By Gordon Cairns* The Highlands of Scotland are the last bastion of the beloved native red squirrel in Great Britain. Now even this most remote of outposts is under siege. North American grey squirrels are using the improved transport links of tree-lined highway A9 as a corridor to advance steadily northwards. These squirrels can carry a disease that threatens the very existence of their beautiful, russet-colored cousins. Help is at hand, however, from a very unlikely source. The pine marten, a grey squirrel predator, is being encouraged to breed in strategic areas to act as unofficial border guards. The Scottish government agency, Forestry and Land Scotland (FLS), has begun the process of installing thirty-five artificial pine marten dens along grey squirrel migration routes in a bid to protect the native reds. The need is urgent. For the first time, grey squirrels have been sighted north of the village of Dunkeld on the edge of the Highlands and are advancing on the eastern front up the coast from Angus into Aberdeenshire. A charitable organization is working with the government to preserve the red squirrels’ remaining habitat from encroaching grey squirrels. “Saving Scotland’s Red Squirrel Project is working in key areas, defending the highland line to make sure the grey squirrel doesn’t spread beyond that,” said Dr. Emma Sheehy, conservation officer with Saving Scotland’s Red Squirrels. “There is disease in the grey squirrel population, and we want to make sure they are not able to pass beyond that barrier,” she said. Grey squirrels already have a decades-old colony in the northern city of Aberdeen, which sits above the highland line. The colony was established accidentally when a group of squirrels escaped from a children’s petting zoo in the 1970s. The Aberdeen colony currently has a population of a few thousand, disease-free squirrels. “But, the risk is that, if unmanaged, the grey squirrels in Aberdeen will continue spreading, and if they connect with the [grey squirrel] population in the south that do have the disease, then the infectious disease would go into the Grampian and Highlands red squirrel population,” Dr. Sheehy said. That would be “really devastating.” “Removing the grey squirrels in the northeast is a really key piece of red squirrel conservation in the UK,” she added. The disease in question—squirrel pox—is what makes the “squirrel war” urgent. Seven out of ten of Great Britain’s grey squirrels carry squirrel pox, a highly contagious, viral disease so deadly it can kill a red within five days, but to which the greys are immune. Gareth Ventress, an environment forester for FLS, who has been installing pine marten boxes, is confident that this culling-by-predator is necessary to protect an indigenous species from extinction. “If grey squirrels were a native species and were outcompeting another native species, that’s just nature and we would just be looking at habitat management rather than culling,” he said. “But if you have an invasive species outcompeting the native species, and then you add the squirrel pox, it’s really about stopping them getting into the Highlands and trying to hold the highland line.” He adds that no matter how successful the pine marten patrols are, they can’t eradicate grey squirrels from Scotland; the country’s southern cities have extremely large populations. In contrast, in England, red squirrels are almost extinct, with only a few pockets surviving in parts of Wales. With a team of three or four co-workers, Mr. Ventress selects woodlands that already contain pine martens and are “grey squirrel-friendly”—an attractive habitat with abundant food sources. Mr. Ventress finds trees that are about 1.2 miles (2km) apart and ropes his boxes to the trees, so they are high off the ground. Many trees on grey squirrel migration routes are not yet old enough to have the cavities pine martens need for their nests, so the man-made boxes are intended to replicate what a pine marten would look for in a mature woodland. “We put the boxes up in the air because the pine marten needs to feel safe and warm. If we didn’t have these boxes, the pine marten would end up in a buzzard nest, which is open to the elements and not that great if you have young kits for sleeping,” Dr. Sheehy said. Nests on the ground are vulnerable to attack by badgers and foxes, she said, “so what you want are arboreal cavities, which these boxes are replicating.” When pine martens are established in greater numbers, they will reduce the grey squirrel population by killing them or scaring them off, Mr. Ventress said. This is because if there are high numbers of predators around, it creates a “landscape of fear” that will impact the surviving squirrels’ “fitness and breeding success,” he explained. Dr. Sheehy stressed that this is a long-term project—any impact on grey squirrel numbers is not expected to be seen for at least a decade. “Pine martens, as a species, don’t move quickly. Things take a really long time, and they are really slow breeders,” she said. “For example, it would be 2025 at the earliest before a female [pine marten] born this spring would have her own offspring,” Dr. Sheehy said. “It would be even longer before the next generation comes along. Things don’t happen very quickly.” “Pine martens, as a species, don’t move quickly. Things take a really long time, and they are really slow breeders.” However, evidence from Ireland, which like the UK is one of the few countries in the world that has both types of squirrels, indicates that by encouraging pine martens, the grey squirrel population can be reduced to a great extent. “It’s taken about ten to fifteen years in Ireland, and we don’t know how far behind Scotland is,” Dr. Sheehy said. To the lay person, one of the most puzzling elements of this story is why pine martens are a threat to one type of squirrel but not both. Dr. Sheehy believes that while greys are “naïve” to the threat of pine martens as a predator, reds evolved together with the pine martens over millennia and are aware of the danger they pose. “One experiment carried out showed red squirrels became much more vigilant when pine marten skat was sprayed on their feeders, but grey squirrels acted like nothing had happened. This indicates they aren’t picking up the cue a dangerous predator is around, which makes them far more susceptible,” Dr. Sheehy said. Another advantage red squirrels have are their much smaller heads, allowing them to squeeze into tighter spaces and out of the reach of a ravenous pine marten. There are several charities in each nation across the United Kingdom set up to stop the red squirrel from going extinct. The townsfolk of Pitlochry and Dunkeld are generally in favor of the introduction of the pine marten dens, but not everyone is on board. There are some people who disagree with the plan, “as we are killing animals and people don’t like that,” said Mr. Ventress. Also, “some people were a bit anti having pine martens because of their effect on the songbirds in spring and the potential effect on red squirrels as well. It’s not everybody’s cup of tea, that’s for sure.” But others support this novel effort to save the red squirrels, and many have already volunteered to take part in the trapping and culling of the greys, Mr. Ventress said. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

By Gordon Cairns* This is the story of how a fifteen-year-old conversation around a Scottish kitchen table about some perplexing information on a packet of shrimp came to grab the attention of world leaders at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP 26), held in Glasgow last year. In 2007, Mike Small and his wife, Karen, wondered why the Scottish prawns they were eating for dinner had travelled to Taiwan to be processed and then returned to their country to be consumed—a round trip of over 12,000 miles. Concerned about environmental costs associated with globetrotting Scottish shrimp, the Small family resolved to eat only locally sourced food for a year, defining “local” as the boundaries of the region of Fife where they lived. When the Smalls’ friends and neighbors in the small Scottish seaside resort of Burntisland heard what they were undertaking, they, too, started eating only local produce, and so the Fife Diet was born. The grassroots initiative grew to a membership of almost 6,000 in what became Europe’s largest food project, supporting people to eat local food or grow their own to reduce their carbon footprint. The environmental savings from such a small group of participants showed the incredible difference the actions of an individual can make: Simple acts, such as eating locally, saved over 1,400 tons of greenhouse gases, while composting food waste saved 20,000 bags of household waste. Growing their own vegetables saved a further 28 tons of carbon dioxide, amongst a myriad of other savings. Mr. Small said that when they began their local food odyssey, one of the biggest problems was overcoming people’s misconceptions about what could be grown within their country, which is famous for its supposedly dark, damp, and unfriendly-to-farmers climate. One apple juice producer, who imported his ingredients, told Mr. Small that he couldn’t grow his apples in Scotland (even though this northern country is actually Europe’s largest exporter of far-more-difficult-to-grow soft fruit). “At the time, we were told it would be impossible—how could you source your food in Scotland in February?” Mr. Small said. In fairness, when it comes to food, Scotland has been an international conundrum. It is equally famous for its amazing products—Scottish salmon, lobster, and beef are exported all over the world and grace the tables of expensive restaurants—and the idea that the Scottish people are some of the unhealthiest in Europe; the joke is that everything in Scotland is deep fried in oil before eating, be it savory or sweet. The Fife Diet helped chip away at the latter preconception by encouraging consumers to eat healthier diets while urging them to tap into the incredible larder Scotland has to offer. “Scottish self-awareness and beliefs have changed in the short space of time between then and now,” Mr. Small said. He added that there is now a Scottish orchards’ collective, promoting the growth of apples and other fruits across the nation. Artisan bakeries have also sprung up to make bread from Scottish grains rather than imported ones, which was was not happening a decade and a half ago. Meanwhile, in Glasgow, a Locavore grocery store might not look like a driver for revolutionary change, but the store, with its green and yellow decor, mellow music, and relaxed vibes, is part of a movement towards reducing how far food travels. At Locavore, shoppers can find eye-catching mounds of greens on display: mizuna, a Japanese leafy vegetable, is grown just a few miles away on the business’s own eight-hectare farm, which also supplies kale, chard, and claytonia. Spinach is sourced from another farm not far away in Balerno, Edinburgh. Founder of the company, Reuben Chesters, said the Fife Diet was an inspiration for Locavore, which currently has five stores in central Scotland, as well as a kitchen and thriving veg box delivery service; there are plans to double the number of stores over the next few years. While sharing the Fife Diet’s environmental concerns, Mr. Chesters also looked at the positive economic benefit of eating locally sourced food. “Eating locally cuts across everything. My initial drive was the environment, but there’s also a massive economic argument,” he said. “The local multiplier effect means the money made here stays in the local economy. Eating local organic food brings health benefits as well as building resilience into the system.” By way of illustration, Mr. Chesters explained how local organic producers have avoided the recent twin shocks to the market—the war in Ukraine, and the rise in gas prices that has limited the supply of fertilizer and caused its price to quadruple. By using their own chickens’ manure, the producers and their resilient local food network has been unaffected. Similarly, it was the financial crisis of 2008 and its food-price spikes that inspired Pete Ritchie, who had been involved in the Fife Diet, to help create Nourish Scotland. Mr. Ritchie, the campaign group’s executive director, is convinced the recent COVID-19 pandemic has caused people to think again about the source of their food. A common theme of the UN Conference on Climate Change (COP 26) was how at-risk people’s food supplies were to global shocks. Strict lockdown rules due to COVID-19 meant producers found it difficult to maintain production, and countries that relied on imports for basic food grappled with serious shortages. “We worked with people from cities and countries in different parts of the world in the run-up to COP 26, and [food production was] a really common theme,” Mr. Ritchie said. “Whether you are in Indonesia, whether you are in São Paulo, whether you are in Ecuador, whether you are in Johannesburg, people just realized during COVID-19 that none of the food their city was relying on came from anywhere near that city.” “We are all dependent upon these global supply chains wherever we live,” Mr. Ritchie added. The Fife Diet project, which was highlighted at COP 26, has come to a natural conclusion, but the need for similar actions continues. Food production creates a third of all greenhouse gas emissions, so “the driving idea behind the Fife Diet is still the same,” said Mr. Small. “We can’t begin to change the climate crisis without changing the way we do food. That’s the bottom line.” Looking back on the fifteen years since the creation of the Fife Diet, Mr. Small added, “Eating locally was the hook, but the longer-term goal was to explore the food system. The tagline was there is something fundamentally wrong with our food system, but there is something we can do about it.” *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

