By Julie Peterson* The Possibilities for a (Very) Long, Healthful Life are Growing As more people live to 100 years or older, longevity studies are attempting to determine why certain people or groups of people live to this extraordinary age. Diet, environment, gender, sleep patterns, economic status, and genetics have been suspected of being contributing factors. Other factors include activity levels, smoking and alcohol consumption, anxiety and stress, social connections, and other lifestyle activities. According to studies by experts, there are determinants for living a long life. These findings in the aggregate, along with common sense, can lead us to actions that are more likely to contribute to our longevity. But just when researchers think they have identified the best ways to become a centenarian, someone comes along to confound the data. Consider the second-longest-lived person in recorded history who died in 2022 at age 119: Japan’s Kane Tanaka loved chocolate and enjoyed a daily, sugary soda drink. Her very long life starts the debates all over again. What was Tanaka’s secret? Was her joyful but unhealthy sugar consumption zeroed out by other healthier dietary factors, genetics, or her positive attitude? Lifestyle Choices Top the List Around 440 B.C., the Greek physician Hippocrates said, “Let food be thy medicine and let thy medicine be food.” While some people argue that food is not truly medicine, the concept that certain foods may prevent the need for medicine is rational. Considerable research exists on what an ideal longevity diet looks like—e.g., which foods to eat, in what combinations, even at what times of day to eat. In Circulation in 2018, a Harvard research team led by Frank B. Hu, PhD, professor of epidemiology and nutrition, published their study on data from more than 120,000 Americans who had been profiled for more than thirty years. The researchers considered diet, health, gender, age, ethnicity, and more. This data yielded astounding results when integrated with a program that evaluated the nutritional status of people: The team concluded that women who follow a healthy lifestyle could add fourteen years to their expected lifespan while men could add twelve years. What is this “healthy lifestyle”? The Harvard study defined a healthy diet to be full of vegetables, fruit, nuts, whole grains, and fish while restricting red meat, sugar, animal fat, and salt. The caveat is that in order to achieve the extended lifespan, the healthy diet must be accompanied by moderate or intense physical activity at least thirty minutes per day. In addition, the individual must not smoke and consume alcohol only in moderation (two drinks a day for men and one for women). The final factor is weight, or Body Mass Index (BMI), which is calculated by dividing weight in kilograms by height in meters. A healthy person’s BMI should be between 18.5 and 24.9, based on the study’s recommendations. Valter Longo, PhD, professor of gerontology and biological sciences and director of the Longevity Institute at the University of Southern California, touts a similar diet with an added factor: a five-day, periodic dietary intervention called the Fasting Mimicking Diet (FMD). In randomized clinical trials, the FMD was shown to reduce the risk factors and markers associated with aging and diseases. Multiple studies in rodents and humans have suggested that a variety of fasting methods can reduce body fat, cut insulin levels, and provide other benefits. One program, the 5:2 diet, calls for people to eat normally for five days a week, and then on the two other days, restrict themselves to 500 to 600 calories. Blue Zones Provide Clues “Blue Zones” is the trademark used to describe the world’s longest-lived cultures and the common characteristics that explain their longevity. It is the vision of Dan Buettner who, with Michel Poulain, PhD, identified four of the five blue zones hotspots and has led the research to identify the common denominators of their populations. Dr. Gianni Pes first used the term “blue zone” to describe an area of extraordinary longevity in Sardinia, Italy. The other four zones are Okinawa, Japan; Nicoya, Costa Rica; Icaria, Greece; and Loma Linda, California, USA. While these five locations may seem unrelated, the people who live in them follow similar lifestyles. They eat primarily plant-based meals with high quantities of beans, do not overeat, and drink one or two glasses of wine each day. They also engage in daily physical activities, take time to deal with stress, focus on their loved ones, have a sense of purpose, and spend time with other people. Social Connections Linked to Longevity Thousands of studies have found that healthy longevity depends on a depth and breadth of social connections. In Love and Survival, Dr. Dean Ornish showed that people who feel depressed, lonely, and isolated are three to ten times more likely to die prematurely from all causes. Ornish went on to develop a lifestyle medicine program based on a whole foods, plant-based menu; daily exercise; reducing stress; and using love and togetherness to transform loneliness into healing. In UnDo It!, Ornish used forty years of research to support the lifestyle theory’s effectiveness in reversing chronic disease and thereby increasing longevity. Conversely, when people experience loneliness, they are at increased risk for several poor health outcomes. Feeling alone can be caused by isolation or be due to the subjective feeling of isolation. According to research highlights from the U.S. National Institute on Aging in 2019, a variety of research studies have linked social isolation and loneliness to higher risks for physical and mental conditions, including high blood pressure, heart disease, obesity, a weakened immune system, anxiety, depression, cognitive decline, Alzheimer’s disease, and even death. Another benefit of building strong social networks with positive, supportive people is that it can increase optimism, which was shown in a 2019 study in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences to lead to a longer life span. The study suggested that while optimism appears to be tied to genes, it is also possible to learn how to be more optimistic to increase the quality and quantity of life. The Growing Centenarian Demographic More people than ever before are 100 years or older. According to World Atlas, in 2021, the U.S. had the highest absolute number of centenarians worldwide, with 97,000 living in the country. Japan was in second place, with 79,000 people 100 years or older. Japan is the country with the highest rate of centenarians, at six for every 10,000 people or approximately 0.06 percent. Uruguay, Hong Kong, and Puerto Rico are also home to some of the highest levels of centenarians. For those who want to join the growing centenarian club—or go for supercentenarian status of 110 years or older—it is never too late to start working on a healthier lifestyle. Some helpful changes are to eat more plants but fewer calories overall, stay physically active every day, keep stress under control, find things to do to start the day, and do activities with friends. Cultivating a better quality of life can not only make every day more pleasing but even increase the number of those days. *Julie Peterson writes on health and environmental issues from the Midwestern United States.

By Julie Peterson* If one starts with potato chips, "junk food" has been around since 1853—that’s when African American chef George Crum is believed to have sliced and fried super thin potatoes to appease a picky diner, and the “chips” were a hit. In the 1940s, candymakers made non-messy, hard-shelled chocolate "M&Ms" for US military forces fighting overseas, while after the war, American inventor C.E. Doolin discovered that dehydrated cheese and cornmeal "Chee-tos" were irresistible to millions. By the 1950s, as the snack food industry exploded with new products, the phrase "junk food" entered US dictionaries, and the battle began over how to handle store shelves bursting with yummy, inexpensive, and high-calorie items that have very little nutritional value. Many Products Are Aimed at Children Cracker Jack is a popcorn-peanuts-caramel-molasses product that debuted in 1893 at the Chicago World’s Fair and was later named America’s "first" junk food by author Andrew F. Smith in his 2006 "Encyclopedia of Junk Food and Fast Food." In 1912, the makers of Cracker Jack added toys in their packages to attract young consumers, continuing the popular practice for more than a century, until 2016. Ultraprocessed foods often include substances that are not normally used in cooking, such as high-fructose corn syrup, hydrogenated oils, flavor enhancers, artificial colors, and emulsifiers. Today, there is ample evidence that many US children and adults consume a lot of high-sugar, high-fat, empty-calorie foods. A 2021 study found that from 1999 to 2018, ultraprocessed foods became the main source of the young people’s energy. This study of 33,795 US youths aged 2-19 years, was funded by the National Institutes of Health and the São Paulo Research Foundation, and published in 2021 in the Journal of the American Medical Association. "Ultraprocessed foods" in the 2021 study refer to products that are "ready-to-eat or ready-to-heat industrial formulations made mainly with ingredients refined or extracted from foods and contain additives but little to no whole foods." Although these foods were originally processed to ensure food safety and increase food security, they are usually low in fiber, minerals, protein, and vitamins but replete with added sugar, trans-fat, sodium, and refined starch. Ingredients in ultraprocessed foods also often include substances that are not normally used in cooking, such as high-fructose corn syrup, hydrogenated oils, flavor enhancers, artificial colors, and emulsifiers. Examples of these foods include candy and packaged snacks, bread and cereals, sugar-sweetened beverages, ready-to-heat pasta dishes and pizza, hotdogs, and chicken nuggets. From a healthy-diet vantage point, the statistics are discouraging. From 1999 to 2018, the estimated percentage of energy from consumption of ultraprocessed foods increased overall from 51.4% to 67% while the percentage of total energy consumed from unprocessed or minimally processed foods dropped from 28.8% to 23.5%. The most significant increase in consumption was for ready-to-heat and -eat mixed dishes (pizza, sandwiches, hamburgers, etc.), which jumped from 2.2% to 11.1%. However, the final tally of ultraprocessed foods making up the largest estimated percentage of energy for children in 2018 included grains, like manufactured breads and cereals (14.5%), and sweet snacks (12.9%). Similar proportions of ultraprocessed foods were eaten by kids at school cafeterias. The Highly Processed Dangers In June 2022, Jacqueline Vernarelli, PhD, associate professor and director of the Master of Public Health program at Sacred Heart University in Fairfield, Connecticut, reported disturbing news regarding the effects of ultraprocessed foods on young children. She found that children aged 3-5 who consumed higher quantities of ultraprocessed foods had poorer locomotor skills than children who ate less. Moreover, teens aged 12-15 who consumed more ultraprocessed foods showed lower cardiovascular fitness than kids of the same age that ate less, she said, citing results from a study for the American Society for Nutrition. A variety of studies suggest that high intake of ultraprocessed foods promotes obesity and cardiometabolic risk factors in children. "Our findings point to the need to educate families about cost-effective ways to reduce ultraprocessed food intake to help decrease the risk for cardiovascular health problems in adulthood," said Dr. Vernarelli. While highly processed foods may be convenient, research shows the importance of healthier snacks and meals, she added. Indeed, the childhood obesity rate has been steadily rising among US youth during the past twenty years, and there is increasing evidence that eating "junk foods" leads to excessive calorie intake and weight gain. A variety of studies suggest that high intake of ultraprocessed foods promotes obesity and cardiometabolic risk factors in children. Later, in adulthood, there are additional risks for cardiovascular diseases and cancers. In addition to poor nutrient profiles, ultraprocessed foods may impact people’s glycemic response and satiety, thus adding to the obesity dilemma. Furthermore, animal studies have shown food additives such as emulsifiers, stabilizers, and artificial sweeteners are linked to adverse metabolic effects. What To Eat—And Not to Eat The foods everyone should limit in quantity are those with added sugars (brown sugar, corn syrup, honey, etc.), saturated fats from meat and full-fat dairy products, trans fats from foods that have partially hydrogenated oils, and sodium. In general, a healthful diet should include nutrient-dense foods such as protein, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and low-fat dairy. