processes such as A20 (anaerobic/anoxic/oxic tanks to remove nitrogen and phosphorus), biofilters and other bioreactors; and tertiary stage treatments such as ultraviolet, ozone, chlorination, biologically active filters, disc filters and rapid sand filters. Of the three stages, the primary and secondary methods were found to be approximately equally efficient at removing microplastics, but the tertiary methods yielded limited removal efficiencies. Filter-based technologies were found to be the most effective, although not without problems, such as when rapid sand filters broke microparticles into smaller pieces. Specific studies have shown that secondary stage membrane bioreactors can remove 99.9% of microplastic particles from water that had already gone through preliminary processing. A study at Aalto University in Finland found that the commonly used activated sludge process, a secondary stage procedure in which air or oxygen is blown into unsettled sewage to break down solid lumps and develop a biological 'soup' that digests the organic content, removed 99% of particles 20 micrometers to 5 mm in size. This appeared to be effective regardless of the type of polymer or the shape of the particles. Breaking down the treatment process, this study found that primary treatments removed 99% of ‘microlitter’, and 88% of the residue was removed by activated sludge treatment. Additional processes reduced the residue even further: membrane bioreactors removed an additional 99.9%; sand filtration, 97%; dissolved air flotation, 95%; and disc filtration, 40% to 98.5%. Biologically active filtration did not have any impact, the Finnish researchers added. Microplastics successfully removed from wastewater end up contaminating agricultural fields and the food supply when collected waste materials are used as fertilizer. Using this solid waste in brick production instead may be a key solution. However, removing microlitter, as the Aalto team calls it, from sewage waters does not eliminate the problem. The sludge resulting from wastewater treatment is often spread onto agricultural land. Abbas Mohajerani of the School of Engineering at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology published a paper in the journal, Waste Management, in April 2020 stating that a total of 62,192 tons of microplastics are spread onto farmlands in the US, European Union, China, Canada, and Australia annually. These microplastics decompose in the soil to form nanoplastics. Mohajerani explained that nanoplastics are an even greater risk to health as their huge specific surface area allows them to transport significant quantities of toxic pollutants, such as those listed above, into the food chain. Mohajerani’s preferred solution to this problem is to mandate the addition of seven percent biosolids by weight into brick production worldwide. This would lock the microplastics into construction materials, where they cannot enter the food chain. Interestingly, this technique would have the added advantage of reducing the energy required for brick firing by over 12.5%. Some 1.5 billion bricks are produced every year worldwide. Considering that a recent study found that every thousand bricks contains over 5300 MJ of embodied energy and accounts for almost six tons of emitted carbon dioxide in its manufacture, this energy reduction might be a worthwhile goal in itself. *Stuart Nathan is a London-based freelance writer, specializing in science, engineering and technology.

By Serge Kernbach* The idea of ​​combining "artificial" technology and "natural" biology has fascinated the human imagination for centuries. Examples in fantasy abound from Frankenstein's creature to cyborgs. The field of biohybridization has the potential to solve health problems and increase the quality and length of life by merging modern machines with biological systems—human, plant, and animal—down to the cellular and even molecular levels. A wide range of problems in healthcare, medicine, ecology, and even in smart devices, are already benefiting from biohybrid applications in surgery, prosthetics, gerontology, and other fields. Uses and demand for biohybrid systems continue to expand rapidly. New Leases on Life Biohybridization is a dynamic, fast-growing field. At the moment, two sectors of bio-hybrid technologies are in active development. One emphasizes synthetic biology, and the second focuses on a combination of robotics, neuro-material science, and bio-interfaces. Synthetic biology targets programmable biosystems such as cells. Synthetic biology spans a range of initiatives including: the modification of enzymes, production of artificial enzymes, creation of so-called “alternative meats,” and the development of microbes and more complex life forms. A particularly interesting area of synthetic biology is tissue engineering; one goal of this research