By Gordon Cairns* Innovations Promote Broader Seafood Consumption in Sweden In the Middle Ages, Northern Swedish fishermen had a very specific problem with their catch. They couldn’t afford the salt necessary to preserve the freshly caught fish through the harsh winter. They came up with an ingenious solution: They buried the salmon in a hole in the ground—gravad lax in Swedish—covered it with birch bark and laid it in a mixture of water and the fish’s blood with some herbs sprinkled on top. And so, Scandinavia’s most famous dish—Gravlax—was invented. Today’s culinary techniques have thankfully moved on, but the country’s practical approach to solving food-based issues has remained. Sweden’s Surprising Seafood Problem Modern Sweden has a new, equally complex seafood-related problem. A country with 2,000 miles of coastline, plus innumerable lakes and islands, actually imports three-quarters of the seafood it consumes. This includes 90% of all farmed fish that ends up on a Swedish plate. Furthermore, of all Scandinavians, the Swedes are not only the lowest producers of farmed fish, but they also actually consume less fish than the amount recommended by the Swedish Food Agency. So, how does this northern European country help guarantee its food security, spark the renaissance of its home-grown fish market, and simultaneously encourage people to eat more seafood? By applying modern technology and the same practical mindset that saw their forebears burying fish to preserve it. Seafood Solutions Examples of the nation’s seafood ingenuity abound. One project is called Five Tonnes of Green Fish on the Counter. It uses a novel method of making fish feed from insects fed on food waste. Additionally, the company Musselfeed has turned dried blue mussel meat into both a healthy powder and flour. These products can be used as an ingredient in food, such as a seasoning for fish dishes or as part of a burger, as well as for animal feed applications. The company Musselfeed has turned dried blue mussel meat into a healthy powder and flour to be used as a food ingredient for humans and animals. Furthermore, researchers at Sweden’s Chalmers University of Technology have developed a new sorting technology to tackle fish waste. Currently, more than half of a fish is discarded after the fillets are removed. But the new method processes five parts of the fish to produce new products such as nuggets and fish oil supplements. This technology is already being used by a commercial herring processor. Last year, the Blue Food Centre received 48m Swedish kroner (about $4.7 million) from the Swedish Research Council, Formas. This marked the country’s largest single investment in a seafood initiative. The goal is to achieve ten-fold growth and diversification in the aquaculture industry while tripling the use of raw seafood production materials. The center engages primary producers, fishermen, large fishing companies, restaurants, and retailers, and includes more than seventy different non-academic partners. The initiative’s director, Professor Kristina Snuttan Sundell, who also works at the Department of Biology and Environmental Science at the University of Gothenburg, outlines their major goals: "We are working from responsible and innovative, question-driven research, together with the industry, so that we can get new innovations out there based on scientific facts. One of the main aims is not just to decrease the import of farmed fish per se, but to enhance our self-sufficiency regarding seafood in Sweden, in order to take better advantage of the bio-resources that we have." She added: "As we have very low aquaculture production, as well as a poor use of landed wild fish for human food, we aim to meet the increasing seafood demands by increasing the aquaculture production on the one hand and more efficiently using landed seafood raw materials for food production on the other. However, this needs to be done sustainably." She describes sustainability as the "overarching theme" of their work and says, "Several of our research groups focus on life-cycle analysis and other types of sustainability analyses in order to follow all the different research projects, innovations and procedures, following all three sustainability aspects; ecological, economical and societal. That is the whole basis of the work that we do." "We need to increase the production of not just any food, but nutritious food, and seafoods have a lot of advantages in that respect." And while low seafood consumption might seem a local Swedish issue, the Blue Food Centre is looking beyond their country's borders: "One of the global challenges that we have is we need to increase our food production in a sustainable way by not overloading the ecosystem, and we see seafood is a very strong candidate for doing that. We need to increase the production of not just any food, but nutritious food, and seafoods have a lot of advantages in that respect." "This combines with another very important aspect, the health and well-being of our animals—it should be farmed in a way that is optimal for the different organisms. Any increased production of food needs to be ethically sound." Broadening Sweden’s Dining Palate Perhaps the greatest challenge will be to persuade the Swedish population to widen their seafood palate, as they typically prefer to eat fish in its filleted form. "It will mean a change in eating culture as people need to become used to eating new food items," says Prof. Snuttan Sundell. She adds: "Of today’s total seafood production in Sweden, less than 20% ends up on our plates. We would like to increase that to 60%." One such change will be to encourage the consumption of fish that comes from freshwater fisheries in Sweden. Today, this fish source is mainly used as animal feed, but the Blue Food Centre is creating alternative ways of consuming these fish and other underutilized species: "The industry and researchers are working together to find new types of food products that can be marketed, like minced meat from fish to make burgers or fish meatballs, all kinds of different products from fish utilizing all parts of the fish, not only the fillets." The sustainable approach taken by the Blue Food Centre dovetails with that of the not-for-profit organization, the Axfoundation. Madeleine Linins Mörner, who has been with the organization for over a decade, is the program director of its Future Food strand. She was also the lead on the Axfoundation’s Five Tonnes of Green Fish on the Counter program. She explains the intriguing concept title: "We want to pick a pilot that was substantial in volume that would show this can really work in sales and decided ‘five tonnes, green fish’ because it’s environmentally friendly, and ‘on the counter’ because we wanted to end up where we meet the consumer." "We wanted to show that whole value chain from the fish farmer to the consumer." She adds the Axfoundation seeks to lift ideas off the researcher’s notebook and apply them to the real world. The goal is to be financially viable: "We want the solutions from our programs to be applied, which means someone has to think there is an upside to using them." "We have to be very business savvy, that you can make money or save money, or you can build your brand but there has to be someone out there that thinks the solution is there and can be applied." "We have our own holy trinity. Sustainability is the greatest pillar of all, then nutrition and taste." Yet this real-world pragmatism can’t abandon environmental standards: "We have our own holy trinity. Sustainability is the greatest pillar of all, then nutrition and taste," says Ms. Linins Mörner. "It doesn’t matter if something is amazingly environmentally friendly and very good for your body if the taste is not palatable. Chefs are amazingly important, as are representatives of the market; it could be retailers or wholesalers depending on the project." The Five Tonnes pilot looked at the contentious issue of farmed fish being fed a mixture of other wild-caught fish and soy, which means farmed fish actually damage the stocks of fish in the ocean. Ms. Linins Mörner says: "Our food shouldn’t eat our food. It’s better if our food eats the things we don’t want to or cannot eat." "The idea here was to try and transform waste into a high-protein feed through insects, as they can be harvested after two weeks and are highly efficient." The organization collected food waste from food and vegetable wholesalers. The food waste is mixed with bread and fed to black soldier fly larvae, which are "fantastic waste regenerators" and less fussy about what they eat compared to other insects. They quickly grew into healthy, high-protein, high-fat content feed. The feed was harvested and turned into pellets—the most usable form for the fish farmer—and fed to the fish, which were housed in land-based tanks. She adds: "If the solution we create requires the user to invest in a whole new infrastructure, it’s not going to happen. You just have to make it easy as possible." The next hurdles to overcome were size and flavor: "If the fish had grown less on this circular feed, it wouldn’t work. So, there were a lot of trials for the growth and health of the fish, but they actually grew more." "Another really important thing is taste. We had a sensory panel of well-known and highly trained chefs. Our greatest fear was that it would taste worse, but it turned out it had better scores than other farmed fish. Perhaps because soy is not part of their natural diet, but insects are." "That’s when we felt that we are on to something. We then produced on a larger scale, and they sold like hotcakes!" Ms. Linins Mörner compares the two areas she works in as a delicate piece of cloth: "The food system and the ecosystem are both equally complicated, and you have to be sure of what you are doing as it is all interconnected." "If you pull a thread in one corner, there’s going to be a rip in another corner, and you have to see those possible dangers." With these innovations, it’s not hard to imagine a favorable future for fish-eating in Sweden. A restaurant kitchen may soon exist in Stockholm where the head chef is preparing a delicious dish of Gravlax made from a farmed salmon that was fed on pellets made from black soldier flies that were fed on food waste. In other words, consumers rediscovering the delicious world of seafood with zero environmental damage. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

Sustainable Aquaculture May Have the Solution By Gordon Cairns* The Strait of Gibraltar—where the Atlantic Ocean pours into the Mediterranean Sea—is so narrow that on a clear day the African coast is visible from the small fishing community of Barbate, in the southern Spanish province of Cadiz. For millennia, fishermen have hunted this water for Atlantic Bluefin tuna as the massive fish funnel through this thin gap between continents towards their spawning grounds each spring. These powerful, swift, deep-diving fish were once so plentiful the waters teemed with them. But severe overfishing in the 20th century pushed their populations into danger zones by the 1970s. Since that wake-up call, government bodies have worked in tandem with their foreign counterparts to save a species of fish that crosses countless international boundaries in its lifetime. Today, decades of conservation efforts, such as fishing quotas and limits on fishing techniques, have helped the Atlantic Bluefin tuna rebound, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). However, the Southern Bluefin tuna remains “endangered,” and the Pacific Bluefin tuna is “near threatened,” the IUCN says. And now there are efforts to sustainably “ranch” and “breed” these fish, which normally reach weights of hundreds of pounds. Ancient Tuna Fishing Centuries ago, Phoenician fishermen were the first to set up the “Almadraba,” a netting system using boats that is still practiced today. The Almadraba-style corralling of thrashing bluefin, their giant bodies smashing against each other in a futile attempt to escape, turns the churning waters slowly to pink, then red. Such a sight might seem barbaric, but it is arguably more ecologically beneficial than the high-tech trawlers that track nearby shoals and drop huge nets that gather up everything in their wake. At least the ancient netting method allows juvenile fish to escape, grow, and propagate, ensuring the survival of the species. The worldwide appetite for tuna sushi, sashimi, or simply steak wasn’t always there: Tuna was once viewed as a gamefish to be caught for sport. But then tuna meat became popular fare in Japanese sushi restaurants, and now several species face unquenchable global demands for their delicious cuts of meat. Case in point: One tuna can fetch as much as $30,000 at Tokyo’s Tsukiji market, the world’s largest seafood market. Quotas and Other Fishing Controls Still, if all three types of Bluefin—Atlantic, Pacific, and Southern—are to survive, they will need to be fished using modern, sustainable methods that allow their numbers to climb. The introduction of international fishing quotas for all varieties of bluefin, radically reducing the catch of smaller bluefin, and limiting the number of adult tunas fished, has helped the numbers rebound. In 2017, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission and the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission agreed to work together to replenish the Atlantic and Pacific Bluefin tuna populations to 20% of their historic levels by 2034, National Public Radio reported. Currently, the Pacific tuna stock is less than 3% of what it once was. Kevin Piner, research fishery biologist at the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries’ Southwest Fisheries Science Center, led a recent Pacific bluefin assessment that shows promising results. “The new findings demonstrate the resilience of a species that can multiply quickly when given the chance,” he said. However, more sustainable methods will be needed to satisfy demand and keep fish stocks high. 