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025 is a free download from the US Department of Health and Human Services that shows what to eat and drink to meet nutrient needs, promote health, and help prevent chronic disease. It is organized by life stage, from birth through older adulthood, including women who are pregnant or lactating. Sometimes eating healthier is as simple as swapping out the less healthy food choices for more nutrient-dense options. One of the easiest ways to help children is to make sure the home kitchen is stocked with whole foods and limited quantities of processed foods. One of the easiest ways to help children is to make sure the home kitchen is stocked with whole foods and limited quantities of processed foods. Here are some tips: Sweet desserts may be one of the toughest foods to give up. But healthier food can still satisfy a sweet tooth. Try skipping the ice cream and have a bowl of fruits topped with creamy yogurt and crunchy nuts. Make it fun and let each person create their own personalized dessert cup. Healthful baked treats can be made at home. Try a variety of tasty muffins that include whole grains and loads of good ingredients. They can be baked ahead for quick breakfasts, snacks, or lunchbox desserts. Taco night is another great time to encourage kids to make healthy choices. Set up a tabletop buffet of lean meat or meat alternative, black and/or pinto beans, tomatoes, colorful bell peppers, avocado chunks or guacamole, shredded cheese, lettuce or spinach, healthy salsa and whole-grain tortillas. Encourage kids to choose at least five ingredients or five colors for their taco creation. Sometimes it’s even OK to play with your food. "Ants on a Log" is a timeless favorite (a peeled banana or a stick of celery smeared with nut butter and topped with a line of raisins). Make a smiley or silly face with any food on the plate, or allow kids to be artful and create a snake or a mountain or a tree, and then eat their creation. Get Them Involved Encouraging kids to get involved in choosing healthy food can motivate them to eat healthier diets. Meal planning, grocery lists and shopping, food prep, and serving food can help them feel ownership of the process. Older kids can learn how to read nutrition labels and follow recipes to further fuel their healthful decision making. Should power struggles arise over food, experts now advise not to force or bribe children to eat something. Instead, serve up small portions of everything at the meal and let kids ask for more. At all costs, don’t prepare a special meal for a picky eater. Without making it a drama, encourage the child to stay at the table. Eventually, they might eat, and if not, healthful meals and snacks served at regular times each day will help ensure that a child who refuses a meal won’t miss nutrients. When new foods are introduced, it’s a good idea to discuss the aroma, color, shape, and texture of the food. It may take several exposures to a new food before a child decides that the taste is good (or perhaps not good; after all, taste is subjective). And speaking of shapes, why not cut some foods into fun shapes with cookie cutters? Serve veggies cut in different shapes and have ready a favorite dip or sauce. As long as they eat some veggies, the dip isn’t really a concern. To add fun to learning about nutrition, the US Department of Agriculture’s My Plate program has a page of activities for kids on balanced nutrition, including online games, printable activities, and challenges for eating well, being proactive about nutrition, and staying physically active. When all the foods at the table are healthful, parents can sit back and let the kids make their own decisions. Kids that feel the power of choice may surprise adults with how they choose to fill their plates. And if adults model healthful eating and activity, children are more likely to do the same. Encouraging healthy choices at home and away from home can promote a lifetime of healthy eating. *Julie Peterson is a freelance journalist based in the Midwest region of the U.S. who has written hundreds of articles on natural approaches to health, environmental issues, and sustainable living. Editorial Note: Source for Andrew Smith book: https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/08/weekinreview/08manny.html

It’s Time to Fall in Love with Fungi By Julie Peterson* Neither vegetable nor animal, fungi are in a class of their own, and their global popularity just won’t stop sprouting. The world over, scientists, chefs, and foragers have found the fun in fungus and are seeking out wild varieties or learning to cultivate them for their benefits as food, supplements, and income. Foraging clubs, guides, and rules can get a novice started. What exactly are mushrooms? The thousands of species in the fungal kingdom feed on other plants and start out as a network of fine filaments that cling together in a mass (mycelium). Eventually, under the right circumstances, it produces a fruiting body known as a mushroom. The mushroom produces spores that will drift away to germinate into new mycelia, thus starting the life cycle again. History of Mushroom Consumption Humanity has enjoyed the flavors, textures, and healing properties of mushrooms for millennia. The first evidence of eating mushrooms was found in the excavation of an 18,700-year-old Paleolithic burial site in Northern Spain. The female remains had signs of mushroom consumption in her teeth. In the Alps of Northern Italy, the frozen body of a hunter from 3300 BCE was found to have been carrying three types of fungi; one was likely used to start fires and another as a source of medicine. Many other sites, along with ancient figurines and drawings, have shown that edible mushrooms played a large role in ancient civilizations and ancient peoples in central America, Mexico, Siberia, Eurasia, and Algeria used hallucinogenic mushrooms in religious ceremonies. In fact, the Mayan culture described psychedelic fungi as “body and food of gods.” Zoom forward to several hundred years ago. Little was known about mushrooms. The Eastern half of the world readily consumed them, while the West remained reluctant. The French introduced mushrooms into their haute cuisine in the 19th century, and the delicacies quickly spread over the world like melted butter. Soon after, Americans were cooking and feasting on mushrooms with fervid devotion. Groups dedicated to foraging, identifying, growing, and cooking fungi emerged and continue to this day. Locally foraged mushrooms are now prized fare that can add joy to meals or provide cash when sold. There are festivals around the world such as the Muscoda, Wisconsin, Morel Mushroom Festival in the US; the Annual National Mushroom Festival in Islamabad, Pakistan; the Porcini Festival in Oriolo Romano, Italy; and Family Fungus Day in Lancashire, UK. Attendees to such events can typically sample cooked mushrooms and other foods made with mushrooms and learn about foraging for or growing mushrooms. Foraging Correct identification of wild mushrooms cannot be learned overnight. It is recommended that novice mushroom foragers obtain at least one guidebook or app that includes detailed photos and descriptions to be certain a particular mushroom is edible. Better yet, join a local foraging club and head out with experts. There are thousands of species of fungi and many are quite similar. A good guide will classify them with details on properties that are unique to each species (shape, color, odor, habitat). Positive identification typically requires verification of multiple characteristics. There is a Croatian proverb: “All mushrooms are edible; but some only once.” That is why one should never taste or eat raw or cooked mushrooms that cannot be 100% identified. The consequences of making a wrong guess can be severe or even fatal. Several types of Amanita mushrooms are responsible for more than 90% of fatal wild-mushroom poisonings because they are similar to many edible mushrooms and grow in the same areas. They are common in the US and Eastern Europe. Before foraging for mushrooms, be sure that local regulations allow it. Some areas are protected and removing too many (or any) mushrooms could result in a fine. If mushrooms can be accurately identified and properly prepared (some are toxic when raw but edible when cooked), foraging and consuming can be a healthful family activity. Whether or not the hunt produces a bounty of mushrooms, the benefits of traipsing through the woods and exploring nature are well worth the effort. Popular Mushrooms to Eat Chanterelles Chanterelles are highly regarded wild mushrooms and their bright yellow and orange colors and distinctive trumpet shape make them easy to recognize. Chanterelles grow in mature forests and are commonly found in moist areas around maple, beech, poplar, birch, pine, fir, and oak trees in large clusters. In the kitchen, they can be used in a multitude of ways or simply sauteed with shallots or garlic for a tasty side dish. Morels Morels grow in deciduous woods in the spring and are easy to identify. There is one species that could cause potential confusion, but once true morels are identified, the deadly false morel is easy to spot. Morels are poisonous when raw, but have a rich, earthy flavor when cooked. They are delicious sliced and sauteed in butter to appreciate the tender flesh and nutty flavor. Fresh morels sell for $40 per pound or more and usually come from the US, Europe, or Turkey. Dried morels can be purchased year-round for about $20 per ounce. Puffball Puffball mushrooms may be the easiest to identify, and they grow on the ground from spring to fall. The mushroom is almost round and may look like a white baseball or as big as a volleyball. The flesh is totally solid from one end to the other with no cap, stem, or hollow area. They can be used as most mushrooms, added to pizza or egg dishes, but, because of their size, they can be sliced and used like a pizza crust or sliced and fried like a steak. Some people bread and fry them like mozzarella sticks or chicken nuggets, and many compare them to tofu, as they take on the flavors of the food they are with. Chicken of the woods Chicken of the woods mushrooms are great for novice foragers as there really isn’t a look-alike. The bright yellow-orange clusters grow on freshly dead trees. As the name implies, they are a substitute for chicken in noodle soup or a stir fry and can be breaded and grilled like a chicken breast. Cordyceps Cordyceps is not your typical mushroom; it is a parasitic fungus that grows on and consumes caterpillars. It has been used for hundreds of years in traditional Chinese medicine to treat ailments such as tuberculosis, jaundice, and erectile dysfunction. It has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects. The fungus is believed to enhance oxygen utilization and increase blood flow, which may improve athletic performance. In 2003, during the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak, cordyceps was touted as a cure. Sales, and the price, exploded. Today, they can cost as much as $10,000 per pound. Truffles Truffles can exceed more than $2,000 per pound because they are rare and difficult to harvest. Varieties of truffles grow underground in Italy, France, and the US Pacific Northwest. They take a long time to grow, and hunters typically use trained dogs or pigs to sniff them out. Matsutake Matsutake has been eaten in Japan for more than 1,000 years. Because of declining habitat, the mushrooms are considered endangered, and they have proven impossible to cultivate. This rarity has driven the price to $1,000 per pound or more. Because of their unique flavor profile, the mushroom is usually cooked simply. They might be skewered with oil and salt and broiled, thinly sliced into hot soups or steamed rice, or even eaten raw. Conclusion According to Medical News Today, all varieties of mushrooms contain about the same nutrients, and many mushroom varieties that are easy to cultivate are available at grocery stores and markets for reasonable prices. It’s simple to incorporate mushrooms into the diet by adding them to stir fries, omelets, and pizzas. Larger mushrooms, such as portobellos, can be grilled or stuffed and baked. Shiitake is another that has a meaty texture and is delicious simply sauteed in olive oil, butter, or broth and eaten as a side dish or blended in with other ingredients. Finding mushrooms in the wild is a humbling experience as one begins to grasp the extraordinary diversity of the natural world. Whether hunting for fungi to supplement the diet, to make a little money on the side, or just to get some great photos, wild mushrooms are some of the most fascinating and beautiful natural specimens to learn about. As scientists continue to study new varieties for which there is little information, they may discover many more nutritional and medicinal benefits from fascinating fungi. *Julie Peterson is a freelance journalist based in the Midwest region of the US who has written hundreds of articles on natural approaches to health, environmental issues, and sustainable living.