is to create biological organs for transplantation. The method of genome editing with engineered nucleases, recognized as the scientific method of the year in 2011, promises to have an enormous transformative impact across various biomedical, ethical, and agricultural fields, including tissue engineering. In 2017, the human genome was first edited inside the human body to treat a genetic disorder. The second major sector of biohybridization combines “man with machine,” a process that began about fifteen to twenty years ago with the development of robotic prostheses and wearables. A more recent development in the field of prosthesis—neuromuscular-skeletal prosthesis—consists of an autonomous robot directly connected to the nerves, muscles, and skeleton of a person. In this case, control signals are read by the prosthesis that come from electrodes implanted in nerves and muscles. Prostheses send tactile sensory feedback to the nervous system to determine how hard to grasp or squeeze an object. Biohybridization allows human neurosystems to control robotic limbs and interface with computers. The key technologies for such prostheses are neuro-interfaces that allow both the reading of signals from neurons and the stimulation of neurons. Several independent technological areas have developed in this field, such as brain-computer interfaces (used in medicine to help restore function after a stroke, for instance), techniques for implanting electrodes into the brain, functional brain mapping, and neuro-engineering. Another component of biohybridization is the fusion of cellular and non-cellular components, such as the development of “bioartificial livers” (BAL) that sit outside of the body and interface with a person’s liver at the cellular level. One of the purposes of BAL is to support a victim of acute liver failure until a transplant can be located. One of the more successful areas of biohybridization is 3D bioprinting technology, which involves the “printing” or creation of soft tissues, bones, blood vessels, and more complex organs for surgery. In 2017, for instance, a patient received an artificial ear created using bioprinting technology. “Wild” Projects in the Plant Kingdom Biohybridization is also applied to plants and plant tissues. Since technological applications are simpler in the plant kingdom and less likely to raise ethical concerns, many projects involving biohybrid plants are in development. The Flora Robotica project explores possible symbiotic relationships between robots and plants by combining plants and urban architecture to create “smart” plants. The WatchPlant project links urban plants (trees) into an information sensor network. This project is designed to get energy from the biochemistry of plant sap and to use plants to sense air quality. Digital Immortality? When connecting neuro-implants or controlling robotic-prostheses, it becomes possible to digitalize cognitive brain functions and transfer them to a computer simulation. One of the first projects of this kind investigated simple model organisms such as the Caenorhabditis elegans worm. About a thousand cells of this organism were implemented in a computer model to create the first virtual organism (OpenWorm project). Three hundred two virtual nerve cells and ninety-five virtual muscle cells allow the simulated worm to move in a virtual world of computer simulation. The Prolongation of Life Biohybridization provides a means of enhancing and prolonging activity throughout life and even significantly extending lifespan, by stabilizing body parts or replacing worn-out organs. Bank of America has estimated the market for “life-extension” at 600 billion USD by 2025. There are already dozens of firms operating in this space, tackling anything from genomics and AI applications to smart health devices or so-called "biohacks." Almost all the IT giants, including Google, Amazon, and Apple, invest in these types of firms. Promise and Potential Biohybrid solutions, such as cell implants, robotic prostheses, or living ecological biosensors have the potential to enhance our quality of life and our understanding of the mechanisms of cellular regulation that go beyond organic processes. In addition to its huge market and social impact potential, this evolving technological field revives the idea that nonbiological and “mixed” forms of conscious life may be possible. As the future becomes the present through this frontier science, humanity will grapple with serious philosophical and ethical questions on what determines consciousness, life, death, and even immortality itself. *Serge Kernbach, Dr. rer. nat, is the research director and CEO of Cybertronica in Germany. His research background is in robotics, sensor systems, and fluidic measurements, and he has published over 200 articles in international journals and conference proceedings.