'Ranching’ Tuna In the middle of the Mediterranean, over 1,000 nautical miles from the nets of Barbate, the small island of Malta lies close to the spawning grounds of the Atlantic bluefin. Unsurprisingly, this is the heart of commercial fishing in the region and where scientists are using a more sustainable approach to bluefin fishing called “ranching.” This method, imported from Australia, involves capturing juvenile tuna in the wild and transporting them to large pens where they are grown to market size. Ranching accounts for one third of the Atlantic bluefin quota, up to an incredible 14,000 tons of fish per year. Ranching, where juvenile fish are captured in the wild and grown to market size, makes up a third of the Atlantic bluefin quota, up to an incredible 14,000 tons of fish per year. There are two concerns over the future of tuna ranching. First is the taking of young bluefin from the wild; the second is feeding them wild-caught bait fish. Malta’s docks are now home to numerous refrigerated containers full of frozen bait fish. Every day, twenty-seven containers full of fish are thawed and supplied to the fish farms—each has up to thirty cages brimming with ravenous fish. ‘Breeding’ Bluefin Tuna The ranching practice is considered unsustainable by many, so scientists in Malta have been working to replicate a technique discovered by their Japanese counterparts over a decade ago—breeding tuna from an egg. The Japanese process has been successful—over 3,000 tonnes (2,952 tons) of Pacific Bluefin tuna have been grown through this type of aquaculture. But, so far, Japan is the only country to make it work commercially. In Malta, Professor Chris Bridges and fellow scientists from across the Mediterranean have recently perfected a technique to do the same with the Atlantic variety. All they need is financial backing to make the scheme commercially viable. “Everybody has the same idea: We want to domesticate and breed the bluefin tuna. We know it is possible. Japan has shown us the way, in terms of what they have done, and now it is just a match of getting the right mix of investment together with technology, pushing this thing forward,” says Bridges. Professor Bridges—part of the team for over a decade at the aquaculture life sciences company, TunaTech—explains how the new method will revolutionize tuna fishing in the Mediterranean: “Basically, we can short-circuit the whole system of ranching and replace it with seed, as in other aquacultures, making it totally sustainable, as you won’t need to fish the wild population.” He adds: “We can produce as many eggs as we need for the full cycle. The fish that are caught in the spawning areas will still spawn in captivity with anything up to 300-400 spawning fish, meaning that we can collect 70 million eggs every day—a whole dustbin full of them!” The next step will be to create a hatchery. “With a hatchery, a brood stock would be used continually over the next three-to-four years, which would mean we would only have to take approximately 100 fish out of the wild population. Then, we produce fingerlings [juvenile fish] which could be grown out to any sized fish. You can grow a five-kilogram (eleven-pound) tuna roughly in less than one year.” The other half of the sustainability equation is getting rid of those refrigerated containers on the Maltese docks. By current estimates, demand for the fish meal they contain will exceed what can be collected from the sea by 2050. Emerging Solutions A new plant-based type of feed known as “tuna sausages”—a mixture of soya and fish protein—has been fed to ranched fish as an experiment. After a few weeks, the ranched fish were successfully weaned off the bait fish. Professor Bridges assures me that in Japanese trials of “green” tuna, the flavor of the fish was unaffected. The task now is to get the cost of land-based protein—which could come from any number of sources from insect protein to chicken feathers—down in price to match the cost of its fish meal competitors. “The world population is growing, and there is no way we can continue to provide protein and food through fishing,” Professor Bridges says. “That’s the reason we favor aquaculture, as this is the only way to harness the oceans.” “If we can go to Mars,” he adds, “we have the technology to work in the ocean.” *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

Researcher Urges Public to ‘Cut the Demand’ By Gordon Cairns* In the popular imagination, poachers and smugglers of rare insects, animals, and flora are characterized as opportunistic and heartless individuals, mindlessly looting humanity’s shared natural heritage for their own lucrative gain. But a new and nefarious breed of adversary has appeared: This one carefully reads scientific papers to locate newly discovered species in the wild, and takes steps to reduce their numbers so they can be more valuable on the market. Combatting these sophisticated criminals will require changes in literature and law enforcement, says Prof. Pedro Cardoso, an expert on illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade (IUWT). For instance, he says, “it has reached the point where many researchers have given up describing the precise location of the [rare] species and instead will just give a general location—in the range of 100 kilometers from a city, for instance.” Law enforcement, which is already working to curb the lucrative market for illegal wildlife trade, will have to step up their efforts, too. The public also has a role to play. Professor Cardoso and team, in reviewing best practices for mitigating IUWT, concluded that there’s not enough international willpower to end the practice. One solution is to educate all sectors of the public about this tragic problem. “It is necessary to measure the scope, scale and impact of IUWT for all the branches of the tree of life,” the researchers say. Journal Articles Unwittingly ‘Advertise’ Poachers’ Prey Prof. Cardoso—an expert in the conservation of scorpions, insects, and tarantulas and other spiders—explains how journals aimed at fellow scientists can become unwitting advertising brochures for unscrupulous poachers. Poachers are typically part of organized international crime gangs that serve clients who crave novelty. “The poachers and traffickers are aware of everything researchers are doing,” says Prof. Cardoso. “The poachers and traffickers are aware of everything researchers are doing,” says Prof. Cardoso, a researcher and curator at the Finnish Museum of Natural History in the University of Helsinki. As soon as a species is described in a journal article as obviously rare, the poachers realize that bringing it to the market will make it valuable, as no one will have it yet, he says. The poachers find a way to locate the target species population and then exterminate a large part of the population, the professor says. Weeks later, remaining specimens can be seen on the market. Valuable ones can go for $300-$500 per specimen, he adds. For example, the poachers may harvest many hundreds of insects, but decimate the local pollution, making recovery of the targeted species almost impossible. Their yield is put into small plastic bags and either mailed or carried in a suitcase to their destination. Some 80% to 90% of the insects are likely to die in transit, Prof. Cardoso says. “It is quite appalling these things are happening.” Illegal Wildlife Market is Massive Prof. Cardoso has co-authored an influential paper on the challenges and perspectives of tackling illegal or unsustainable wildlife trade. Wildlife scholars and ecologists already know that the illicit market is massive. In 2020, estimates of its value ranged from $7 billion to $18 billion. Since COVID-19 restrictions ended on international travel, the trafficking problem is believed to have expanded. Moreover, the internet has revealed ways for the trade to grow that were unimaginable a couple of decades ago. Prof. Cardoso explains at least one approach that can take the sting out of smuggling—“flood the market” with sustainably bred, legal animals and plants. This tactic reduces the profit margin for traders, as the “rare” creatures and goods become commonplace and cheap. An example of this approach is seen in Mexico. There used to be a large illegal tarantula trade across Mexico. Now, many families—including ex-poachers—have become “tarantula farmers” and breed the spider as a main source of legal income. The success of this approach is difficult to predict, however. The illegal spider trafficking has persisted because some clients want a fully developed spider from the wild rather than one that is legally farmed but smaller. Also, what works in limiting the illegal tarantula trade won’t necessarily work for other species. “It is really taxon [species, family, class, etc.] and context-dependent because what works for spiders doesn’t work for rhinos or orchids or corals,” says Prof. Cardoso. Moreover, he adds, “what works in Europe, which is generally a receiver of illegally traded species, doesn’t work in different markets, such as South America or Asia, which are generally donors of the species.” Prof. Cardoso explains that he and his colleagues are discovering new species of spider not in their natural habitat but in the illegal European and North American pet markets. Ironically, sometimes the traffickers end up helping the scientists. Prof. Cardoso explains that he and his colleagues are discovering new species of spider not in their natural habitat but in the illegal European and North American pet markets. These spiders are so rare they don’t even have a scientific name, he says. Again, lack of knowledge works both ways: The smugglers don’t know what they are smuggling, while law enforcement lacks full knowledge about the market for illegally traded species. The Challenges of Enforcement At the opposite end of the weight scale from tarantulas is the African elephant, whose population has fallen by almost a third since 2006, mainly due to high rates of illegal killing. In a recent study, Timothy Kuiper from the University of Cape Town, South Africa, found that increases in the price of ivory is driving the illegal wildlife trade of elephants. Sadly, even enhanced law enforcement has had limited impact on these abhorrent crimes, as criminal syndicates switch to areas where apprehension is less likely. In October 2022, Interpol, in cooperation with the World Customs Organization, seized tens of thousands of pieces of illegally sourced wildlife and timber through a mixture of routine inspections and targeted controls. They examined countless parcels, suitcases, vehicles, boats, and cargo transporters, often using sniffer dogs and X-ray scanners. The shameful list of seizures included 119 big cats and other felines, thirty-four primates, and almost 780 kilograms (1,719 pounds) of elephant ivory. The shameful list of seizures included 119 big cats and other felines, thirty-four primates, and almost 780 kilograms (1,719 pounds) of elephant ivory. In India, 1,200 trafficked reptiles were discovered in transit, in cardboard boxes marked as ornamental fish, while in Namibia, authorities intercepted large amounts of timber being smuggled out of the region. The smuggled creatures and goods are destined for a wide variety of purposes, from becoming “pet” tarantulas to use in folk medicine. Stolen timber turns into furniture and tiger skin into amulets. Every part of a bald eagle is federally protected, as its feathers are valued at hundreds of dollars; there is a $100,000 penalty and jail time for killing an eagle. Interpol has seized clothes made from reptile skins. Technology employed at border controls can identify species being traded transnationally on a day-to-day basis. Border police can use standard DNA testing kits to identify whether the animal or goods being transported is legal. This technology is invaluable: “It is not easy to identify from thousands of species of plants or animals which are being traded; after all, they are policemen, not botanists,” says Prof. Cardoso. Illegal Wildlife Trade Affects Everyone Some people might question why international agencies and governments are investing so heavily into curbing this illegal and unsustainable trade. But the answer is tied to the diversity of the world’s fauna and flora. “Many species will be driven to extinction [by illegal poaching], and we might miss the medical importance of a species if we let this happen,” says Prof. Cardoso. “Preserving the species keeps our options open as any extinct species could be critical for our welfare.” He adds that biodiversity loss and extinction of species can reduce the ecosystems services they provide, such as pollination, control of pests, and formation of soils. “If we don’t have all the species, this will decrease our quality of life.” Ultimately, he adds, whether the victims are large or small, animal or botanical, the solution to illegal wildlife trade lies with the consumer: “This is a demand-and-supply dynamic, and the thing is to cut the demand,” says Prof. Cardoso. “If we make people realize if they buy a tarantula, if they buy an orchid, if they buy ivory or a snail, they are causing harm to the environment and are feeding traffickers, feeding poachers and entire illegal systems which have major repercussions.” “The easiest solution is to … let people know if what they are buying was legally and sustainably obtained before they purchase.” *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