This Global Favorite Can Also Be Environmentally Friendly and Healthful By Julie Peterson* There is little controversy about how good hot chocolate tastes—it is enjoyed all over the world—but there are concerns about how cacao (chocolate “beans”) is grown and processed, as well as how to prepare this rich, luscious drink for optimal health. So, come along for a tour of global “hot cocoa” recipes and examples of environmentally friendly cacao production. Here’s to pleasing health-conscious taste buds and a Happy New Year! Where Cacao Comes From The Mayans called hot chocolate the “drink of the gods” and cultivated cacao trees (Theobroma cacao) and consumed its seeds 2,500 years ago. By the 1500s, the drink had spread from its native Central American rainforests to menus around the world, and cacao trees are now grown throughout the tropics to keep up with demand. Chocolate comes from the seeds within the fruit of the cacao tree. The seeds are fermented and roasted as the first step toward making chocolate. After that, workers mash the seeds into a paste and heat it to create cocoa. Cocoa is the key ingredient in most chocolate products. Another process involves cold pressing the fresh cacao seeds to get raw cacao, which has become popular as a superfood because it is high in antioxidants, minerals, and vitamins. Raw cacao, however, is very bitter, so it is typically added as a powder or as crumbles, called nibs, to other foods. Health Benefits Research finds that most of the health benefits of chocolate are associated with dark chocolate products that have at least a 70% cacao content. Cacao contains antioxidants such as flavanols—compounds found in plants that fight inflammation and protect cells against damaging free radicals. The antioxidants in cacao can increase heart health, balance the immune system, help the body use insulin better, improve brain function, boost athletic performance by increasing the production of nitric oxide in the blood, reduce levels of the stress hormone cortisol, and benefit the digestive system by increasing good bacteria. However, the chocolate-making process removes more than half of the antioxidants in raw cacao. Consumers who want the nutrients and their chocolate too, choose very dark chocolates with 60% to 70% cacao. Raw cacao is a good source of calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorous, and potassium. In contrast, milk chocolate has far fewer health benefits, and white chocolate is pure cocoa butter with no health benefits (although nobody can deny that the happiness that chocolate provides could be a measured health benefit if used in moderation). Eco-Conscious Cacao Chocolate is a beloved product that comes from an industry that has been plagued by horrific issues involving child labor, environmental destruction, and poverty. As environmental consciousness grows, consumers will seek to ensure that all chocolate comes from properly managed and biodiverse cacao farms. Sustainable chocolate is produced in ways that protect the environment, the people, and the economy. This means that the farming of the cacao trees doesn’t contribute to deforestation or soil erosion, and farmers don’t use toxic herbicides or pesticides. It also means that growers are fairly compensated through fair trade and labor practices, and that child labor laws are enforced to prevent abuse. For detailed explanations of the various certifications on cocoa labels and information on specific companies and their environmental, social justice, and human rights practices, take a look at Green America’s Chocolate Scorecard. For a deeper dive into the serious issues within the chocolate industry, along with myriad loopholes in the certification requirements, see The Ethics of Chocolate from the United Kingdom’s Ethical Consumer website. A World of Goodness Chocolate is enjoyed around the world, where it is available in endless forms and is even a symbol of love. Moreover, as people travel the world, they will find delightful regional variations of “hot chocolate” that are based on culinary and cultural traditions. It may be no surprise that one of the most decadent hot chocolate recipes comes from France. Parisian Chocolat Chaud contains high-quality chocolate, whole milk, cream, vanilla, and brown sugar that results in a melted fudge texture that is thick and indulgent. Cioccalata Calda is another thick cup of decadence. Italians use heavy cream, milk, and then add cornstarch to thicken it further. The result is a pudding-like consistency that can be slurped from a mug or eaten with a spoon. While hot chocolate may bring up a vision of cocoa piled high with whipped cream and sprinkles, it’s not all about the sweetness. In Mexico, hot chocolate gets some extra heat with the addition of chili pepper. Hungarian hot chocolate includes hot paprika, cloves, and white pepper. Similarly, in India, spices such as cardamom, cinnamon, clove, ginger, and peppercorn might be found in a base of white chocolate to create a drink that is like chai candy. But Colombia may take the prize for most unusual hot chocolate: It contains bitter chocolate, cinnamon, cloves, honey, and cubes of cheese. Homemade and Healthy Many people grew up with instant hot chocolate, but it’s quite simple to make a nourishing cocoa drink from scratch and vary the ingredients to one’s liking. Here is a basic recipe for four servings of homemade comfort in a mug: Ingredients 4 cups milk of choice: whole, 2%, or almond milk are common ¼ cup unsweetened cocoa powder 2 Tbsp sugar of choice: maple syrup, granulated sugar, brown sugar, honey Pinch of salt ½ cup semisweet chocolate chips or chopped dark chocolate ½ tsp pure vanilla extract (optional) Instructions In a saucepan, heat the milk, cocoa powder, sugar, and salt over medium-low heat. Whisk until just simmering warm (do not allow to boil). Add chocolate and vanilla and whisk until smooth. Pour into mugs and top with marshmallows or whipped cream if desired. Try different flavors by choosing an extra ingredient such as cinnamon, caramel sauce, peppermint extract, peanut butter powder, or espresso. For an adult beverage, try adding a splash of raspberry liqueur, Kahlua, Baileys Irish Cream, or vanilla vodka. Continue your worldly hot cocoa adventure with these recipes that include unexpected ingredients like matcha tea and red wine (not together, but still!). Or try some from this collection to get some strawberry, coconut, or vegan hot chocolates going. For more grown-up hot chocolate ideas, The Bewitchin Kitchen presents a slew of recipes and explains how bourbon, rum, whiskey, and other spirits can create delicious, spiked hot chocolate. Pick a recipe, make a mug full, and settle in for one of the world’s most soothing treats to warm the heart and soul on a cold winter’s eve. *Julie Peterson is a freelance journalist based in the Midwest region of the US who has written hundreds of articles on natural approaches to health, environmental issues, and sustainable living.

Research Findings on Marine Noise Made Headlines in 2022 By Julie Peterson* Human activity in global marine habitats—from fishing to transport to mining—is under increased scrutiny as scientists work to understand how noise impacts all marine animals, from invertebrates to great whales. Recent studies are showing that man-made, or anthropogenic, noise travels farther through ocean water and has wider impacts than previously thought. From deep sea floors to coastal harbors, a cacophony of unnatural sounds are disrupting marine feeding patterns and causing general stress to animals. In 2015, the International Quiet Ocean Experiment Science Plan was launched, with the goal of obtaining a series of sound measurements over defined time intervals at a variety of ocean locations. The research aims to learn how human activities affect the global ocean soundscape, how sound levels are trending, and what the current and future effects on marine animal populations might be. The plan included designating 2022 “the Year of the Quiet Ocean.” Interestingly, due to COVID-19, the oceans were quieter in April 2020 than they had been—or likely will be—for decades. This circumstance allowed an additional new focus for study: a comparison of observations prior to 2020 with observations made after 2020. Drowning in Noise Pollution For decades, studies have been conducted on the anthropogenic impacts on the oceans' soundscapes. Typically, these studies focus on one part of an ocean and one or a few species of marine mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, or fishes. However, when looked at as a whole, the available data contains overwhelming evidence that anthropogenic noise negatively affects a wide swath of marine animal life. Dangers of underwater anthropogenic noise pollution may derive from seafaring vessels, seismic surveys, sonar, shoreline construction, military activity, deep-sea mining, extraction of oil or gas, or recreation. This noise pollution, sometimes described as “sensory smog,” affects marine species because hearing is the primary sense they use to communicate, interact, breed, navigate, detect predators, and find food. Given that sound waves can travel quickly and for thousands of miles through the ocean, this “smog” drowns out the natural soundscape that sea creatures need to hear in order to survive. In a study from the Sea Mammals, Sonar and Safety team in Europe, researchers found that if a whale or dolphin is feeding and hears a man-made sound that it interprets as a natural predator, the animal may flee in fear instead of foraging. Looking at beaked northern bottlenose whales, humpback whales, sperm whales, and long-finned pilot whales off the Arctic waters surrounding Norway, all were found to stop foraging when they heard navy sonar. Dr. Saana Isojunno, of the University of St. Andrews’ Sea Mammal Research Unit, said that this is causing these animals to choose “life over dinner.” [Listen to the sonar signature of a whale.] Beaked northern bottlenose, humpback whales, sperm whales, and long-finned pilot whales were found to stop foraging when they heard navy sonar. Scientists at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution conducted the first study to show that aquatic turtles are vulnerable to hearing loss after exposure to loud noise. Hearing loss after noise exposure has been observed in a range of other marine life, such as squids, fishes, and whales, but now it is known that turtles can also temporarily be incapacitated by noise pollution. This is particularly significant because, according to Sea Turtle Conservation Bonaire in the Caribbean Netherlands, six out of the seven species of sea turtles are already classified as threatened or endangered. Familiarity with the efforts to save the whales or protect the sea turtles is common, yet the sea floor remains mysterious. An environmentally healthy sea floor has crustaceans, worms, mussels, and other animals burrowing, feeding, aerating, and fertilizing the sediment. Their life actions are essential to nutrient cycling in the ocean. Without them, fishes would suffer, and the food web could be disrupted. A research team from the Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research in Germany has shown in a study published in the journal Environmental Pollution that the rise in anthropogenic noise pollution stresses invertebrates. Even though these bottom dwellers do not have ears for hearing, they are sensitive to vibrations created by blasting and resource extraction on the ocean floor, along with sounds from cargo ships and recreational boats at the surface. Year of the Quiet Ocean During 2020, much of the world was on lockdown. The reduced traffic on land, air, and sea allowed people to see wildlife respond to less noise and intrusion by machines. Birds and other wildlife were seen and heard more often as they ventured closer to areas that had suddenly become much quieter. Many ocean animals came closer to shore. As the number of shipping vessels on the ocean dropped significantly, scientists used the opportune quiet to study the soundscape using 200 underwater microphones. Professor Jennifer Miksis-Olds, an ocean acoustics expert from the University of New Hampshire in the US, pointed out that listening to this