By Robin Whitlock* Although concerns about “forever chemicals” known as PFAs have been mounting for several decades, they are still being produced. This means that they—and their potential for severe adverse health effects in humans and animals—are still increasing in the environment. While governments still work to contain the use of PFAS, the public has many steps it can take to protect themselves from these ubiquitous elements in consumer products—and water. Seventy Years of Household Use PFAS (per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances) were introduced to American society in 1946, when DuPont invented a non-stick coating on cookware called Teflon (PFOA, or perfluorooctanic acid). 3M subsequently took over the manufacturing of Teflon, and thousands of other non-stick, stain-repellent, and waterproof compounds were produced from it. These PFAS are still used in many consumer products—there are now over 4,700 chemicals and more than 12,000 individual compounds in the PFAS family. Products with these “forever chemicals” are now common globally—especially the in the US, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Links to Health Problems In 1950, studies conducted by 3M found that PFAS can contaminate human blood. Animal experiments conducted in the 1960s demonstrated the wider damage caused by PFAS to animal and human health, and in the 1980s, the ability of PFAS to cause cancer became apparent. The initial group of PFAS were known as “long chain chemicals,” because they had chains of six to eight carbon atoms. This has been reformulated as “short chain chemicals” (using six carbon atoms). However, DuPont has admitted that one short-chain chemical, GenX, has been found to cause tumors in laboratory animals. Furthermore, a study conducted in 2019 by Auburn University, Alabama, indicates that short-chain chemicals may be even worse than the long-chain chemicals they replaced, thus supporting increasing concern among scientists that all PFAS are hazardous. Very small amounts of PFAS can adversely impact human health, causing diseases such as cancer and damaging the human reproductive and immune systems, among other negative impacts. PFAS can adversely impact human health, causing diseases such as cancer and damaging the human reproductive and immune systems, among other negative impacts. Numerous studies have linked PFAS to: Testicular, kidney, liver, and pancreatic cancer Reproductive problems Weakened childhood immunity Low birth weight Endocrine disruption Increased cholesterol Weight gain in children and dieting adults PFAS and Water PFAS can be released into the environment at every stage of a product’s lifecycle, particularly during chemical manufacture or when chemicals are applied to the final product. They can leave the product during its use—for example, entering food products, being washed away by the rain from the oil on a bicycle chain, or scraped off skis and snowboards as the PFAS wax detaches from surfaces. From these sources, they can leech into wastewater, be discharged into streams, enter groundwater, and from there enter water used for drinking and washing, as well as water used in agriculture. This means that widespread production of PFAS over several decades has resulted in the contamination of water sources and soil all over the world, including in remote regions such as the Arctic. They have entered the blood stream of humans and animals, where they can remain indefinitely. In 2019, for example, samples collected from aquifer systems in the US showed that at least fourteen PFAS were present in groundwater, including those used to supply public drinking water. It is known that the drinking water systems of at least 49 states, affecting 19 million people, are contaminated by PFAS, following the tracing of PFAS by the Social Science Environmental Health Research Institute (SSEHRI) at Northeastern University, Massachusetts. According to the environmental website EWG, nearly all American citizens, including newborn babies, now have PFAS in their blood, while more than 200 million people across the US could be ingesting PFAS through drinking water, with 18 million to 80 million people being exposed to concentrations greater than 10 ng/L in tap water. [N]early all American citizens, including newborn babies, now have PFAS in their blood, while more than 200 million people across the US could be ingesting PFAS through drinking water, with 18 million to 80 million people being exposed to concentrations greater than 10 ng/L in tap water. Where Else Are PFAS? Drinking water is not the only route of exposure to PFAS, since these chemicals are also present in a wide variety of consumer products, including certain types of cookware, due to their grease-resistant qualities. Products include: Stain-resistant furniture Carpets treated with fabric treatments, such as Scotchgard and Stainmaster Clothes and fabrics labeled as stain or water repellent Personal care products and cosmetics Coated paper Paper and cardboard wrapping and boxes used for fast foods and bakery products Even as recently as 2021, a study found that PFAS are in disposable food packaging used by fast-food chains, takeout, and supermarkets all across the world. PFAS are also used in special foams used for fire-fighting. How to Reduce Exposure to PFAS From 1998, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began to apply pressure to have Teflon, along with 3M’s Scotchgard product (PFOS), phased out from domestic products in the US. However, PFAS are still permitted in products imported into the country, and the EPA has been accused of not acting quickly enough, particularly because it still hasn’t set a legal limit for PFAS in tap water. However, as part of the PFAS Strategic Roadmap from 2021 to 2024, the EPA recently announced a national standard to address PFAS in drinking water. In January 2023, 3M said it would “exit” PFAS manufacturing and work to phase out PFAS use in its product portfolio by the end of 2025. Water companies are in the process to remove PFAS from their water supplies through various measures, including activated carbon treatment, ion exchange treatment, and high-pressure membranes such as nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. Governments are taking steps to limit or eliminate toxic chemicals production, following the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, an international treaty. There is also the EU chemical regulation REACH, and five EU Member States that are currently working on an EU-wide restriction for all PFAS which is scheduled to come into force in 2025. Becoming PFAS-aware Individuals can take steps to reduce their exposure to PFAS by avoiding non-stick cookware, cooking meals at home, eating at restaurants rather than having fast-food takeout, checking labels on products, and avoiding any cosmetics containing the words “fluoro” or PTFE in their ingredient list. This also includes bottled water in the US. Researchers from Johns Hopkins University detected PFAS in thirty-nine out of 101 products tested across sixty-six brands, while, according to a 2020 article in Consumer Reports, many popular brands of bottled water have high levels of PFAS. Last year, various civil organizations in Europe published the Ban PFAS Manifesto, calling for the EU to ban PFAS in products by 2025 and for all other uses by 2030. In the UK, Chem Trust is also inviting individuals to lobby their MPs and contact food retailers and food packaging companies, asking them to stop using PFAS. In order to reduce exposure to PFAS through water, there are several actions people can take. One of the most important perhaps is to contact the local water company and find out what they are doing to reduce or eliminate PFAS from their water supplies and whether they share information on this with the public. One can also contact environmental protection agencies or environmental health departments to see if they are also taking action. At home, various brands of water filters can be used to remove PFAS from tap water. *Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests including green transportation.