Lessons From the Greek Experience with Early Evacuation By Gordon Cairns* “No one warned us. No one.” “No sirens. No police. Nothing.” Five summers ago, Mina Tsolaki was in the densely packed, Greek beach village of Mati as it was ravaged by fire. She felt abandoned by the authorities who she thinks should have more quickly alerted the residents of the impending disaster and helped them evacuate as quickly as possible. She still cannot quite believe she managed to escape the biblical carnage that engulfed the resort town on the east coast of the Attica region. The blaze killed over​​ 100 people and caused a further 150 to suffer severe burns, while destroying more than 1,500 homes and laying waste to thousands of acres of land in a tragedy that has been described as the most destructive forest fire in over a century in Europe and second only to the Black Saturday Fires in Australia worldwide. In the space of only two hours, the once-thriving resort full of hotels, restaurants, and holiday homes was devastated; such was the intensity of the 800-degree heat. “To be honest, it’s a miracle I am alive today. I turned around and everything was on fire,” Tsolaki said in ​a ​documentary film, “Mati​:​​​ Trapped in Fire.” Tsolaki escaped by racing through smoke-filled alleys to the Petalioi Gulf shore and wading into its waters. But even here was not safe, as molten ash rained down from the burning buildings in the town. Many residents drowned as they waited up to seven hours to be rescued, while others were killed in their cars as they tried to escape by road. In the aftermath, the beautiful green town was burnt to ash—buildings, trees, and vehicles all turned white. How could something almost medieval in its destructive intensity be allowed to occur in the 21st century in a part of the world that has the technology to predict and plan for such occasions? Unlike most other natural disasters—such as randomly occurring earthquakes and tsunamis—forest fires are a regular feature of the Greek summer. In 2018, the fire season, which runs from the start of May until the end of October, had begun uneventfully, with above-average rainfall and no heat waves or strong winds. But on July 23, the day of the Mati fire, the fire risk index in Attica was set at “very high.” Coupled with this, Mati, like most Greek towns, is set within an area of Wildland Urban Interface (WUI), where woodland is mixed with human structures. This creates a very attractive place to live but is also a fire hazard with plentiful fuel to burn. This topography, coupled with the low humidity and high temperature of over 102℉ (39℃) were ideal conditions for a fire fanned by a strong westerly wind that had been blowing for over ten hours. Despite knowing the potential risks, the town and its people were still tragically caught off guard. A fire officer, speaking anonymously to the “Mati: Trapped in Fire” cameras, claims rules were broken: The fire truck that was supposed to remain permanently in Mati was deployed fighting a fire elsewhere, there was no evacuation plan, and illegal buildings blocked residents’ swift escape to the shore. There was a significant change to wildfire safety policy in Greece after 2018, with widespread use of early evacuation deemed the most appropriate method of keeping people safe during a forest fire. The fire truck that was supposed to remain permanently in Mati was deployed fighting a fire elsewhere and illegal buildings blocked swift escape to the shore. In Greece, this is an official directive, but it is non-mandatory. In contrast, in most Australian states, evacuation is mandatory; however, in reality, it is not imposed due to the practical difficulties and risk to the lives of emergency workers forcibly removing people from their own homes in a perilous situation. The new blanket approach in Greece became evident in the exceptional fire season of 2021, when mass evacuations were carried out for almost every forest fire. From the beginning of the year until October, almost 9,000 fires ravaged the country, peaking in an unprecedented, hot August, when a half-million acres of land were destroyed, displacing thousands of people from their homes and into temporary accommodations. One of the worst affected areas was the island of Evia, where 2,000 people were evacuated by ferry to the mainland. Is Mass Evacuation Best? While this early evacuation stopped a potential catastrophe in human cost, disaster specialists have pondered if this really is the best approach. This is the focus of recent research by Ioannis Zikelogou, “Is early evacuation the best and only strategy to protect and mitigate the effects of forest fires in WUI areas? A qualitative research on the residents’ response during the 2021 forest fires in NE Attica, Greece.” The researcher and his colleagues investigated residents’ behavior during a wildfire in August 2021, which broke out in Varympompi in North East Attica, twenty-five miles from Mati. While this fire was equally intense, no one lost their lives. The early evacuation of residents was successful, in part, due to effective communication. Perhaps no one really knows how they would react in a fiery situation until it happens. However, in his work examining how people behave in this scenario, “Should We Leave Now?” Australian academic Jim McLennan discovered residents were likely to delay evacuation if the warnings about the impending fire did not give them enough information about the risks. Looking at the behaviors of people caught up in wildfires in the United States and Australia, McLennan, of the School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia, found people were more likely to assess the potential risk of the fire before making the decision whether to stay or go. Somewhat surprisingly, some would return to their property to protect it even if they were safe elsewhere when they found out about the fire. In 2021, the Greek Civil Protection Agency sent out sixty-six text messages in English and in Greek the moment the local mayor activated the evacuation plan. In 2021, the Greek Civil Protection Agency was able to send out sixty-six text messages in English and in Greek across the fire season the moment the local mayor activated the evacuation plan. The messages urged the receiver to evacuate as soon as possible and move to a safer area, thus supplying them the information they needed to save their own lives. Zikelogou writes: “The relatively new policy of early evacuation seeks to minimize the possibility of human loss due to forest fires, and fortunately, during the 2021 fire season, this goal was achieved.” While saving lives might be considered the paramount concern for all involved, it is not as straightforward as that. Despite the policy’s successful implementation, Zikelogou uncovered strong opposition from residents and from local civil protection officials. They claimed that the universal implementation of early evacuation was not always the most effective tactic for every incident. Many argued that without homeowners on hand, there was a greater chance of damage to personal property and the infrastructure of the town. And those who ignored the early evacuation warning to try and save their homes reported witnessing small fires ripping through the unprotected buildings of their neighbors while they managed to preserve their own. But protecting property in an inferno is a risky course of action. Katherine Haynes, research fellow at Risk Frontiers, Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia, analyzed data from over a century’s worth of Australian bushfire fatalities. These predated the 2009 Black Saturday Fires, where 173 people died. This data clearly shows the dangers of being caught outside during a wildfire, statistically a fate more likely to befall men who have often died attempting to protect their property. Most women and child fatalities occurred while sheltering in the house or attempting to flee. Role of Wildfire Prevention But do these annually destructive events have to be considered as inevitable? According to a 2020 report, many governments around the world are far more effective at stopping fires developing in the first place than their Greek counterparts. In a paper published on the US Department of Agriculture Forest Service site, “Obstacles to Improving Wildfire Risk Governance in Greece,” academic Palaiologos Palaiogou and colleagues wrote: “Successful application and experiences from North America and South Europe proved that investing more in prevention provides the means to cope with the upcoming challenges that emerge from climate change and, typical to Greece, the effects of land abandonment on fuel patterns.” Greece spends an incredible sixteen times more on putting fires out than on fire prevention. The Greek Fire Service’s annual budget of $410 million dwarfs the $25 million given to the Greek Forest Service to manage the fire risk of woodlands. As every schoolchild knows, a fire needs three elements. Two of them, heat and oxygen supply, cannot be controlled, but fuel can. Yet in Greece, fire-prone, low-level conifer forests and evergreen shrubland are largely left unmanaged and prone to fuel build-up. Furthermore, Greek wildfires are more likely to ignite due to human activity than natural causes. Only half of wildfires have a verified ignition cause, but of these, less than 10% start due to a natural cause—lightning—while the rest are ignited due to human behaviors, such as burning land for clearing unwanted vegetation, arson, or in the case of the Mati fire, someone burning brushwood in their backyard. Training the Greek Forest Service personnel on successful fuel management projects that have been used elsewhere in Europe and the world would be the first step towards reducing further fire destruction. Additionally, implementing recent advancements in wildfire science that can reduce the speed at which wildfires spread would surely be a better approach than disrupting the lives, livelihoods, and homes of tens of thousands of Greek citizens. Extreme heat events are likely to be a feature of humanity’s future and what can be learned from the Greek experience will be crucial for countless communities who live near the woods. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

By Germán Leonardo Jiménez Romero* Colombia Hippo Problem In the 1980s, notorious drug trafficker Pablo Escobar imported four hippopotami to Colombia. These animals were brought to Escobar’s private ranch, Hacienda Nápoles, as additions to his personal zoo that showcased animals from other continents. When Escobar was killed in 1993, his property was expropriated, and custody of his menagerie was assigned to the National Narcotics Directorate, the Colombian equivalent of the US Drug Enforcement Agency. Because the National Narcotics Directorate did not have the capacity to manage these animals, custody was then transferred to CORNARE, the Colombian regional environmental agency responsible for the area where the hippos were located. Most of the confiscated animals were donated to other zoos around the country; however, the four hippos, because they were deemed too difficult to seize and move, were left untended in Nápoles. Instead of dying out, the hippos, one male and three females, thrived and bred. Being a new non-native species, the hippos were without natural predators, diseases, or competitors in the environmentally favorable territory of the middle Colombian Magdalena river basin. And their population has grown exponentially: it is currently estimated that roughly 100 hippos have now derived from the founder population of four; left unchecked, numbers are projected to increase into the thousands over the next several decades. These numbers present a serious problem because of the negative impacts that a population of this size puts on our ecosystems, biodiversity, and human safety. By 2007, records documented the spread of hippos outside of Nápoles. Of particular concern were subsequent reports that the invasive animals had moved north of the Magdalena watershed, an area very rich in biodiversity. A consequential incident occurred in 2009 when a hippo named Pepe had repeatedly left Nápoles and actively threatened neighboring people and livestock. After being deemed a threat, the Environment Ministry authorized hunting of the hippo. Once the order was executed, images of the dead animal, exposed as a trophy by the Colombian army, unleashed a wave of public outcry spurred by negative responses from animal welfare groups. Such condemnation and public pressure led to a ban on any further culling, and also provided the hippos legal protection. A survey we conducted in 2017 distinguished two groups of people in terms of their relationships with hippos in the Magdalena watershed. One group, that lives predominantly in towns near Nápoles, like Doradal, claims that hippos have given them economic