quieter ocean allowed scientists to gain insight on the proper balance between human activity and the ocean’s natural processes. Prof. Miksis-Olds has a goal to map the global ocean soundscape so that the patterns of sounds, whether of migrating whales or shipping routes, can be seen. Scientists relay whale locations to ships, asking them to slow and avoid the whales. Mapping the sounds of the ocean could potentially protect ocean life from excessive noise. It’s already being used off the West Coast of the US to reduce whale deaths due to ship collisions. Whale Safe is a tool that displays both visual and acoustic whale detections using AI software on buoys to monitor whale sounds. Scientists relay whale locations to ships, asking them to slow and avoid the whales. Cooperation is voluntary, but Whale Safe tracks compliance and grades each company. Turning Down the Volume In 2021, the World Register of Marine Species released a census stating that the total number of known marine species is about 240,000. Scientists at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimate that 91% of ocean species have not yet been classified, which could be due to the fact that more than 80% of the oceans are unmapped, unobserved, and unexplored. Even so, human noise pollution is reaching into these vast regions of the largest habitat on Earth and doing undetermined harm. There is a great deal of work to be done to ensure that the environmental impacts of anthropogenic noise are mitigated before they do irreparable harm to life, known and unknown. Some solutions have been identified and are beginning to be tested and put forth as suggested guidelines, rules, or laws. The International Maritime Organization, a United Nations agency headquartered in London, is developing guidelines to reduce underwater noise from shipping with expected thresholds to be established soon. How these thresholds will be met is unknown, but there are possibilities in the works. Researchers at the University of British Columbia, Canada, are striving to engineer quieter ship propellers. Changes in propeller rotation could also have the added benefit of more efficient propulsion, thereby reducing carbon emissions. A 10% reduction in speed across the global fleet of shipping vessels would reduce noise emissions by 40%. The faster and larger ships are, the more noise they make. Simply reducing vessel speed is a no-technology-needed solution to reduce underwater noise. Whale researcher Russell Leaper noted in his 2019 study, published in Frontiers in Marine Science, that a 10% reduction in speed across the global fleet of shipping vessels would reduce noise emissions by 40%. OceanCare is an international marine conservation organization based in Switzerland that holds Special Consultative Status on marine issues with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations. Part of the organization’s mission is to protect marine life by reducing ocean pollution, including noise pollution. The group says, for instance, that the loud blasts produced by airguns used to prospect for oil and gas are a significant threat to marine life. OceanCare has key demands to prohibit new fossil fuel exploration in the ocean along with reducing shipping speeds by 75% in order to dramatically reduce noise pollution. In addition, the group is calling for the creation of quiet zones. Addressing and adhering to these demands, OceanCare asserts, would not only quiet the seas but contribute to climate protection. Even with new technologies and awareness of undersea noise pollution, it is complicated to enlist action from every country and company that has a part in creating the clatter. Advocates call for people everywhere to become more aware of the issues and work to implement and support international policies that will diminish marine noise. Human stewardship of ocean soundscapes is integral to ensuring a healthy ocean for future generations. *Julie Peterson is a freelance journalist based in the Midwest region of the US who has written hundreds of articles on natural approaches to health, environmental issues, and sustainable living.

By Jong-Choon Woo* The 18th and 19th Century French author and diplomat, Chateaubriand, once wrote that “there is a forest before civilization and a desert that remains after civilization.” Standing on South Korean soil today, it is hard to imagine the devastation that followed the Korean War (1950–1953), a conflict that left the nation in ruins and its mountain forests denuded. By 2021, South Korea achieved almost complete reforestation. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN reported in 1982 that, “Korea is the only developing country that has succeeded in forest rehabilitation after World War II.” World-renowned environmental activist, Lester R. Brown, declared in his 2008 book PLAN B 3.0: “South Korea is a reforestation model for the world. We can reforest the earth.” What can the world learn from South Korea’s reforestation “model,” particularly those nations whose forests suffer from the impacts of poverty and strife? The South Korean reforestation story begins with failed initial efforts, a people’s natural love for their forests, and a strong-willed leader stepping in to make reforestation a high priority. Reforestation Halted by the Outbreak of War South Korea’s first attempts at reforestation began after World War II. However, their efforts were completely wiped out after the outbreak of the Korean War a few years later. Following the Korean War, little of Korea’s forests remained intact. The harvesting of fuel-wood for traditional heating and cooking further accelerated the deterioration of the nation’s bare forest soils. In response to the dire situation, multi-year South Korean erosion control and reforestation plans were declared throughout the 1950s and 1960s. With inadequate government supervision, however, most of these plans were discontinued within a few years of their launch. South Koreans concluded that government plans for reforestation were made with no real intention of carrying them out. Success Begins with a Strong-willed Leader Leading South Korea after a coup d’état in 1961 and later as president from 1963 until his assassination in 1979, Park Chung-Hee was determined to quickly reforest the nation. He elevated the importance of reforestation within his administration by inviting the minister of the Korean Forest Service to the government’s monthly economic meetings and giving the Korean Forest Service more substantial powers than those of other institutions. President Park frequently made personal visits to reforestation sites in order to monitor the progress of his government’s reforestation and afforestation (establishing trees where they were previously non-existent) efforts. The First National Plan (1973-1978) The Park administration’s major reforestation initiative was Korea’s keystone “Ten-Year National Greening Plan” (1973–1978). To facilitate the plan, the Forestry Administration began to systematically analyze the status of Korea’s forests and implement afforestation, erosion control, and investment plans. In addition, South Korea’s national forest police cracked down on destructive logging, over-harvesting of trees, forest fires, illegal entry into forests, and violators of compulsory reforestation regulations for logging operations. Strict implementation of these measures contributed significantly to early greening efforts. All Korean villages, offices, homes, students, and both government and non-government organizations were encouraged to plant trees and tend forests as a daily responsibility. An annual national planting day, previously held on April 5, was expanded to become an annual national planting period from March 21 to April 20. The first Ten-Year National Greening Plan set a goal to accomplish complete re-vegetation of South Korea’s denuded forests within ten years from 1973 to 1982, but the plan was completed by 1978, four years ahead of schedule. Reforestation goals were over-achieved by thousands of hectares. The Second National Plan—Going Commercial (1979–1987) South Korea’s second national greening plan built on the successes of its first, but central policy shifted from a nationwide, compulsory public reforestation campaign to the establishment of large-scale commercial plantations. In all, eighty commercial plantations were established to raise species such as Korean white pine, pitch-loblolly pine, and larch. The government’s implementation energies shifted to providing technical extension services. Meanwhile, voluntary, cooperative activities between villagers and small-scale private forest management were encouraged. Under the second national plan, South Korea’s reforested areas grew to include 966,000 hectares (ha) of artificially planted areas and 109,000 ha of naturally tended forests. The Third National Plan—A Move to Multi-use Development (1988–1997) Korea’s Forestry Administration joined the Ministry of Agriculture and Fishery in 1988, strengthening its forest establishment policies and simultaneously launching its third ten-year plan, the Forest Resource Establishment Plan. The focus of the new plan was to integrate commercial and environmental forestry through multiple-use forest resource management. This initiative assigned “use-value” to forests, such as recreation-value and habitat-provision-value, as well as economic value, as measured by their provision of lumber. The forests of South Korea grow where temperate and warm forest zones meet, thus creating great species diversity. The Korean people love nature and fervently indulge in outdoor leisure pursuits, including forest recreation. The collection of forest products such as wild vegetables, medicinal herbs, sap, and Matsutake mushrooms is a popular Korean pursuit. With the rapid growth of the nation’s “leisure population,” an economic strategy to promote the multiple uses of mountain resources was necessary to accommodate Koreans’ growing outdoor recreational activities. The poor commercial quality of South Korea’s fledgling commercial forests forced the nation to import timber from other countries. The climate for importing timber was not favorable, however, due to decreasing worldwide timber stocks per capita and a global emphasis on forest conservation. Timber exporting countries responded by crafting strict trade regulations to preserve their resources and forcefully requested that importing countries, such as South Korea, adopt low or duty-free tariff rates for imported timber. For these reasons, South Korea needed to increase its own timber stock. As a part of the third national plan, the Forestry Administration established a Forestry Buildup Region, which consisted of 1,519 thousand ha, stretching across 515 sites that were expected to increase the domestic timber supply. The Fourth and Fifth National Plans Target Sustainability and Climate Change (1998-2017) The fourth national forest plan (1998–2007) was established to achieve the goal of "building a foundation for sustainable management." Forest management policy shifted from planting to cultivation. Employment in the forest sector was expanded to care for the nation’s 2.25 million ha of forested land, including the Baekdudaegan mountainous region that runs like a spine, north and south, through the Korean peninsula. Beginning in 2008, the fifth National Forest Basic Plan (2008–2017) was established to develop forest education programs, recreational services, and healing opportunities as civic demand for forest use grew. In addition to meeting the needs of its own citizens, the South Korean government expanded development assistance to support forest restoration in developing countries. A New Sixth Plan for the Future The current sixth National Forest Basic Plan is the nation’s first twenty-year plan, designed to work with all relevant national plans, such as land and environmental plans. The plan’s goals are clear: To foster healthy and valuable forests that promote the public interest, provide quality forestry jobs, and help North Korea restore its devastated forests in preparation for the future reunification of the Korean peninsula. *Jong-Choon Woo, Ph.D., is a Professor Emeritus of Kangwon National University in the Republic of Korea.