By Robin Whitlock* 'Diffuse pollution' is pollution in which a variety of agents act collectively to inflict significant damage to freshwater ecosystems. Individually, these substances may not have much effect but, in combination, their impact is more serious. In rural areas for instance, the main sources of water pollution may include run-off from farmland, forests, and open spaces. Such instances of pollution can be caused or exacerbated by rainfall in combination with various land management practices. Agrochemicals, increased nutrients, fecal deposits, chemicals, and sediment can wash off the land into rivers and watercourses, thereby degrading drinking water supplies. A particular problem is eutrophication, the growth of blue-green algae on lakes and rivers, which can deplete oxygen and release toxins into the water. This is usually caused by excessive increases in nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus from farmland runoff. Soil erosion can be a particularly serious issue in areas of torrential rainfall. Wider environmental factors related to climate change, such as higher temperatures, lower river flows, and more frequent or severe flooding, can exacerbate existing water pollution. The State of Water in Europe Today In Europe, water quality standards are regulated by the Water Framework Directive (WFD), which was introduced within the European Union (EU) in 2000. EU member states are obliged by the Directive to publish River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) that advise on how the requirements of the Directive will be met. Based on data collected in accordance with RBMPs from 2010 to 2015, the report “European Waters Assessment of Status and Pressures 2018,” was published by the European Environment Agency (EEA). This report identified a clear lack of progress by European water protection organizations to restore water resources to healthy conditions. This is a serious problem given that 75% of all water extracted annually comes from surface water resources such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. Around forty percent of that is consumed as drinking water. Challenges to Effective Action Point sources of water pollution, where pollution comes directly from a single discrete location, are easier to identify and control. Such incidences are, in general, regulated and under control in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries. In contrast, diffuse-source pollution remains generally unregulated and is a major problem. Diffuse pollution can come from a variety of sources, both natural and human-caused. Pollutants may follow several different routes (pathways) to their destination. They may also accumulate steadily over years before attaining detectable or noticeable levels. Difficulties in identifying the sources of pollutants hinder implementation of immediate or short-term solutions. Major Viable Investments to Deliver Improved Water Quality According to a 2017 OECD report, utilizing a combination of approaches would be most effective in managing pollution. Strengthening economic measures to make pollution a costly activity is one approach, but the most effective solution to water quality issues could be ‘nature-based solutions’ (NBS) such as planting of cover crops, riparian buffers, forest protection, and reforestation. In their 2020 report, “Resilient European Cities: Nature-Based Solutions for Clean Water,” the Nature Conservancy recommended that European countries prioritize NBS approaches in forthcoming River Basin Management plans for 2022-2027. The planting of cover crops emerged in the report as the NBS with the strongest potential, primarily because they are very effective at preventing sediment and nutrient runoff. Furthermore, cover crops offer the most cost-effective solution and incur the lowest costs. Riparian buffers, vegetated strips of land located along the borders rivers or streams, are less effective but can still be useful at a local level to prevent runoff from reaching waterways. Forest protection could also be an effective NBS measure. Forests, wetlands, and grasslands help to prevent water pollution, thereby functioning as an important regulator in the hydrological cycle. Of the 109 cities examined by the report, thirty-eight showed a high potential for reducing sediment pollution through forest protection. Reforestation has moderate or high potential in reducing phosphorous and sediment pollution in a significant number of the cities surveyed. Promising Case Studies VIENNA Vienna has established a forest protection zone in its catchment area, consisting of 700 square km of land set aside for water resource conservation. The city has also implemented specific agricultural and forestry management regulations aimed at conserving soil and water resources, particularly groundwater and spring water. MANCHESTER Manchester’s drinking water mostly comes from the Lake District and the River Irwell. However, drinking water provision and protection is the responsibility of UK utility company United Utilities. In 2018, this company, alongside the Environment Agency, helped to fund a tree survey carried