welfare; the people in this group view the hippos as gentle and peaceful animals that do not represent a threat to people or to biodiversity. Lately this group has received the support of animal rights organizations. Persons belonging to this group carry out media campaigns that use non-scientific and non-evidence based arguments to advocate against measures designed to control the growth of the hippo population. These campaigns do not recognize threats from hippo populations to people or to biodiversity. Rather, arguments are made that link the welfare of peoples living in the Magdalena watershed to the well-being of the hippos. In Africa, attacks from hippos kill at least 500 people per year. While their numbers in Colombia may yet be manageable, an exploding hippo population is sure to drastically affect the environment and pose a danger to local residents in the future. In contrast, the survey identified another group of people who live further away from Nápoles; this second group, composed especially of farmers and fishermen, view the expanding hippo population as a potential threat to their livelihoods, activities, and safety. They consider the evidence provided by their own experiences, as well as by science-like arguments, to give them a reason to be afraid. Faced with the problem of a rapidly increasing hippo population, CORNARE instituted various population control strategies. Unfortunately, given budgetary constraints and limited technical expertise with species management, the goals set by CORNARE have been difficult to reach. Population control measures implemented by CORNARE have included sterilization, capture, and relocation; yet these activities are expensive and pose serious dangers to field teams. To provide CORNARE with scientific counsel, a number of researchers, including myself, from different disciplines have published various papers and documents describing how the growth and expansion of hippos could be dangerous to biodiversity. In those publications, we presented evidence showing that sterilization, as well as capture and relocation, are grossly inadequate responses in dealing with Colombia’s hippo problem. This evidence includes models and simulations based on actual field data. These simulations forecast areas of dispersion under different scenarios, and different population sizes under different management scenarios. This data presented strong evidence that if the hippo population is not actively controlled, the risks to both the biodiversity and the personal safety of the resident population will be high. Distinct Threats and the Hippo Population Distinct threats that could ensue from a burgeoning hippo population include: Significant damage to native ecosystems or to specific species of flora and fauna; Deleterious changes to lakes and waterways including shifts in oxygenation levels, biochemical changes, altered nutrient levels, and generation of algal blooms; Spread of disease; Adverse impacts on people’s livelihoods such as fishing, farming, and livestock production; and Human injury and fatalities. Because of their large size and dramatic impacts on the landscape, hippos are considered “ecosystem engineers.” In Africa, attacks from hippos kill at least 500 people per year. Even with the current, limited numbers of hippos, there is evidence of ecological damage around the pools and wetlands outside of Nápoles, as well as accounts of hippo attacks on people. A hippo attack in May 2020 that left a farmer seriously injured raised the priority of the surging hippo population from that of a regional concern under the purview of CORNARE, to a national one that is being dealt with by Colombia’s national environmental authority, the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development. Following last year’s hippo attack on a farmer, several groups of people residing in the Nápoles watershed demanded action from the Ministry of Environment. The Ministry of Environment acquiesced and called upon the scientific institutions of the Environmental National System (ENS), to devise a national strategy for management of the hippos. With the assistance of allies such as Colombian academic and research institutions, the ENS is crafting such a strategy. Colombia is one of seventeen designated “megadiverse countries” exhibiting great biodiversity and a high number of unique species. Colombia is one of seventeen designated “megadiverse countries” exhibiting great biodiversity and a high number of unique species. For a megadiverse country like Colombia, the challenge is trying to maintain its biodiversity as well as the goods and services derived from its unique variety of species. To meet this challenge, a first line of defense should include the eradication of invasive species. This eradication strategy has been supported by thousands of researchers around the world and by the International Union for Nature Conservation (IUCN). This year the IUCN sent a letter to Environment Ministry where they claim population control as a valid measure to deal with hippos in Colombia. ​​​​​​​The problem of Colombia’s increasing hippo population is bipartisan but requires consideration of multiple factors. On one side are those who are attracted to the charismatic species, and value the considerable economic boost the hippos bring in the form of tourism. On the other side are those who recognize the necessity of conserving and protecting Colombia’s priceless biodiversity for present and future generations. The prospect of eliminating a local species, particularly one of such magnificence as the hippopotamus, is distasteful to anyone. However, this sentiment should be weighed against the need to prevent a single alien invasive species from destroying the enormous and irreplaceable native biodiversity of an entire region. In the author’s opinion, the answer is clear: it is necessary to protect our native species. It is these unique, local species that represent a legacy that supports the ecosystem, species diversity, and the goods and services on which Colombians depend. Policy decisions regarding management of alien invasive species can in practice be difficult and expensive to implement. Thus, achieving and maintaining a balanced and continuous operation may require sustained effort from concerned parties. Informed management decisions made in the first stages of the invasive species control process are crucial, and should address the urgent time frame, responsibilities, and procurement of funds necessary to successfully carry out the operation. Special attention must be focused on peoples' perceptions about hippos in the Magdalena watershed; the avoidance of conflict, and input from stakeholders, is also a priority. Stakeholders should be assured that public sentiment will be appeased whenever possible; however, stakeholders must also be clearly informed when specific measures enacted within a specific time frame are the only viable means of dealing with an imminent threat. The exponentially increasing hippo population is a growing threat to Colombia; and not just its people, but also its resident wildlife. While their numbers may yet be manageable, an exploding hippo population is sure to drastically affect the environment and pose a danger to local residents in the future. Regardless of which measures are taken, it is necessary to prevent continued expansion of the invasive hippo population if we want to protect Colombia’s national treasure: its precious native biodiversity and the Magdalena river people's livelihood and welfare. *Germán Leonardo Jiménez Romero is an associate professor in the Biology Department, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia. His research areas are in conservation biology, ecology and wildlife management, and human-wildlife conflict.

Professor Gary Schwartz presents an “out of the box” view of the universe. We hope that through this perspective, we can expand our horizons, invigorate our creativity, and be inspired to take new approaches to environmental restoration. By Gary E. Schwartz* All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force... We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent Mind. This Mind is the matrix of all matter. — Max Planck In Act One of my life as a scientist, I never questioned my materialistic education until I reached my early forties. I assumed that spiritual theories and experiences reflected a combination of ignorance, superstition, faulty reasoning, and bias. So much for Act One! Act Two of my academic career transformed my understanding of nature, the cosmos, and mind itself. I learned that science is taking us to the idea that consciousness is primary in the universe and that logic, observation, and evidence, combined with direct personal experience, are leading us to Max Planck’s thesis that “Mind is the matrix of all matter.” This marks the first time I have ever used the words nonmaterial reality in a presentation or paper, so I thought I would begin with some insights from the physics of light that speak to the existence of nonmaterial reality. Today’s postmaterialist knowledge heralds an opportunity for humanity to make a quantum jump...that promises to inspire personal, environmental, and global restoration and evolution. The Mind-Boggling Properties of Light Optical scientists observe that, in certain contexts, light behaves as if it is a particle localized in space. In other contexts, light behaves as if it is a wave distributed in space. Scientists observe that in certain states, light appears to have no mass, and in other states, such as at the speed of light, it behaves as if it has a very tiny amount of mass. Scientists also observe that light behaves as if it has energy as well as complex patterns of information (frequencies) over space and time. In physics, energy is defined as the capacity to do work and overcome resistance. Information is described as abstract (mathematical) patterns in space and time. Neither energy nor information is defined as having mass or being material. In a deep sense, then, photons, energy, and information are conceptually non-material in nature. In addition, contemporary physics posits the existence of dark energy, estimated to be approximately 68% of the known universe, and dark matter, estimated to be about 27%. Based on these assumptions, 95% of the known universe is dark or imperceptible. Indeed, its existence can only be inferred. The Case of the North Star Then there is the even deeper question of the holographic-like nature of photonic information that scientists and philosophers often ignore because it is so mind-boggling. For example, the North Star can be seen in a cloud-free night sky. The star has been calculated to be anywhere from 323 to 447.6 light-years from Earth. Therefore, patterns of photonic information and energy traveling from the North Star take, let us say, about 434 Earth years to reach us. When we see the North Star, what we are really seeing are patterns of light (patterns of photonic information and energy) that represent the North Star as it was 434 years ago. We are not seeing the material North Star in present time. We are seeing its photonic, info-energy history as it has been “preserved” in the near-vacuum of space. Although the North Star is estimated to have a radius of 35.4 million km (the Earth’s is about 6,400 km), the radius of the photonic patterns that pass through the lenses of our eyes are tiny (less than 1 mm). Now, let’s imagine ourselves on a football field filled with fifty-four thousand people with normal eyesight simultaneously seeing the North Star. What does this event imply about the existence of multiple North Star patterns existing simultaneously in space and time? The logical implication is that there are at least 108,000 tiny North Star photonic patterns (two eyes per person) simultaneously reaching the football field at any moment (a gross underestimate of the total number). This nonmaterial nature of individual photonic light patterns strains our imagination as we try to comprehend this deep complexity. Ponder This I ask my students to imagine that we are all standing outside and that the photonic patterns that represent each of us are being reflected into space. I remind them that the existence of our photonic patterns in space is a fact established by spy satellites that can clearly “see” us—and that, by definition, can detect our individual photonic patterns in space. I then ask the students to imagine how many trillions of our individual photonic patterns are spreading out simultaneously and continuously in the “vacuum” of space (places in space having no material mass). Finally, I ask them to imagine what happens to all this holistic, holographic-like information after a physical star or a physical person dies. They realize that, in principle, it is still there. The individualized photonic info-energy patterns survive. I end the discussion with a description of the discovery of the cosmic background radiation believed to have been created only a few hundred thousand years after the Big Bang. These historical photonic patterns, present everywhere in the universe, are presumed to be at least 13.7 billion years old, and therefore have a kind of immortality. It is as if the universe is a gigantic photonic (info-energy) memory storage system. I raise the question: Could the universe appear to be expanding to make room for all this emerging historical information and energy? Other questions come to mind: Is it possible that every “thing” that ever was continues its existence in some sustained, evolving, info-energy