By Jonathan L. Wharton, Ph.D.* Connecticut may be located in southern New England in the US, but it’s also part of the New York City tri-state area, where urban redevelopment and suburban growth are significant concerns. The population demands, especially in the last couple of years with many New Yorkers relocating to the state because of COVID-19, has led local and state officials to consider several transit-oriented development proposals (TOD). By building new and redeveloping existing residential and commercial projects near public transportation hubs, TOD projects can help mitigate overdevelopment and traffic congestion. But officials and residents who favor TOD face various barriers to having TOD proposals come to fruition partly because of Connecticut’s local political power (or home rule) structure and the lack of regional efforts to address overdevelopment. Smart growth strategies, like transit-oriented development, foster planned communities and address sustainable approaches to redeveloping older cities and new development in many suburbs and outer suburbs, or exurbs. These living, working, and commuting options allow mobility for residents across various communities. Most importantly, they do not need to rely on constant use of personal automobiles as residents can often bicycle, walk, or take public transportation. Ultimately, TOD proposals allow officials and developers to build or revitalize around train stations, bus stations, and ferry terminals. Connecticut will receive significant federal transportation funds ($5.4 billion) from the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act that was passed by Congress and signed by President Joe Biden in November 2021. Part of the appropriations will help finance new development around existing and new commuter train stations, especially along the new Hartford Line from Massachusetts to New Haven, which connects Metro-North commuter trains to New York City and Amtrak’s northeast regional lines. With additional state bonds, Connecticut is planning to add a new Enfield station and Windsor Locks station to the Hartford Line, which is near Bradley International Airport. Eventually, a direct bus route will serve between the train station and airport. Affluent West Hartford was also considered, and may be in future plans for a new train station in its Parkville commercial area and Elmwood neighborhood. Developers are especially interested in building new apartments near a proposed station in this upscale Hartford suburb. Community leaders and organizations as well as state and local officials are aiming to make new train stations in TOD hubs with federal funds and state bonds. These investments can help address suburban sprawl and car congestion in the future. If state and local stakeholders are successful, their initiatives could also serve as a case study in urban renewal and as an example of shared governmental financing, public transit, and green development policymaking. But many of these development concepts are new approaches for many residents, compared to what other states and localities have already accomplished with smart growth planning. New Jersey and Maryland as TOD Models Nearby states like New Jersey and Maryland have strategized around their existing transit hubs. Their state governments emphasized future growth proposals that would revitalize specific areas near public transportation. Officials also identified where new growth would develop near current or future transit communities. Both New Jersey and Maryland experienced significant sprawl or overdevelopment concerns, especially in their suburban and exurban municipalities. Traffic, sprawl, and mobility became chief concerns for many residents and officials. In the 1990s, these states proposed smart growth and sustainable strategies to address future growth. In addition to TOD projects, they also targeted where new and revitalized growth could be centered across a number of urban and suburban counties. Officials also advanced various moratoriums to prevent overdevelopment in protected areas. Most importantly, Maryland and New Jersey officials at all levels of government incentivized policies and funding towards specific projects that were sustainable. Grants, loans, and zoning variances attracted various developers and investors to develop and revitalize in many communities. In Newark, New Jersey, officials rebuilt parts of their downtown with workforce housing for local educators through a newly developed “Teachers’ Village” community near the city’s major bus exchange and nearby main Newark Pennsylvania Train Station. Then-Mayor (and current US Senator) Cory Booker emphasized these kinds of themed urban village concepts, which I researched and wrote about when I lived in New Jersey’s largest city. Future Newark plans include new TOD development around the northern edge of downtown, adjacent to New Jersey Transit’s Broad Street Station. These Newark examples point to TOD projects and revitalizing an urban downtown. Smaller New Jersey cities, like Rahway, already had a bustling New Jersey Transit train station centered in its downtown. But some fifteen projects have been constructed or renovated because it was designated early-on as a New Jersey Transit Village. More and new development has taken place around the station, especially in the last decade as a result of local, county and state grants, loans, and zoning changes. Maryland’s largest cities, like Baltimore, classified areas as TOD projects especially near area light rail train stations. Suburban and exurban communities between Baltimore and Washington, DC were also identified for Priority Funding Areas (PFAs) for directing aid to specific areas. Plus, the state’s University of Maryland houses a sustainable think tank, the National Center for Smart Growth, that drafts proposals and various studies on economic development approaches. Connecticut’s Limitations Unlike Maryland and New Jersey, Connecticut remains at a development crossroads. For a state that does not offer an accredited graduate planning program, urban and suburban development approaches are often lacking. Connecticut is also void of county power and regionalization, whereas New Jersey and Maryland were able to institute sustainable development approaches decades ago through shared governance. When Connecticut did away with county government in the 1960s, local governments’ home rule or local authority became more powerful. This included municipal decision-making on planning and zoning of local projects, even though county power was already limited. Connecticut’s municipalities vary on development proposals, but many towns maintain rigid, single-use zoning for specific single-family housing residential development. Often, lot sizes may be acres per house, unlike urban or more traditional suburban house tracts that allow for multiple-family housing units or commercial zoning use. Recently, Connecticut officials have been debating housing proposals, zoning approaches, and TOD models. Many opponents or NIMBY (Not In My Backyard) advocates and progressive housing supporters have politicized various state policy proposals addressing housing and TOD proposals. HB 5429 in the Connecticut General Assembly, for example, would allow the state to have development as-of-right housing near public transportation hubs. There would also be a specific percentage (at least 10%) of affordable housing in new TOD developments. There has been supportive lobbying for the bill by organizations and leaders like Partnership for Strong Communities’ Kiley Gosselin and DesegregateCT’s founder and Cornell University Professor Sara Bronin. Ultimately, Connecticut officials must address home rule authority and shared governance approaches—along with sustainable development proposals. But the bipartisan HB 5429 proposal has some state lawmakers against the bill because it would allow developers not to go before a public hearing or a town zoning board for building approvals. Republican State Representative Kimberly Fiorello has argued that TOD housing is not a right because it is subject to market demands. Some Democratic lawmakers, including State Representative Jonathan Steinberg, have voiced their concerns against the proposal because it limits home rule decision-making about developments near Metro-North train stations. Some counter that opponents of the bill are against affordable housing options and public transit modalities, particularly in wealthier Fairfield County shoreline towns. No surprise then, committee hearings and editorials for the bill have been dramatic—both for and against the legislative proposal. Unfortunately, what has gotten lost among the debates about HB 5429 and other TOD proposals is that Connecticut retains a strongly local-centered government process. Home rule by local officials is powerful and state government is limited, even when it comes to TOD strategies. Besides, Connecticut has largely developed itself based on local zoning laws that limit various development approaches. Even the state’s transportation financing has come under fire by public transit and urbanist advocates. Ultimately, Connecticut officials must address home rule authority and shared governance approaches—along with sustainable development proposals. Federal funds can be a start to smart growth and TOD proposals, but Connecticut’s state and local officials will also have to consider how other states have been successful with such projects and evaluate home rule best practices for future sustainable development. *Jonathan L. Wharton, Ph.D. is the School of Graduate and Professional Studies Associate Dean and teaches political science and urban affairs at Southern Connecticut State University. He served on New Haven’s City Plan Commission, and his state and local government research centers on economic development in the New York City tri-state area.

By Jeremy Bowden* Residential heating and cooking consume about thirty percent of all energy used globally. To compare, producing electricity takes 20% while all transportation uses roughly 30%. As countries make progress with power sector decarbonization using renewables, attention is increasingly switching to decarbonizing the transport and heating sectors. Electric vehicles (EV) and hydrogen vehicles are expected to replace internal combustion vehicles in the transport sector, but the solution for heating is less well-defined. Most residential heating relies on electricity or fossil fuels, especially natural gas. In the United States, roughly 50% of homes currently use natural gas directly. This article looks at the low carbon options available in the residential heating sector, parts of which may be the most difficult areas of the global energy system to decarbonize. Across many countries in high latitudes, where winter cold makes heating important, residential heating is largely provided by natural gas-fired boilers. Heating oil (a form of diesel) and coal boilers are also used. Electric and storage heaters make a major contribution as well, alongside district heating (distributed through pipes from centralized heat sources), especially in parts of northern Europe and Russia. Among these heating types, the electric options are relatively less efficient than the gas-powered options. However in some cases, the efficiency of electric heating can be enhanced by installing air or ground heat pumps. Electric options also have the potential to decarbonize if they use renewable power. District heating too, can be decarbonized by utilizing waste heat or renewable sources, such as solar and biomass. There is another green alternative in the form of decarbonized gases that can replace natural gas while still being supplied using the same distribution network. Decarbonized or carbon-neutral gases include biogas, syngas, and blue and green hydrogen. In many cases, these gases can be added gradually to the natural gas supply using existing infrastructure and appliances to meet interim decarbonization targets. Compared to electrification, which involves replacing an existing boiler with a more expensive heat pump, using decarbonized gases can be less expensive and disruptive to the consumer. Sometime new boiler installations may be required to utilize decarbonized gases, but usually not at low hydrogen concentrations. There have been calls for the European Union, via its 2021 Gas Directive, to encourage the introduction of zero-carbon gases by setting a goal to reduce the baseline carbon intensity of natural gas systems by 2030. This policy would encourage the blending of low carbon gases such as biogas and hydrogen into the conventional supply. Similarly, biofuels could be used to replace heating oil, although this has its own environmental impact and is not possible at the needed scale. Eventually hydrogen-based liquid fuels, such as methanol and ammonia, may become available, but, for the time being, heating oil and especially coal need to be replaced with green electricity or lower carbon gases. Both gas and electric options have their unique advantages, but it appears a combination of the two represents the most efficient solution to decarbonize the residential heating sector. The Pros and Cons Buildings would need to be more energy efficient and better insulated for heat pumps to be effective due to their lower energy density. Other issues with heat pumps are their high up-front cost and the limitations of installation. In Europe many houses cannot have a ground source heat pump (more powerful than air source) because they require significant outdoor space. Still, when available, heat pumps can be safer than systems based on combustion, such as boilers. They can be fueled by rooftop solar panels, thus making residences more self-sufficient and lower-carbon. They are normally cheaper to run than oil and gas boilers, depending on the local price of power, and have an efficient conversion rate of energy to heat. They also incur less maintenance, and, critically, can provide cooling during the summer like an air conditioner. This is increasingly relevant as high latitude summer city temperatures rise with higher atmospheric CO2 levels. However, electric appliances do not have the energy concentration that gas has and are simply not as powerful. This is an issue when poorly insulated properties need to be heated quickly and