out by Greater Manchester’s Community Forest, City of Trees. The aim was to develop a strategic model investigating the potential for green investments (GI) to assist water resource protection. It focused particularly on the River Irwell catchment area but has also been extended to cover the Upper and Lower Mersey catchments. United Utilities has also held auctions in which farmers can bid for funding to grow cover crops over winter in order to help prevent excessive leaching of nitrates into the soil which threatens groundwater. PARIS In Paris the city public water service provider, Eau de Paris, serves 3 million consumers. Since 2008, it has: provided farmers with financial assistance programs aimed at reducing fertilizer and pesticide use. helped farmers to adopt organic farming practices. helped farmers to develop market opportunities for their products. purchased land at risk of contamination, which is then leased to the farmers for one euro. In early 2020, Eau de Paris managed to acquire authorization from the European Commission (EC) to make direct payments to farmers in return for ecological services. This was not previously allowed by the EC as it was considered to be a form of subsidy. The rule change was a breakthrough moment as it could potentially pave the way for similar approaches in other cities. LYON Eau du Grand Lyon provides and distributes water in the metropolitan region of Grand Lyon. It does so under contract with the Lyon municipality and is actively protecting 375 hectares of land in the city center. Conserving natural ecosystems is more cost-effective than building a filtration plant and also delivers important biodiversity benefits. When tailored to local needs, nature-based solutions can be a valuable tool for protecting freshwater. By working together with nature’s own processes, human communities can make great strides in ultimately securing the future of our greatest resource. *Robin Whitlock is a freelance journalist based in the South West of England, UK and in particular a correspondent for Renewable Energy Magazine since 2011. He specializes in environmental issues, climate change and renewable energy, with other interests in transport, particularly rail, bus & coach and green motoring.

By Robin Whitlock* Urgent Need of Global Food System for Future Pandemics The COVID-19 pandemic and its clear disruption of food production and supply systems have galvanized research into ways for humanity to feed itself, should worst-case scenarios actually appear. The global food system is already in urgent need of an upgrade to handle rapidly emerging threats, say the authors of a new study from the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom. However, there are also “novel” food sources that may be able to nourish us through a future of pandemics, climate change stressors, and environmental disasters, Dr. Asaf Tzachor and his colleagues write in a 2021 study published in the online journal Nature Food. The study’s researchers, who are with the University of Cambridge’s Centre for the Study of Existential Risk, argue that the world’s current approaches to food production and distribution could be dangerously ineffective if supply disruptions and shortages caused by floods, frosts, droughts, pathogens, and parasites come to pass. The researchers cite the current COVID-19 pandemic as a powerful example of the risks to global food production. The pandemic, both in the manner of its appearance and in the responses to contain it, already has caused widespread disruption of food production systems and supply chains, demonstrating their fragility. Food insecurity currently afflicts two billion people across the world, with over 690 million people, including 340 million children, experiencing malnutrition and nutrient deficiency. Dr. Tzachor and his colleagues hope the introduction of nourishing foods and food production methods will serve as a solution to these problems. According to the University of Cambridge study, “Future foods for risk-resilient diets,” both animal- and plant-based foods are vulnerable to acute and chronic stressors. Plant-based foods face risks from physical factors including soil-based and extreme weather impacts. In addition, there are various “biotic” threats such as fleas, worms, and other parasites, and also from pathogens – biological organisms that cause disease. Animal-based foods, produced from dairy and beef cattle, pigs, and intensively reared chicken, are also vulnerable to these agents, particularly because livestock rely on plant-based feed. Intensive farming tends to exacerbate such risks, producing instances of skeletal weakness, deformities, and contamination from poorly executed culling and slaughter. Housing animals in closed conditions near each other elevates the risk of the spread of contamination. The Search for Novel Solutions To address both the current and potentially worse scenarios, the University of Cambridge researchers have investigated new, state-of-the-art approaches to food production. One of their main goals is to identify systems of interest that can integrate into the global food system at scale and also