way? Is it possible that every “thing” that has ever existed has a nonmaterial, info-energy “afterlife” and that this survival potential is built into the fabric of the universe, as expressed in the essence of light itself? Does this mean that contemporary science allows for, and even predicts, the survival of consciousness after physical death, or what has been historically called soul? And can we ponder what kind of Extraordinary Mind would be required to create such an extraordinary, photonic, quantum field–like universe? As one of the fathers of quantum mechanics, Niels Bohr, said, “If quantum mechanics hasn’t profoundly shocked you, you haven’t understood it yet.” The take-home message: As strange as the known properties of light and quantum mechanics are, they only hint at the inherent extraordinariness of the greater, nonmaterial reality. What Survival-of-Consciousness Research Is Teaching Us Let’s turn now to examples of what I have learned about nonmaterial reality as revealed through contemporary life-after-death research. Many areas of research today contribute evidence that supports the survival-of-consciousness hypothesis, including near-death research, past lives research, laboratory experiments with documented evidential mediums, and laboratory experiments employing state-of-the-art ultraweak-signal–detecting hardware and software. Reviews of this research can be found in the references. Here are four extraordinary insights from survival-of-consciousness research: Certain “deceased” individuals—whom we now refer to as postmaterial persons (PMPs)—not only deeply care about the bridging of nonmaterial and material realities but are active, postmaterial collaborators (PMCs) in this research. When evidential research mediums request PMCs to appear at spontaneous meetings, PMCs see it as their responsibility to show up, and unless they indicate otherwise, virtually always do. The evidence indicates that PMCs’ “travel” from their nonmaterial reality to our material reality at the “speed of thought.” There are numerous instances where PMC behavior in nonmaterial reality is less constrained than our behavior in material reality. PMPs are typically perceived by evidential mediums to be as they historically appeared on the Earth (in terms of size, shape, features, clothing, etc.). Consequently, they can be recognized by loved ones. Moreover, PMPs can produce physical-like effects on physical sensors—at greatly reduced, ultraweak levels—whether the sensors involve scientific precision instruments or sensitive commercial devices. When controlled experiments involving mediumship and technology are considered as a whole, the findings strongly point to the nonmaterial reality of hypothesized PMPs. However, as required by skeptics in the scientific community, we have been developing a system for conducting multi-experimenter, multi-center, multi-blinded, randomized control trials to further investigate hypothetical spirit presence and communication. Large-scale, dual-center validation experiments have already been completed and submitted for publication in a mainstream journal. Evidence for a Universal Source Mind Playing a Role in Human Life If a nonmaterial/greater reality exists, with mind at its core, then it follows that this nonmaterial Universal (Source) Mind should be able to influence the minds within it, including human minds. Consequently, if the Universal Mind so chooses, it can subtly influence our choices and decisions to create complex patterns of human activities, both in series (one after another) and in parallel (at the same time). Examples of complex serial and parallel human events and processes include the composing of symphonies and the programming of complex computer software. Mathematical and statistical analyses confirm that such complex patterns of serial-parallel events cannot be achieved through random processes, especially when the limits of time are considered. In my 2017 book Super Synchronicity: Where Science and Spirit Meet, I provide arguably definitive evidence for the existence in real life of supercomplex serial coincidences or synchronicities that cannot be explained by randomness, faulty data collection, or conventional physical forces or events. The totality of the evidence supports the humorous statement attributed to Yogi Berra that “Some things are too coincidental to be a coincidence.” Ancient wisdom, together with survival-of-consciousness and synchronicity science, provides not only new inspiration and hope for humanity but practical advice and collaboration from experienced and wise minds living in the Greater Reality, not to mention that of the One Mind itself. Today’s postmaterialist knowledge heralds an opportunity for humanity to make a quantum jump from mind and consciousness to metaconsciousness—extending from our experiences of the material world to nonmaterial reality and to the Source itself—a jump that promises to inspire personal, environmental, and global restoration and evolution. Bibliography Dossey, Larry. One Mind: How Our Individual Mind Is Part of a Greater Consciousness and Why It Matters. Carlsbad, CA: Hay House, 2014. Sarraf, Matthew, Michael A. Woodley of Menie, and Patrizio Tressoldi. “Anomalous Information Reception by Mediums: A Meta-Analysis of the Scientific Evidence.” EXPLORE: The Journal of Science and Healing, July 3, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.explore.2020.04.002. Schwartz, Gary E. “A Computer-Automated, Multi-Center, Randomized Control Trial Evaluating Hypothesized Spirit Presence and Communication.” EXPLORE: The Journal of Science and Healing, 2021 (in press). ———. “Contemporary Evidence for Communication with the Departed and the Sacred.” In Human Interaction with the Divine, the Sacred, and the Deceased: Psychological, Scientific, and Theological Perspectives, edited by Thomas Plante and Gary E. Schwartz. New York: Routledge, 2021 in press. ———. “Photonic Measurement of Apparent Presence of Spirit Using a Computer Automated System.” EXPLORE: The Journal of Science and Healing 7 (2011): 100–109. ———. “Possible Application of Silicon Photomultiplier Technology to Detect the Presence of Spirit and Intention: Three Proof-of-Concept Experiments.” EXPLORE: The Journal of Science and Healing 6 (2010): 166–171. ———. Super Synchronicity: Where Science and Spirit Meet. Cardiff-by-the-Sea, CA: Waterside Digital Press, 2017. ———. The Sacred Promise: How Science Is Discovering Spirit's Collaboration with Us in Our Daily Lives. Hillsboro, OR: Atria Books/Beyond Words, 2011. Schwartz, Rhonda E. Love Eternal: Extraordinary Personal and Scientific Evidence for Life after Death. 2nd ed. Vancouver, BC: Param Media, 2016. Schwartz, Stephan A., Woollacott, Marjorie H., and Schwartz, Gary E., eds. Is Consciousness Primary? Battle Ground, WA: AAAP Press, 2020. Tucker, Jim B., and F. Don Nidiffer. “Psychological Evaluation of American Children Who Report Memories of Previous Lives.” Journal of Scientific Exploration 28, no. 4 (2014): 583–594. Van Lommel, Pirn, Ruud Van Wees, Vincent Meyers, and Ingrid Elfferich. “Near-Death Experience in Survivors of Cardiac Arrest: A Prospective Study in the Netherlands.” The Lancet 358, no. 9298 (2001): 2039–2045. *Gary E. Schwartz, PhD, is a Professor of Psychology, Medicine, Neurology, Psychiatry, and Surgery at the University of Arizona, and director of its Laboratory for Advances in Consciousness and Health. After receiving his PhD from Harvard University in 1971, he was an assistant professor at Harvard University and then served as a Professor of Psychology and Psychiatry at Yale University and was director of the Yale Psychophysiology Center before moving to the University of Arizona in 1988.

By Ermias Kebreab and Breanna Roque* Reducing Ruminant Methane Emissions Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane are capable of trapping heat within our atmosphere, which, in excess, can cause shifts in global temperatures. Methane gas is approximately twenty-eight times more effective than carbon dioxide in trapping heat; however, methane gas only lives within the atmosphere for approximately twelve years before it is oxidized. The relatively short lifespan of methane makes it attractive for short-term climate change solutions and can even lead to an atmospheric cooling effect if methane emissions are adequately reduced within the next ten years. Ruminant—think four-chambered stomachs, such as cows and goats—livestock farming contributes approximately thirty percent of total human-induced methane emissions globally; therefore, strategies for reducing ruminant methane emissions can have a considerable impact on climate change. Ruminant—think four-chambered stomachs, such as cows and goats—livestock farming contributes approximately thirty percent of total human-induced methane emissions globally. Use of Red Seaweed to Reduce Cow Gas Our lab at the University of California, Davis, focuses on investigating the effects of feed additives to reduce methane coming from the stomachs of cattle. One feed additive with significant promise of reducing methane is the red seaweed Asparagopsis. The family of Asparagopsis used in the study accumulates halogenated compounds such as bromoform (chloroform with bromine substituting for chlorine) in its plant cells. Bromoform and other haloalkanes are thought to competitively bind to enzymes necessary for reactions within methane formation. Laboratory studies showed that red seaweed almost eliminates methane emissions when added in amounts up to two percent of the total diet. The first-ever study of this type with cattle showed that supplementing diet with about ten ounces of seaweed a day in dairy cows reduced methane emissions by up to sixty-seven percent. However, there was a reduction in dairy feed intake because of the relatively high amount of seaweed offered. Our lab’s new study was conducted with beef cattle to understand (1) if the microbes responsible for formation of methane in cattle can adapt to the seaweed and, therefore, reduce the seaweed’s effectiveness and (2) if the type of diet changes the effectiveness of the added seaweed in reducing methane emissions. The beef cattle used in the study were supplemented with 1.5 to three ounces of seaweed per day in their diet for twenty-one weeks. During the initial feeding stages of the project, the cattle were unsure about eating the seaweed in their diet; however, after about two weeks they adapted to this new ingredient. We saw that the microbes did not adapt to the seaweed, and that the seaweed was effective for the entire time the cattle were consuming it. Cattle fed high-forage diets reduced their methane emissions by thirty-three to fifty-two percent, depending on how much seaweed they were given per feeding. Cattle fed low-forage diets had their methane emission reduced by 70 to 80%. One finding of particular interest for livestock farmers was that cattle supplemented with seaweed were more efficient in converting feed to body weight by up to twenty percent, which reduces the cost of production for farmers. For example, a producer finishing one thousand head of beef cattle has the potential to reduce feed costs by $40,320 to $87,320 depending on how much seaweed was used. The reason for better feed conversion efficiency could be because the resultant increase in hydrogen pressure in the gut pushes the metabolism towards producing a better quality of energy source for the animal. Feed cost reductions in combination with significantly reduced methane emissions suggest a potential for seaweed supplementation to transform cattle production into a more economically and environmentally sustainable industry. Supplementing Asparagopsis has produced no measurable bromoform residues nor detrimental iodine residual effects in meat. No difference in meat quality was detected and a consumer panel did not detect any difference in tenderness, juiciness and flavor of meat, whether coming from cows that consumed seaweed or from those that did not. Feed cost reductions in combination with significantly reduced methane emissions suggest a potential for seaweed supplementation to transform cattle production into a more economically and environmentally sustainable industry. There has also been great interest from seaweed farmers to develop aquaculture techniques globally in ocean and land-based systems to scale up production and meet potential demand. Currently, international research on the ability to scale up Asparagopsis seaweed production is underway. Asparagopsis shows great potential in that it has been found to grow naturally all over the world, including in the waters near Australia, Portugal, Southern California, and Hawaii. The next steps for the use of seaweed as a feed additive would be to obtain approval by the US Food and Drug Administration before it can be used in the commercial cattle industry in the US. Additionally, the development of an emission reduction protocol through the use of seaweed would provide guidance on how to quantify, monitor, and verify methane emission reductions and allow farmers to claim carbon credit from carbon offset programs around the world. *Ermias Kebreab is Associate Dean and Professor of Animal Science. He holds the Sesnon Endowed Chair and he is the Director of World Food Center, University of California, Davis. Breanna Roque is a PhD student in the Animal Biology department at University of California, Davis. Her work involves developing strategies to improve environmental sustainability in livestock production through the use of alternative feed additives in ruminant diets.