becomes critical at the systems-level. For example, in a UK snowstorm in March of 2018, the gas heating system carried six times the energy content of the electric power system—a peak demand that the power system could not have handled without massive, unfeasible expansion. It is also difficult to store green electricity easily since batteries are expensive and not designed for seasonal demand variations. However, you can store the energy in a gaseous form such as green hydrogen by converting the renewable power into hydrogen using electrolysis. This is critical when matching grid-level supply and demand in a renewables-dominated power system. Blue hydrogen can also be produced from the natural gas itself through reformation, with the CO2 by-product sent to Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS). This provides a longer-term market for natural gas, extends the life of existing storage and pipeline infrastructure, and is currently the cheapest way of producing low-carbon hydrogen at scale. So, while electrification may replace coal and fuel oil heating outside of the natural gas grid, low carbon gases can deliver centralized, undisruptive heating system decarbonization through the existing gas network with some possible modifications. Most boilers can handle a mix of biogas, natural gas, and hydrogen, so the transition can be gradual. The UK is considering a 20% hydrogen mix by 2030. However, many boilers may need to be replaced if the concentration rises towards 100% hydrogen. Even still, this option would be cheaper and more reliable than just replacing all boilers with heat pumps, storage heaters, and heavy insulation which risks overloading the power system during periods of peak cold. The UK and other European countries are already trying out the addition of hydrogen as well as some biogas in their natural gas systems. Currently the world uses about thirty percent of all its gas in the residential sector, mostly for heating with some for cooking. This rises to about forty percent in the UK. The energy transition means there will be a decrease in natural gas use in the residential sector over time. However, some of this displaced natural gas may find a home as feedstock for blue hydrogen production. It will have to compete with natural gas displaced by the expansion of renewables in the power generation market as well. Similar energy transition scenarios as imagined for the residential sector are also anticipated for the industrial sector. The industrial sector also uses natural gas as its primary fuel for the primary purpose of heating—often to very high temperatures. Hydrogen is a far better replacement for natural gas than electric heating to produce very high temperatures in industries such as steel. There are three blue hydrogen projects nearing approval in the UK, while a major two gigawatt wind-driven green hydrogen project (SeaH2Land) has just been given the go-ahead by Orsted in Holland - at this stage, these are primarily driven by industrial customers, but could also supply the gas grid. Some areas of both residential and industrial heating are seen as the most difficult to decarbonize, although with low-carbon gases and electrification (alongside expanded green generation), it should be possible. Some environmental purists remain keen on one hundred percent electrification because they see it as the optimum minimum energy solution. They reject blue hydrogen which maintains fossil fuel extraction and existing fossil fuel infrastructure, particularly the pipeline and gas storage system. However, using hydrogen-blended gas is popular with most energy companies and is likely to be a lot cheaper and more achievable in combination with renewables-based electrification than one hundred percent electrification alone. Plus, as carbon capture technology develops and the ratio of natural gas is diminished, zero carbon heating can still be achieved. *Jeremy Bowden is a freelance journalist, analyst, and editor, specializing in the energy sector. He serves a variety of clients across the world, with work ranging from features and interviews, to ghost-writing, in-depth reports and public relations material. Prior to turning freelance about ten years ago, his full-time experience spanned over fifteen years in the energy, specialist energy media and utility sectors in a variety of positions in both Europe and Asia with companies including IHS, Dow Jones and Argus Media.

By Jean Thilmany* If you think of a drone as a toy or as a potential pizza-delivery method of the future, you’re not alone. Today, these small, unmanned flying devices are used for a wide range of functions, including tracking the growth of agricultural crops, monitoring areas to detect security breaches, and delivering products right where they are needed, such as dropping off a hammer at a construction site. They are also playing an increasing role in preventing natural disasters and in response and recovery efforts following disasters. They are particularly useful in these emergencies because they can track and send back images of what is happening in places rescuers cannot access. The Dawn of Drone Disaster Aid One of the first instances of drones being used to offer aid after a natural disaster struck was only sixteen years ago, after Hurricane Katrina devastated parts of Louisiana and Mississippi in the United States. In September 2005, Pearlington, Mississippi, USA, sweltered in the heat, its streets were eerily silent. The residents who had already fled the area feared for their neighbors who might still be trapped by the terrifying high waters Hurricane Katrina had left behind. Drones were perfect to assess the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina because they could easily fly through inaccessible spaces and send back images the entire time, giving responders insight at the ground level. Volunteers searching door-to-door were taken aback by the sight of a very small helicopter, almost a toy, flying low between houses. The helicopter seemed to have a mind of its own, darting down to window level before flying over rooftops. After a two-hour tour, the helicopter drone and a second, overhead drone were able to report that no one remained trapped and that the floodwaters from the cresting Pearl River did not pose an additional threat. The drones were perfect for the Pearlington mission because they could easily fly through inaccessible spaces and send back images the entire time, giving responders insight at the ground level. In this case, the drones were used to help with search and rescue missions. In addition to showing empty streets and houses, the video imagery from the craft also helped responders plan their searches and avoid the hazards depicted in the footage. Disasters kill about 60,000 people each year around the world and affect 200 million, according to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). Today’s disaster management systems mostly rely on images taken from satellite or a manned aircraft for aerial images that help with disaster response and prevention. Much work has been done over the past twenty years to put flying, remote-controlled vehicles to work on tasks that require surveillance by air—including preparing for natural and manmade disasters. However, drone use for these purposes is still in its infancy. Scientists generally agree that small, inexpensive aerial drones that carry cameras as well as sensors that serve as heat detectors seem like a natural fit for emergency response efforts. They are able to provide up-to-the-minute feedback on disaster sites and to compare the sites with maps of the area taken before the event struck. And they are relatively inexpensive to operate, certainly much less expensive than aircraft flown by a pilot in the cockpit. Since the Katrina disaster, many humanitarian response groups have been using drone technology to identify and monitor high-risk areas, find evacuation routes, assess the severity and the extent of the damage, monitor refugee camps, and even take video and photographs for their group’s public-relations campaigns, according to the American Red Cross. Most of the drones used for disaster mitigation are easily purchased for less than $2000, don’t require special skills to operate, and are fairly reliable. Most of the drones used for disaster mitigation and recovery are the type easily purchased at a store: small drones with four propellers. The consumer drones often cost less than $2,000, don’t require special skills to operate, and, according to the Red Cross, are fairly reliable. Some drones carry high-resolution cameras as well as global position system (GPS) receivers that allow the drone to follow flight plans drawn up by responders. Most of these drones assign geographic coordinates to their aerial photographs. The Red Cross says that photos can then be combined using specialized software to create highly accurate maps and three-dimensional models of the affected areas. All Drone Studies Are Not Equal For drone flights to be safe and reliable in times of disaster, drone technology needs to be studied under many flying conditions, including high wind, heavy rain, and severe temperature impacts from floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, landslides, wildfires, and volcanic eruption. That is not presently the case, according to a study published by researchers from the University of Calgary in Canada. They found that little research has been done into how effective drones are in those circumstances. They also found differences in the ways drones are studied for these events, which could affect the people who need aid. Drone research does not often include the deadliest and most expensive catastrophes as well as the hardest-hit areas. Drone flights must be studied equally across disaster scenarios because drones are a “game changer” for emergency management, according to DroneSense, a company that makes unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)s. The aerial images they take help multiple agencies coordinate response and rescue efforts. Drone footage helps detect hotspots within a fire and helps firefighters find the best ways to put out the fire. The images also give all types of responders a play-by-play look at overall disaster management efforts, which they can review to find ways to respond to similar events in the future. For their survey, the study’s authors examined more than six hundred reports about drones used to map disaster areas and places where disasters could occur. They discovered that 64% of the studies were conducted in high-income countries and territories and 79% of the studies had been performed in rural areas. Additionally, drone research does not often include the deadliest and most expensive catastrophes or the hardest-hit areas. Drone research often does not include the very populations most affected by natural disasters, the authors write, including notably underrepresented urban populations—where people live closer together than in the countryside. In other words, a hurricane can affect more people in a city located along the shoreline than it can in a place where few people reside. Studies on how drones act and what they can do in cities are sparse, the authors say. While earthquakes, floods, and storms are the natural disasters that cause the most deaths and that affect populations and economies the most, only a small percentage of studies focused on these events: 14% on earthquakes, 18% on floods, and 12% on storms, the authors found. Landslides and other mass movements received the most research attention, with 38% of drone studies focused on them. This is likely because—despite the name—landslides usually affect a much smaller land area than do other types of natural disasters, the authors say. Because the typical area covered by drone flight is also small, flights over landslides are easier to study. To add another wrinkle, drones are mostly studied today for ways they can aid during emergencies than for ways to prevent disaster in the first place, the authors find. Prevention includes mapping an area before disaster even strikes. The reason why low-income and high-income areas are studied differently likely comes down to the ways laws vary across those areas, the authors state. Laws and regulations on how drones can be used and studied need to be in place in areas where scientists want to conduct research, but drone regulations lag in lower-income areas. “An unpublished October 2020 analysis of 133 low, lower-middle, and upper-middle income countries and territories found that 46% percent lacked drone-related legislation, 7% had extremely restrictive regulations that effectively banned drone use, and 9% outright banned drones,” the study states. “For comparison, out of 77 high-income countries and territories, 8% lacked drone regulations, 3% effectively banned drone use through restrictive regulations, and 5% outright banned them.” But the University of Calgary scientists remain hopeful that future studies will be conducted on a more equal basis. “We suspect that regulations will continue to evolve worldwide and more lower income areas will eventually enact their own frameworks,” they wrote. WeRobotic Flying Labs Train Users and Help Improve Regulations Another promising development is the growing network of WeRobotics Flying Labs, independently operated organizations that develop ways drones might be used for disaster and other aid. Members hold workshops and training and help lawmakers develop and improve drone regulation in their areas. Of the more than thirty Flying Labs, over 85% are located in low, lower-middle, and upper-middle countries and territories, the authors write. The Flying Labs members know—just as officials throughout the world understand—that drones hold great potential to aid in times of natural disaster. The ways they can help run the spectrum from finding people trapped under rubble to dropping supplies, to mapping a location before an event even occurs. With laws and regulations expected to put drone studies on a more equal footing in the future, citizens in all parts of the world can expect help from the skies—by helicopter, by airplane, and by drone, in the not-too-distant future. *Jean Thilmany is a freelance writer living in St. Paul, MN, who writes frequently about science and engineering topics.