demonstrate resilience against environmental impacts, pests, and diseases. Many of the foods that the team researched were touted for their claims of nutritional enhancement and greater resilience against the risks and impacts already described. The novel foods that Dr. Tzachor and his colleagues investigated included microalgae such as spirulina and chlorella; macroalgae such as sugar kelp; insect larvae; and mycoprotein. Microalgae can be grown quickly, enabling rapid production at scale. They can be grown in liquids in closed photobioreactors–systems that rely on light as a major stimulator of growth. They also can be irradiated by LEDs to achieve a high rate of photosynthesis driven by optimized wavelengths. Macroalgae, such as sugar kelp, can be grown in industrial aquaculture systems in coastal locations. Mycoprotein is derived from fungi (mushrooms are fungi) and has been used for decades as an ingredient in various meat-based products. It can be grown in bioreactors utilizing continuous-flow aerobic fermentation in which temperature and PH are controlled, using carbohydrates and nutrients to drive and accentuate growth. There has been sustained interest in producing food from insect larvae for a number of years. Particularly suitable species include the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens), house fly (Musca domestica), and mealworm beetle (Tenebrio molitor), all of which are suitable for production at scale. As with other novel foods, production can be achieved with automated equipment arranged in compact, stackable modular units set up in various locales that could range anywhere from urban neighborhoods to isolated rural communities. Bugs on Tomorrow’s Menu? The University of Cambridge scientists searched through 500 published papers that addressed novel food production systems. They concluded that the most promising technologies include microalgae photobioreactors and insect-breeding greenhouses, both of which isolate production from the natural environment in closed, controlled systems. Some novel but more familiar foods didn’t make the top of the list: Cultured meat cannot, as yet, be produced at sufficient scale, even though several pilot plants already have been constructed. The technology involved is still fairly new, energy-intensive and not yet economically viable. *Robin Whitlock is a freelance journalist based in the South West of England, UK and in particular a correspondent for Renewable Energy Magazine since 2011. He specializes in environmental issues, climate change and renewable energy, with other interests in transport, particularly rail, bus & coach and green motoring.

By Robin Whitlock* Our growing interest in natural foods and ‘alternative’ remedies is often accompanied by the ‘discovery’ and marketing of the latest so-called “superfood.” Amid the hype, it is best to recall that many healthy foods have been that way for a long, long time. With a little help from science and marketing, we rediscover their unknown or forgotten benefits, and, thus, superfoods are born. Each region has its own superfoods, but certain plants have earned global acclaim over centuries for their exceptional taste and nutritional value, as well as for their legendary properties as ‘folk remedies.’ Here we dive into what science has to say about the extensive benefits of three popular superfoods: garlic, ginseng, and ginger. As with any health regimen, it is always best to consult a medical professional before using any plants or herbs for medicinal purposes. Garlic In many cultures, garlic is beloved for its taste as well as its health benefits. Garlic cloves are rich in organosulfur compounds which provide anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, anti-microbial, and antioxidant benefits. Crushing or chopping garlic triggers the release of enzymes including alliinase that ultimately catalyze an increased release of organosulfur compounds. Scientific studies have found organosulfur compounds produced from garlic to be effective against inflammation and supportive of the cardiovascular system, helping, for instance, to decrease the synthesis of cholesterol. One such compound, diallyl sulfide (DAS), has also been shown to prohibit the metabolism of chemical carcinogens in the human body. Clinical trials have discovered that garlic can help to reduce blood pressure in people suffering from hypertension. It also displays antibacterial and antifungal properties. Garlic is a common ingredient in Mediterranean diets which are thought to have a beneficial effect on the cardiovascular system and to increase longevity. However, these benefits may not be entirely due to the consumption of garlic and are likely the product of a combination of features, such as how foods are grown and prepared, as well as the consumption of other foods associated with Mediterranean diets, such as olives, seafood, beans, vegetables, herbs, and more. For those who cook with garlic, it has been found that the alliinase enzyme in garlic can be deactivated by heat, leading some scientists to recommend that pressed or chopped garlic be left to ‘stand’ for ten minutes or more before