By Edwin Maria John* When Greta Thunberg at age 16 spoke at the United Nations and made a global impact for environmental concerns, what paved the way for her was not just her passionate determination. Growing up she found confidence, connections, encouragement, and backing. But not every child is lucky to have such an enabling background. Could we build a system similarly enabling every child to make a significant contribution to the solution of local or global problems—especially the environment-related ones? Could we also ensure a process whereby children leave schools not merely as academically qualified but as proactively contributing citizens and leaders empowered enough to ensure a sustainably developed world? So-called Inclusive Neighborhood Children's Parliaments (INCPs) in India are doing just that. What are they? What measures do INCPs employ that enable every child to grow up to be a proactive citizen and effective leader? Started in 1990s in the southernmost district of India, Kanyakumari, INCPs today are a bottom-up global movement that starts from neighborhood-level parliaments and reaches up to a Provisional World Children’s Parliament. Small-sized, Inclusive, and Neighborhood-based At the base, INCPs are units of about 30 children each, geographically and inclusively organized—every child in each neighborhood is reached out to and included. INCP units are kept deliberately small: the child parliament should be small enough that everybody can sit in one circle face-to-face and talk without a microphone. In such small forums, unlike in huge forums, every child gets attention and recognition, and has ample opportunity to be heard, to interact, to perform, and to lead. INCPs are organized in residential neighborhoods. Lately schools joined in. The school parliaments are, preferably, not based on the children’s courses, but on the geographic neighborhood children come from. Children respond more easily to persons, situations, needs, and problems in their neighborhoods. Also, a neighborhood-linked process continues even after the children complete their studies in school and go home. This enables them to continue to interact with their neighbors and together keep on contributing for the common good in their neighborhoods and beyond. The entire process is child-led. Each INCP does have an adult mentor, though not functioning as a “teacher” but assisting the children in finding their own solutions—he or she sits with the children in the circle or even behind the circle. Child parliamentarians at the neighborhood level meet every other week for an hour or so. The intervening week meetings are for the various ministries led by so-called child ministers. Child Leaders Aplenty Each INCP has its child leaders called “ministers” focusing on various concerns like health, education, child rights, and gender sensitivity. The child ministers—American children unused to “minister” might prefer terms like “secretary” and “director”—alert other child parliamentarians regarding issues related to their ministries and motivate them for action responses. Almost every child is made a minister. Assigning a child to be a minister is a great strategy to groom him or her to be a proactive leader. 17 of these ministries are for the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN. For example, if a girl becomes a minister for the environment, she is expected to report about the environment during the next parliament meeting. This would spur her to read about it, investigate, and listen to others on possible activities that the children’s parliament could initiate, and so forth. Over time she will become an expert, and a knowledgeable leader. When every child in a circle of 30 ministers in the child parliament focuses on a separate concern, each child gets a multi-sided awareness of social, environmental, and other issues affecting the world. Engaging children to have a wider and deeper awareness through a collective process is a core component of the INCP’s approach for creating action-leaders. Leaders are to know the way, go the way, and show the way. They observe, judge, and act. When children in groups understand together, evaluate together, and act together, their perspectives get mutually corrected, their views become more complete and objective, a value clarification process automatically takes place, and they become effective team workers and leaders. Actions for the Environment Child parliaments using this method have led campaigns for tree-planting, plastic-reduction, reduction of fossil energy, promotion of solar energy, recycling programs, and so forth. They have dug soak-pits ensuring both the recharging of ground water, and cleanliness of the village, avoiding water-stagnation and dengue-spreading mosquitoes. In another example, they joined the global movement of eco-brick making. First, they informed the houses in the neighborhood they would collect their single-use plastics like plastic bags. After they collected the single-use plastics, they filled them in the PET bottles they had already collected previously and packed them to the high density that becomes like a brick. Then these eco-bricks are ready to be used for making various building modules. Kovalam, a village in the southernmost part of India, received the national presidential award for cleanliness, due to the efforts of child parliamentarians. In New Delhi, child parliamentarians decided to use bicycles for distances up to three kilometers, and to opt for traveling by public buses for longer distances. When they have parliament sessions at state and national levels they invite or meet government leaders and submit memoranda alerting them on various environmental issues. Child parliamentarians also advocate for the environment through songs, drama skits, native dances, poems, rallies, exhibitions, and more to create awareness on environmental concerns, bringing to the process fun, color, and creativity. Building a Sustainable World INCPs can handle multiple concerns at the same time with wide impacts by electing ministers for specific concerns. For environmental concerns, they select a child minister for environment in each neighborhood parliament of children. These neighborhood level ministers join at the village level to form a child ministry for environment, and they will in turn form such environment ministries at sub-district, district, state, nation, international, and global levels. This helps child parliamentarians to advocate for sustainable growth at ever wider levels as they keep growing in confidence and competence. Swarnalakshmi Ravi, a visually challenged girl, was just 12 years old when she joined a children's parliament in Chennai, India, in 2002. The very next year she became the Child Prime Minister of the State Parliament of Children of Tamilnadu, India, and addressed meetings at the UN headquarters in New York. Later, as national child prime minister she would advocate for Sustainable Development Goals, submitting memoranda to national government leaders. Presently, she serves as a convenor for the PWCP. Jayalaxmi Ram Mohan, 18, joins her parents, her brother, and her sister in garbage collecting every day from 4 am to 12 noon. Afterward, she goes to her studies as a 12th grader. Four years ago, she joined the children’s parliament in the Singareny Colony slum, eventually became the prime minister of that parliament, and still later, the child prime minister of Hyderabad City parliament. Jayalaxmi led a team of child parliamentarians to submit memoranda to the Special Secretary for Women Development and Child Welfare of Telangana State, India, requesting that day care centers for poor children in slums provide also free breakfast every morning. It was approved. She met the governor of Telangana State in India and submitted a request to ensure that children’s parliaments are started in all schools, beginning with the state-run ones. Her various involvements earned her the ChangeMaker award given to just 15 persons a year in a nation of 1.4 billion people. She was also one of eight persons specially honored at the Women’s Day celebration 2022 at the Telangana State governor’s palace. In March 2022, she was elected the Prime Minister of the Provisional World Parliament of Children. Children of the Inclusive National Children’s Climate Parliament interacted with M. Venkaiah Naidu, the Vice-President of India, and Smriti Zubin Irani, Union Minister of India for Women and Child Development, and the Chair of the Parliamentary Group for Children, as well as with members of parliament from various Indian states. Global Connectedness The child parliament ministers for the environment at various levels are not to work in isolation, but to coordinate their activities with other similar, neighborhood-based global multi-tier child- ministers for concerns like human rights, women’s empowerment, health, sports, education, and so forth. What a wonderful thing to have such a bottom-to-top child-led federation for the environment working together with similar organizations for related concerns. Local INCP select representatives forming a second-level, larger area parliament who in turn elect representatives to form third-level, even larger area parliaments. By electing local representatives to the next wider area level, children’s parliaments are in the process to function at sub-district, district, state, nation, international, and global levels. Every two weeks the Provisional World Children’s Parliament (PWCP) brings together online child parliamentarians from five continents with focus on SDGs. It is “provisional” as many countries are yet to join in this representative process from below. This global connectedness aims to fight the feeling of helplessness that often cripples the enthusiasm of children wanting to effect changes. Children would now feel that what they say from one corner of the world would echo in every corner of the world—they have a global voice. Members of Neighborhood parliaments are prepared to become later members of youth parliament and neighborhood parliaments of the adults. Thus, they are set to usher in gradually a multi-level federation of neighborhood parliaments of adults. This will lead to a world organized from below. It will ensure a powerful ongoing voice and structure for all people, but especially for those at the socio-economic base and those affected by the environmentally destructive decisions of the big and the powerful. Children and adults from every corner of the world will fight together effectively for a sustainable world. Could the earth-lovers ask for more? *Edwin Maria John, 77, is the author of the book, Hello, Neighbourocracy! which presents the blueprint for a new political, economic and social world order. He has nearly fifty years of experience in organizing neighborhood-based, small-sized forums for children and grown-ups, and federating them at various levels. He promotes Inclusive Neighborhood Children’s Parliaments, Neighborhood Parliaments of People, Marketing from Below and Governance from Below. He can be contacted at neighbouroc@gmail.com.

The Earth & I Interview with Dr. Thorsten Ludwig E&I: Dr. Ludwig, what is zero-point energy? How could zero-point energy become a future power source? Dr. Thorsten Ludwig: Zero-point energy is a concept embedded in quantum mechanics. One hundred twenty-three years ago, German physicist Max Planck postulated that energy comes in quanta, energy “packages”: E = nhf (E = energy of a photon; n = number of photons; h = Planck’s constant; f = frequency of a photon). [Planck's constant h, measured as energy (J) x time (s) functions as a proportionality constant between the energy of a photon and its frequency and has the value of approximately 6.626 x 10^-34 joule-seconds (J⋅s)]. It is a successful theory that led to the development of lasers and the understanding of the subatomic world, and many other things related to it. But also, part of this theory became that at zero degrees, when there’s no temperature or absolute zero temperature (Kelvin), still the amount of energy is not zero—there is still some energy left that is called zero-point energy. One could also say there are quantum fluctuations that resemble a jitter of atomic particles because they cannot sit totally still. [Quantum mechanics] is a successful theory that led to the development of lasers and the understanding of the subatomic world, and many other things. Another way of looking at it is with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. It basically means that we cannot know simultaneously the exact energy and the time of a particle, just as we cannot know its position and momentum at the same time. This Heisenberg principle describes a small area of uncertainty, and within it there can be fluctuations. For example, within a fraction of time a positron and electron can come into being and annihilate again. When electrons, protons or other particles enter these fluctuating fields, their fields and physical properties are changed. This leads us to look at the properties of space. So, why is the speed of light in a vacuum about 186,282 miles (about 299,791.82 km) per second? Why does the wave travel at this speed? It has to do with the properties of space. If there is a positron, an electron, and a field, there will be polarization, called vacuum polarization. There are also blue photons, green photons, infrared photons—they come into being for a short time and then are gone again. All this activity is happening, I could say, by itself or because of the phenomenon described by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle—which would be an even deeper subject to explain—but anyhow it does exist. Scientists have found it, and this leads to the conclusion that there is activity of particles and waves in space. Therefore, one could say that there is a sea of energy in space itself. All that is called zero-point energy. [T]he phenomenon described by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle … leads to the conclusion that there is activity of particles and waves in space … that there is a sea of energy in space itself. There are a number of experiments one can do. I often work with the Casimir effect because it will lead to energy and other effects. And other very fundamental research experiments have shown that this zero-point energy does exist. The Casimir effect was named after Hendrik Casimir, a Dutch physicist. He had the simple idea to take two metal plates and put them in space parallel to each other, establishing a space outside the metal plates where there are more electromagnetic waves, and a space in between the plates where waves are restricted. Only short waves can fit into the tiny space. When there are more waves on the outside and less in the inside, photonic pressure, a force, is created that presses the plates together, and that force can be measured. This is a good effect to start experimenting with because it is a force you can do something with, a force that you can develop and relate to energy. If a force is applied along a displacement you get energy. It is closely related. There are also many ways of studying the properties of space by using the Casimir effect. Otherwise, you