By Jean Thilmany* Teaching fish to drive has an important lesson to teach us about how we “just know” how to move through our worlds. Teaching a fish to drive sounds like a bizarre, not to mention impossible, task. But researchers at an Israeli university have done just that. In order to find food, shelter, and safety in a new place—in other words, to survive—animals must use navigation skills. Previous research has shown that mammals innately learn and analyze their environments, but what about fish? By studying if fish can learn to drive—rather than just swim—researchers can learn more about neural behavior in the brain: the innate processes, conscious and subconscious, by which animals intuitively move, pay attention, perceive, and reason. Asking fish to drive around underwater seems odd. But researchers wanted to find out if the way fish learn to swim in a new tank comes from muscle memory—committing a specific motor task to memory via repetition—or if fish somehow consciously analyze and learn about their environment, as other animals do, to move safely through it, states Ronen Segev, a professor of life sciences at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Israel. He was part of a Ben-Gurion team that did the study. The answer might mean that conscious analysis and learning is responsible for the way varied and distant species move through the world, he says. In other words, even small animals, like goldfish, might learn to move through their environment in a way that is similar to mammals. “Understanding navigation is closely connected to understanding of learning and memory,” Segev says. “When an animal navigates, it needs to learn the structure of the environment and embed it in memory.” The best way to determine how any animal learns to navigate is to have it move in a way it does not normally move and do so in an unfamiliar place, Segev believes. The researchers sought to put the fish in an environment that—while underwater—resembles how they would move over ground. Could they maneuver through this new place? And if so, how did they learn how to do it? To find out, a team of researchers taught fish to drive around an unfamiliar tank. See a video of the goldfish navigating (Courtesy Ben Gurion University of the Negev). Fish Operated Vehicles Rats learn to navigate with relative ease, and previous attempts to let them drive have been impressive. Dogs drove successfully in research studies too. If fish could learn to drive, it could mean many animals can analyze their environment and learn to navigate their worlds. And if they can learn to move over land, it may mean the capability is more common and not so “species independent,” as the researchers put it. As the researchers say: “Given their fundamental role and universal function in the animal kingdom, it makes sense to explore whether space representation and navigation mechanisms are dependent on the species, ecological system, and brain structures, or whether they share general and universal properties.” "Are space representation and navigation mechanisms dependent on the species, ecological system, and brain structures, or are they general and universal properties?" They chose to study how fish drive because asking fish to move in a way another species does is what is called “domain transfer methodology.” This means a species must cope with a familiar task, in this case, navigation, in the way another species would. Domain transfer is one of the best ways to study and understand animal navigation, Segev says. The researchers developed Fish Operated Vehicles (FOV) that served as the “car” in their study. FOVs allowed them to study how a “fish out of water” behaves and moves, even as it is actually in water. Over the Land, Through the Water For the study, the researchers put the fish in an unfamiliar place and had them travel along the surface of the tank via the FOV—or “in a terrestrial environment,” as the researchers put it. They also needed to provide a swimming site new to the fish. “We needed a way to get them away from the small water tanks we have in the lab,” Segev says. They placed six goldfish, one at a time, in the FOV tank they had set up for the study. The FOV itself was actually a little robot that looked much like a clear skateboard with short sides. The goldfish were safely harnessed into their drivers’ seats—actually more like on the board—and given free reign. The tank was equipped with LIDAR lasers that measured movement. A camera captured images from above, while a computer processed the information captured by the lasers and the camera. Robots mounted on a platform under the tank also helped trace the FOV’s movements. Moreover, to add another variable, the researchers arranged for light to enter the tank and reflect off the Plexiglass and into the water in a way the fish had never experienced before, Segev says. “First, the fish need to learn new motor skills to drive the vehicle, since these are very different from the muscle power applied to fins to enable swimming,” he says. “Second, they needed to learn how to navigate the vehicle in an alien environment despite the significant distortion in vision.” To encourage the fish, “we rewarded a fish when it managed to drive the vehicle towards a target on the tank wall,” Segev says. At first, the fish moved about randomly. But after about ten to fifteen days of thirty-minute sessions, the fish drove the FOV directly to target, in this case their favorite fish food. The researchers even changed up the environment by putting the fish in different starting positions and moving the target. They wanted to make sure the fish were not just driving the same route every time after they had learned it. "The goldfish drove steadily to the target no matter its location. Even when they changed the way it looked the fish moved toward it." The goldfish drove steadily to the target no matter its location. Even when they changed the way it looked, the fish moved toward it. In other words, the fish had “internalized its target,” as the researchers put it. They recognized it, they took it into their brains and understood—through neurons firing in the brain—that they needed to head for it to get the reward. By driving their FOVs, the fish showed they acted not merely from muscle memory but from real-time spatial analysis and navigation. The researchers theorized that the fish may have learned to navigate in the same way land animals like rats and dogs learned to drive. As Segev says, “the way space is represented in the fish brain and the strategies fish use may be as successful in a terrestrial environment as they are in an aquatic one.” “The finding hints that movement through space and across environments is the same for all types of animals,” he says. This study was only the first step. Next, the researchers will study the strategies fish use when navigating larger environments. Those studies should lead to even greater understanding of how animals intuitively move about their worlds, finding food and shelter and avoiding danger, as well as expanding knowledge about how their brains work. By demonstrating that fish can drive a vehicle across a surface towards a target, the researchers were able to find that the human and the fish brain have, perhaps, more in common than previously thought. *Jean Thilmany is a freelance writer living in St. Paul, MN, who writes frequently about science and engineering topics.

By Jean Thilmany* When disasters strike around the world, the Water Mission rushes in to provide safe drinking water. In 2021, the nonprofit served more than 260,000 survivors of ten disasters, including an earthquake in Haiti and a historic winter power-outage in Texas. Ukraine was not on that list of calamities. It will be this year. When Russia invaded Ukraine on February 24, 2022, it launched a massive exodus from the country. Families, especially women, children, and seniors, fled to nearby nations like Poland, Moldova, and Romania. Those countries already had modern sewer and sanitation systems, and their citizens—like those in Ukraine—did not think much about water. Water flowed from taps, and toilets took care of waste. But as Water Mission arrived, it found that its relief efforts, to quickly bring drinking water and sanitation to thousands of refugees, were “unlike anything we’ve ever done,” said George Greene IV, Water Mission’s president and chief executive officer. His parents founded the nonprofit twenty years ago. “Churches and groups are normally running from nine in the morning until five at night in these places, like everywhere else,” said Greene. “Then, all of a sudden, they open their doors to bring in twenty refugee families and their utility bills increase, and their systems come under threat of breaking.” Many churches and civic organizations that have taken in Ukrainian refugees are located in rural areas and rely on underground septic tanks, he added. Wastewater is cleaned and treated, becoming available again. “Water Mission is pumping out septic tanks for these groups. The freed-up room will help them get ahead of the increased burden on their area’s infrastructure and prevent problems in the future.” Greene says. Meeting Emergency Needs But the nonprofit did not end its aid efforts there. As part of its work in developing countries, Water Mission builds small, efficient water-treatment systems and latrines that are then operated by local officials and groups. The setup for those systems is fast and easy, Greene said. When Water Mission officials assessed the refugee situations in Poland, Moldova, and Romania, they realized they should construct the water-treatment systems and latrines they have been building in developing countries. “We stock water treatment systems, so why not tailor those to the needs of the countries taking in Ukrainian refugees?” Greene said. “We’re problem solvers,” he added. “We don’t have a silver bullet that’s the answer to every problem, but we can adapt our programming to fit the needs. With disasters, you have to respond quickly.” The Water Mission has employees in Poland who were easy to mobilize and could work in the three countries. And there were other nonprofits to collaborate with. “When disasters happen, you see groups come together that are referred to as clusters, which coordinate WASH [water, sanitation, and hygiene] efforts,” Greene said. “We engage with all the other WASH players within those clusters. … Water is a solvable crisis.” “In the United States, we solved the problem more than 100 years ago with the advent of sanitation systems,” he said. But there is much work to be done—more than half the world’s population doesn’t have access to a toilet, and public toilets in developing communities can quickly become dirty and riven with disease, Greene said. Bringing Relief into Ukraine The Water Mission’s relief efforts are not restricted to Ukraine’s neighbors. The group is also working directly in Ukraine. In keeping with its mission of tailoring the solution to fit the needs, the nonprofit asked aid groups operating inside Ukraine about their greatest needs. Their response was to help get people out of the country. Water Mission promptly donated three nine-person passenger vans. The vans heading into Ukraine are filled with food, fresh water, and medical supplies, which drivers drop off in hard-hit communities. The drivers then load the vans with refugees and drive them to safety. “Towns and communities have been devastated,” Greene said. “The expectation is that even more of this type of equipment and aid will be needed in the future.” Maintaining systems is also a priority. To keep water running in the communities it serves, Water Mission partners with companies that supply parts for those systems. These include generators that provide the power to pump and clean water. “Those types of generators aren’t needed yet in the countries taking in Ukrainian refugees, but that could easily change,” Greene said. “Moldova is concerned Russia will cut off its natural gas supply. Suddenly, they’d have hospitals with no power, and they’d need to request backup generators fast. To get those quickly and on demand would be a tough dynamic.” One of Water Mission’s corporate partners is Polar Power Inc., which makes generators and has a branch in France. The wheels are moving between these two entities, and the nonprofit will be quick on the ground with power generators, should Moldova need them, Greene added. Launched by a Hurricane Water Mission’s swift response to Ukraine’s refugees stems from its 20-year history and its background in engineering and chemistry. It started with the 1998 arrival of Hurricane Mitch, the second-deadliest Atlantic hurricane on record. Greene’s parents, Molly and George Greene, were operating an environmental engineering company in Charleston, South Carolina, when they heard about the devastation in Honduras. They flew down to offer their engineering skills. The Greenes received requests for multiple water treatment systems but were unable to find existing systems that would work, so they built their own. In Honduras, they were shocked to discover a river that was a deep brown color of chocolate milk and filled with toxins and bacteria. Even after the Greenes’ newly built water systems went into operation, the wary locals still refused to drink the water. So, the Greenes drank their purified water to prove its safety. Four years later, they founded the Water Mission to respond to clean water and sanitation crises around the world. Over the past two decades, the organization has provided safe water, sanitation, and hygiene solutions in fifty-seven countries. More than 400 staff members work around the world in permanent country programs, Greene said. Cleaning Water Around the World Water Mission currently has more than 400 disaster and community development projects underway. One project close to Greene’s heart brought safe water to three refugee camps in Tanzania that are home to 250,000 displaced Congolese and Burundian refugees. The average stay in a refugee camp is between fourteen and seventeen years, Greene said, adding that Water Mission began work in the three camps about six years ago. The project at the Nyarugusu, Nduta, and Mtendeli refugee camps is also the world’s largest solar-powered pumping solution. Solar-operated systems may cost more to construct, but the ongoing costs are much lower than those for fuel-powered pumps. Greene said the solar-powered system pays for itself in under two years when compared to diesel fuel. And, of course, the sun is available everywhere, whereas diesel fuel has to be continually brought into the camps. The Water Mission has gone on to drill six deep wells at one of the camps. The wells started operating in 2019 and now bring chlorinated drinking water to about 150,000 people, Greene said. “Drilling wells for well water was never done before at this scale or in these conditions,” he said. Whether for disaster relief, as in the three countries close to Ukraine, or for community development, such as the Tanzania projects, Water Mission’s solutions are simple and robust. “When it comes to water projects, we see a lot of charities doing the work where they see the need,” Greene said. “But people can’t tackle solutions they haven’t been trained to deal with.” So how long will the Water Mission stay in Poland, Moldova, and Romania? “As long as it takes,” Greene said grimly. “We’re not going to leave until the fighting stops and Ukrainian citizens can return home. Even then, we’ll start to build water-treatment systems in areas where they were bombed out.” *Jean Thilmany is a freelance writer living in St. Paul. She writes about engineering issues.