cooking. Ginseng Ginseng has been widely used in Eastern Asia as a folk medicine for thousands of years. It has been and continues to be regarded as a general tonic that can help improve physical and sexual performance and mitigate the effects of aging. Alongside its beneficial effects on cancer and diabetes, ginseng also seems to have a positive effect on the central nervous system. Properly known as Panax ginseng—panax is derived from “panacea,” meaning cure-all—and also called Asian ginseng, Chinese ginseng, or Korean ginseng, ginseng is a plant species that is found growing in various parts of the world, including the mountains of East Asia. A slow-growing perennial, its roots are harvested when the plants are between five and six years old. The increasing popularity of wild-crafted ginseng has led to its protection in Russia, China, and throughout the world under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The components of ginseng regarded for their bioactive effects are ginsenosides, a group of saponins—bitter-tasting organic chemicals in plants that can accelerate numerous biological activities including anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-oxidative functions. Ginsenosides are found almost exclusively in the genus of plants called ‘panax’ which are incredibly diverse in structure. This diversity may contribute to the various beneficial effects of ginsenosides on cancer, diabetes, inflammation, stress, the immune system, the cardiovascular system, and the central nervous system. Ginseng also contains other substances associated with health benefits, including various essential oils, antioxidants, polyacetylenic alcohols, peptides, amino acids, polysaccharides, and vitamins. There have been some reports of ginseng’s effect on the immune system, but inconsistencies make them somewhat unreliable. More reliable are test results showing the beneficial effects of ginseng on cancers in the stomach, lung, liver, pancreas, ovaries, colon, and oral cavity. Root ginseng has been used to treat diabetes in both humans and animals with some species being effective against hyperglycaemia. Ginsenosides have also been shown to be effective in improving learning and memory acquisition and have displayed promising signs of effectiveness against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s Disease. Ginger Like ginseng, ginger has been used for thousands of years for the treatment of a variety of ailments, particularly colds, nausea, arthritis, migraines and hypertension. Globally, it is widely studied, sold, and consumed. Though its present name is derived from the Middle English word ‘gingivere,’ the Sanskrit word, ‘srngaveram’—derived from the root’s appearance, meaning “horn root”—dates back over 3,000 years. In fact, the Indians and Chinese may have produced ginger more than 5,000 years ago, likely for its use as some kind of treatment. Ginger was also valued in trade and was exported from India to the Roman Empire over 2,000 years ago. By the medieval period it was being exported to England. Surprisingly, ginger does not actively grow in the wild and therefore its exact origins are unknown. A member of the Zingiberaceae plant family, ginger is related to both cardamom and turmeric. Though the ginger plant is adorned with beautiful blossoms, it is the rhizome—the root of the plant—that is commonly consumed. The rhizome can be consumed raw or cooked, or it can be enjoyed pickled, dried, preserved, ground, or candied. It is particularly prized as a tea. Ginger is a popular ingredient today in “keto” diets because of the presence of ketones in ginger, a type of water-soluble chemical that the liver also produces when it breaks down fats. Ginger’s chemical makeup includes gingerols—compounds that help to protect the plant against fungi, bacteria, and plant viruses. It is believed that gingerols are the source of many of ginger’s pharmacological and physiological benefits. There are also substances in ginger called shogaols, which are products of dehydration when ginger is heated. The shogaols in ginger seem to be more effective than the gingerols when it comes to ginger’s modulation of calcium, a process that makes ginger effective against inflammation. As with other herbal remedies, there are inconsistencies in ginger research. The most well-established effect of ginger is against nausea and vomiting. It is also generally recommended for preventing sea sickness, whereas some studies show no effect against motion sickness. There is also evidence that ginger helps to prevent or suppress a range of cancers and serves as a treatment against cardiovascular disorders. Healthy and Tasty? Let’s Eat! If you are new to using garlic or ginger or ginseng, there are healthy recipes available online to enhance your culinary skills with these three impactful ingredients. Though further research is needed to verify the purported health claims that surround these superfoods, generations of users have sworn to their benefits in thwarting the side-effects of the stressors of life. Bon appetite! *Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests including green transportation.