would need a particle accelerator that requires sometimes very large equipment, spending billions of dollars, and hundreds of scientists to study. So, for example, you can study vacuum polarization that changes the charges we see from an electron. If you let electrons collide and get closer and closer in your observation, you will see this effect. Some years ago, Japanese scientists did very successful studies in this field and observed this effect quite well. But you need a large particle accelerator for that. The Casimir effect can be used for table-top experiments and has a good potential of being used for energy production or propulsion, or comparable effects. Back to the sea of energy—it is fundamentally embedded in the theory of quantum mechanics. Twelve years after Max Planck initially presented his first formula, he presented a revised formula in 1912, Planck’s radiation equation, which describes energy emitted from resonators based on frequencies. This revised quantum theory required a slight change from the first formula, a residual energy factor: E = nhf/2. He noticed from quite accurate experiments that one needs this zero-point energy concept to make the quantum mechanics theory work. Andrei Sakharov, a famous Russian scientist and dissident, researched what the zero-point energy’s effect would be on gravity, and with his calculations, one gets very accurate results. The next step is to think of this as activity in space and as a sea of energy. Andrei Sakharov, a famous Russian scientist and dissident, researched what the zero-point energy’s effect would be on gravity, and with his calculations, one gets very accurate results. All this leads to the idea of the sea of energy that we are living in. If you do the calculations, you come up with very large amounts of energy. One cubic inch of space would approximately hold 10^120 joules of energy. … The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency, and the more energy there is in the frequency range. The question arises, what is the shortest wavelength (the quantum length) and the highest frequency? Calculating with no limits, one gets this extremely high energy. If you use the highest observable frequency as a cut-off, the numbers are high but more workable. The theoretical concept is very well based. The Casimir effect helps to measure these forces. The Casimir effect produces differences of radiation pressure that are measurable. A change in the sea of energy is needed to measure the energy. When an electron enters the sea of energy—that results in a change one can measure. E&I: How would it be possible to harness this energy? Dr. Thorsten Ludwig: There are some experiments that try to use the Casimir effect. The NASA scientist Harold White, who has had a sizable budget to work with, has built microstructures that would use the Casimir effect. The current research is focusing not on flat plates but using structured plates to produce the Casimir effect. Instead of a full flat plate, structured plates have very small, fine grooves in them. With these cavities, physics changes in such a way that the Casimir force reverses. If you want to go from a force to a motor, you can reverse the polarity, like in an electromagnetic motor—then you get a rotation if you do it with the right method. The objective is to build structures that make it possible to reverse the polarity. Currently, I know of about five ongoing research projects in the world that use the concept of the Casimir effect to develop usable machines. I know of about five ongoing research projects in the world that use the concept of the Casimir effect to develop usable machines. It would already be an achievement if we could clearly show that energy can be generated from the vacuum state. I have not yet seen a fundamental physics experiment clearly proving that you can convert zero-point energy into a force that can move something. It is important that one of these experiments shows this. From a practical perspective, probably this question is less important. There is room for many experiments and experimenters, like inventor types. Zero-point energy is also very much related to magnetism itself. For example, where does the energy come from for a permanent magnet? There is a deep relationship between the spinning of the particle, its magnetic moment, and zero-point energy. (I have written about that in my paper “Tuning Coler magnetic current apparatus with magneto-acoustic resonance.”) Many scientists and inventors use regular magnets and electromagnets in many variations to build machines that take energy from somewhere. I say “energy from somewhere” because the sea of energy and the forces one gets from it would be an input into the machine. Some people who do not like this subject try to ridicule it as perpetual motion machine, but that is not what it is about—it is not about a machine that runs by itself. Rather, it is a machine that converts a flow of energy, let’s say, zero-point energy, or another kind of energy. There are a number of energy sources around us, not just zero-point energy. This flow of energy into the machine powers it. Using magnets is a good way—there are many magnetic motor research projects. Some people who do not like this subject try to ridicule it as perpetuum motion machine, but … it is not about a machine that runs by itself. Rather, it is a machine that converts a flow of energy, … zero-point energy, or another kind of energy. These projects are at the research level; they do not have marketable applications yet. These projects do need a lot of effort, time, and money to improve them. Take, for example, the magnetic current apparatus Hans Coler originally constructed almost 100 years ago [see The Earth & I article “Reimagining Energy”]. I have been working on this device off and on for twenty years. The basic Coler magnetic current apparatus produces only half of a watt. That’s all it was supposed to do and that was all Coler ever saw. But because it is working, it is still interesting. Now, Coler’s electric current apparatus was a different machine. It could produce 6 kW of power. That is, of course, much more interesting, but we have less information available. Taking the information that is available, for example from the British archives and from the patents that Coler used himself, this apparatus provides much more potential. But it is not easy to rebuild it. It would require much more time, energy, and money to find that principle. Coler ran electric currents through permanent or electromagnets, and at the same time used mechanical, magnetic, and electrical resonance circuits. You have three resonance circuits all being interlinked—it is an effective way to harness energy, but it is very difficult to tune it, to excite the inner resonance to start with. It is already not easy to tune one, two, or three resonance circuits, but it is very difficult to tune ten of them on different levels. It is like finding a needle in a haystack. There are already a number of other interesting magnetic motors. But when investors come in, examine it thoroughly, and want to produce it for the market, usually they run into some problems. It needs more time and research. E&I: Dr. Ludwig, thank you very much. *Dr. Thorsten Ludwig is a pioneer in new energy research. He is the Senior Scientist and Owner, New Energy Technologies, in Pritzwalk, near Berlin, Germany. He earned his Doctor of Natural Science at the Technical University of Berlin, Germany.For further reading, Dr. Ludwig recommends his article “Quantum field energy sensor based on the Casimir effect,” Physics Procedia 38 ( 2012 ) 54 – 65,Elsevier B.V.

By Dr. Tanmoy Rana* How Green Tea May Impact Mental Health, Cancer, COVID-19, and More The associated health benefits of green tea have given the drink its lofty reputation and growing popularity. Today, green tea and its components can be found in a variety of tea blends, nutritional supplements, skin treatments, and even ice cream. Green tea’s reputed health benefits are impressive. A cup of green tea can bolster immunity and provide relief for a sore throat. Its components possess antioxidant and anticarcinogenic effects and could reduce the risk of cancer. A recent research study demonstrated that consumption of green tea can help boost DNA repair. One of green tea’s substances—epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG)—is mainly responsible for the beneficial functions that green tea exhibits. EGCG may inhibit the growth of tumors, help people lose weight, fight diabetes and high blood pressure, help protect the brain, and prevent strokes. EGCG may even counteract coronavirus (CoV) infection. Green Tea and the Brain Green tea—Camelia sinensis is the plant from which green and black teas are derived—is widely studied for its impacts on cognitive function and dementia risk. It has been shown to reduce psychopathological symptoms, including anxiety, and improve memory and attention. Green tea can also assist brain function through the activation of working memory, a benefit observed in functional MRI scans. Nutrients called phytochemicals give green tea its reputation as a brain and mood food. Recent research shows that green tea may maintain positive mood states and even protect against Parkinson's disease and other brain disorders. Surprisingly, EGCG can also act as a quick pick-up without affecting sleep. A study from the University of San Francisco observed that the tea’s polyphenols—antioxidants that neutralize free radical damage—help boost dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter and hormone that plays a role in creating positive moods. It also helps with reward feedback and motivation and assists smooth muscle movement. Another study documented that the polyphenols in green tea positively influence the metabolism of glucose, which is an overall benefit to brain and heart health. Researchers at the University of California at San Francisco found that a polyphenol in green tea called gallotannin helped repair brain damage and prevent neuron death in stroke victims. In addition, green tea extract helped enhance connectivity from the right superior parietal lobule of the brain to the middle frontal gyrus, possibly improving task performance. Green Tea and the Heart Drinking green tea can lower the risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke by reducing LDL cholesterol and triglycerides. Long-term consumption of tea polyphenols called catechins may also be beneficial against high-fat, diet-induced obesity and type II diabetes. Research on Japanese adults showed that participants who drank more than five cups of green tea a day had a 26% lower risk of death from a heart attack or stroke than people who drank less than one cup a day. They also had a 16% lower risk of death from all causes. Japanese adults who drank more than five cups of green tea a day had a 26% lower risk of death from a heart attack or stroke than people who drank less than one cup a day. Green tea may be a promising tool for the protection of cardiovascular disorders because it may counter plaque accumulation on arterial walls, reduce the formation of blood clots, and inhibit tumor growth. It may also have antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects, as well as beneficial effects on blood vessel function. Recent evidence exists for beneficial effects of tea constituents on heart tissue, including positive effects on heart muscle contraction and hypoxia (low oxygen level)-induced tissue injury. Green Tea and Cancer There are close associations between green tea consumption and a lower risk of cancer and related mortality. EGCG may play a role in inhibiting several stages of tumor development, from tumorigenesis (tumor formation) through metastasis (secondary growth or spread). In addition, EGCG is capable of reducing cancer risk by quenching free radicals and thereby preventing oxidation-induced DNA damage and mutations. Topical application of green tea ointment may protect against precancerous cervical lesions of patients. In addition, tea constituents may play a significant role in fermenting gut bacteria. Exploring Impacts on SARS-CoV Recent studies demonstrated that EGCG may protect against infection by diverse coronaviruses (CoVs), including potential future emerging CoVs. Research demonstrated that EGCG plays a key role in preventing human and rodent CoV infection, including co-variants of concern, in lung epithelial cells. EGCG interfered with the attachment of CoV to sugar-chain structures on cell surfaces. EGCG shows antiviral activity against diverse DNA and RNA viruses, including herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), influenza A virus (IAV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). Researchers documented that EGCG inhibited HCoV-OC43 infection by disrupting the binding of the virus to its receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Green Tea and Oral Health Green tea may also play a role in oral health. It can eliminate bad-breath (halitosis) through the moderation of odor-causing sulfur components. It is also capable of causing apoptosis (cell-death) in oral cancer cells. Caution from Regulatory Agencies Despite the popularity of green tea and widespread belief in its health benefits, drinking excessive amounts of green tea may lead to nausea, stomach irritation, headaches or dizziness. Also, green tea’s strong antioxidants and other properties may pose problems for people suffering from anemia or blood-clotting disorders. Therefore, the properties of green tea will need further assessment in rigorous clinical trials before questions about its efficacy are answered. It should be noted that US regulatory agencies caution that evidence of efficacy is yet inconclusive. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) says the following: "Although many studies have been done on green tea and its extracts, definite conclusions cannot yet be reached on whether green tea is helpful for most of the purposes for which it is used." Fortunately, tea and its components are undergoing continuous research. NIH’s National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) has continued to publish research on green tea and its extracts. Green Tea Horizons Studies have shown that cancer-prevention strategies that combine pharmaceuticals and tea components may have potential applications. For instance, EGCG administered via drug delivery systems such as lipid nano-capsules or liposome encapsulation may significantly enhance therapeutic efficacy. Despite the current lack of consensus on what tea’s benefits are and how they are achieved, the popularity of tea is without question. Tea revenue is expected to grow by 6.9% at least through next year. People continue to love a cup of green tea and enjoy its benefits, whatever they might be. *Dr. Tanmoy Rana is Assistant Professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata, India. His professional interests include arsenic toxicity, molecular diagnosis and toxicology, oxidative stress, immunopathology, nanoparticles, echinococcosis, and host-microbe interactions. He conducts multidisciplinary research in life sciences and writes and edits content as well as grants.