By Jean Thilmany* What is Vog? The term “vog” is familiar to most Hawaiians on the Big Island who live downwind from the Kilauea volcano. But in November 2021, New Zealanders made their acquaintance with what those who have experienced it call “volcano breath” when gases from Whakaari, the country’s most active volcano, made their way to shore. The term “vog” is a combination of two words, “volcano” and “smog.” Vog is created when sulfur-based volcanic gases mix with moisture in the atmosphere to form an aerosol that can travel deep into the lungs, causing harm in humans and animals. People can experience irritation of the nose, eyes, throat, and sometimes skin; wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath; and headache, nausea, and fatigue, stated Carol Stewart, in speaking to The Earth & I. She is a co-director of the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network, an international group of scientists who research the health impacts of volcanic activity and create helpful resources. “Our experience with vog in New Zealand is far less than the United States experience,” Stewart says. New Zealanders do not know how to prepare for vog or what to do to protect themselves when “volcano breath” happens in their own environment, she says. While even the words “volcano breath” might be unfamiliar to most U.S. residents, the U.S. is home to about 169 active volcanoes. Most of these are located in Alaska, where some eruptions occur almost every year. But the Kilauea volcano in Hawaii is one of the most active on Earth. It has been erupting (and spewing its breath) almost continuously since 1983, according to the U.S. Geological Survey’s Volcano Hazards Program. Sudden Rare Occurrences from White Island Vog is rare in New Zealand, as the active volcano Whakaari (also called White Island) is located thirty-one miles offshore. The prevailing western winds do not bring the gases to land, Stewart says. But on November 9, 2021, conditions suddenly aligned so that vog did come to the mainland. On that date, the volcano’s gases combined with weather conditions that were “just right”—along with sea fog in the Bay of Plenty—to create the “very rare” vog event, according to Scott Yeoman, writing in Stuff, a New Zealand media outlet. In the days before the vog event, GeoNet—which monitors geological hazards in New Zealand, including volcanic eruptions—put out a warning about some approaching vog in the Bay of Plenty. Light northerly winds were driving vog onshore, although “there has not been an eruption to produce this” situation, the service said. The volcano was simply experiencing a bit of unrest, GeoNet added. Essentially, on a low level, Whakaari was quietly churning and emitting gases. Before putting out the warning, GeoNet scientists had flown near the volcano and saw a noted increase in gas emissions, compared with earlier flyovers and measurements they had taken two weeks earlier. As the fog rolled in, some folks in the Whakatāne area described a strong smell of sulfur and an “ominous” grey, hazy sky. As the fog rolled in, some folks in the Whakatāne area described a strong smell of sulfur and an “ominous” grey, hazy sky. The local newspaper, the Whakatāne Beacon, described an “eerie haze and smell of sulfur” that enveloped the town and the nearby region in the afternoon. The town of Whakatāne, with a population of just over 37,000 people, is located on the eastern Bay of Plenty on New Zealand’s North Island. As the vog moved beyond the town, it could have affected, to a lesser extent, the entire eastern region. For the past 100 years, Whakaari has seen a few small but hazardous eruptions. Often, the volcano emits a steady plume of water vapor and gases that are visible from the mainland, Stewart says. During the November 2021 New Zealand vog, Stewart and her fellow volcano watchers noted the widespread comments posted in local social media feeds of people noticing the haze and a distinctive sulfuric smell; however, no mention of any adverse health effects was found. Typical vog complaints include “headaches, stinging eyes, and shortness of breath,” Stewart and her fellow researchers wrote in an April 2022 paper published by the Australian Institute for Disaster Resilience. “It is probable that the gas that was smelled was hydrogen sulfide (H2S), as this gas has an extremely low odor threshold and is more stable and unreactive in the atmosphere, compared to sulfur dioxide (SO2),” they wrote. Both chemical compounds are gaseous compounds at room temperature and contain sulfur atoms. H2S is a hydride of sulfur while SO2 is an oxide of sulfur, according to the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). An oxide is a compound in which one or more oxygen atoms is combined with a chemical element, in this case, sulfur. A hydride combines hydrogen with another element. While both gases have a strong odor, H2S smells of rotten eggs while SO2 smells of burnt matches, according to AIChE. In nature, SO2 is the product of volcanic eruptions while H2S is the familiar “sewer” smell. Hawaii Points the Way Why has vog recently become an issue in New Zealand? The two ingredients needed to produce vog have emerged: a combination of elevated volcanic gases combined with certain weather conditions. “The weather conditions are much less common but can occur maybe yearly, or every few years,” Brad Scott, GeoNet volcanologist, told Stuff. In New Zealand, the occasion wherein volcanic gases and weather conditions may combine to produce vog may occur every decade or so, although the truth of the matter is difficult to tell because the country has not kept official records on vog events, he said. Vog was not noticed after the 1995 eruption of Mount Rauehu nor after the 2012 Te Maari eruption in New Zealand. In a country that has not knowingly experienced vog in many people’s lifetimes, information on how to deal with this potentially deadly weather event can be hard to find, Stewart says. “Most of what we know about how vog impacts health comes from Hawaii, where there is long-term degassing of sulphur dioxide from Kīlauea volcano,” she says. Indeed, the texts Stewart and her fellow researchers noted on social media during the 2021 vog event mirrored what Hawaiian residents commonly post about their own experiences with volcanic gases. “Often, it’s like what you’d think of as smog but much smellier,” Big Island resident Diane Swanson—who has lived in a vog-prone area for the past decade—told The Earth & I. “It can burn your eyes and your throat. You cough a lot. It’s unpleasant. People usually stay inside while it’s going on.” Prior to her move to the Big Island from Missouri, about a decade ago, Swanson had never heard about vog. “Fog, yes; smog, yes. So, I was totally unprepared for this,” she says. “What’s weirdest is that other people weren’t thrown off by it. I guess it’s like living in California and experiencing a small earthquake or in Missouri, where we have tornadoes. You don’t think anything of it after awhile. It becomes a part of life.” But just as earthquakes, tornadoes, and hurricanes can veer from the routine to become deadly, so can volcano breath. For instance, in February 1979, at least 149 died after inhaling poisonous gas when the Dieng Plateau, a volcano in Java, Indonesia, erupted. In December 1997, two men died when sulfur dioxide concentrations reached dangerous heights around Mount Aso, Japan’s most active volcano. Since 1980, seventy-one people have been hospitalized due to inhaling volcanic gases from that volcano, according to the Oregon State University, which keeps a record of deadly gas outbreaks worldwide. One of the most famous volcanic eruptions, a 1794 eruption at Mount Vesuvius in Italy, killed about 400 people. Some of them died from poisonous gases, according to Oregon State University. Meanwhile, Hawaiians got a welcome break from vog in 2018, but in September 2019, the gases were back, reintroduced with the most recent Kilauea eruption, according to Hawaii News Now. Tips and Guides for Living Through Vog Little can be done to stop vog from happening because, by the time the volcanic eruptions and combined weather events carry gases to shore, the air cannot be cleansed. Smog can be reduced by maintaining better environmental air quality. But, in a way, vog is as inevitable as fog. The best remedy is to stay inside with closed windows and doors. Run an air conditioner or use a “high efficiency particulate air” (HEPA) filter to clean the air. Avoid or limit physical exertion, and maintain adequate hydration, Stewart says. Brochures and guides from the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network she co-directs include answers to questions like, “Are water catchment systems affected by vog?” The answer is yes, because rainwater that’s collected for drinking can become dangerously acidic with the effects of vog. Other tips from the network include avoid smoking during vog events, immediately treat eye irritation by flushing the eyes, immediately treat congestion with over-the-counter drugs, and remain hydrated. Hawaiians know the routine only too well, Swanson says. New Zealanders, where vog is much less common, will likely have to familiarize themselves with these tips the next time volcano breath rolls ashore. Stewart, of course, does not know when the next vog event will envelope the Bay of Plenty. Like others, including Scott of GeoNet, she does not expect to see the thick, fog-like, pea-soup weather for the next several years. “But we just don’t know when conditions will be right,” she says. “Really, New Zealanders must stay abreast of the weather and always be prepared.” *Jean Thilmany is a freelance writer living in St. Paul, MN, who writes frequently about science and engineering topics.