By Cassie Journigan* People worldwide are living longer than ever before, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Much of this increased longevity is due to improvements in the medical field, as advanced diagnostic techniques, surgical procedures, and pharmaceuticals have led to amazing improvements in overall health. But this progress is not without its own problems. The copious supply of pharmaceuticals assist people with myriad health issues, but these products are also having an adverse impact on the environment. Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients and How to Reduce Them: The active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) of drugs are widely found in global water bodies. While some APIs degrade quickly, many are hard to remove from the environment. Thus, there is a growing concern that unintentional exposure to APIs can cause harm to living things, including people. What’s in the Water? According to a study published this year in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), titled, “Pharmaceutical pollution of the world’s rivers,” high concentrations of APIs were found in 104 countries. Samples of the 258 rivers studied showed large concentrations of the following Caffeine. Found in coffee, tea, chocolate, and some sodas. Nicotine. Found in tobacco products. Acetaminophen. A common OTC pain reliever. Metformin. Used for type 2 diabetes. Carbamazepine. Prescribed for epilepsy and nerve pain. Several other contaminants were found in the rivers of all continents except Antarctica: antihistamines, anesthetics, antidepressants, antihyperglycemics, anti-inflammatories, anticonvulsants, beta blockers, antimicrobials, and a drug used to treat insomnia. How Do These Drugs Get into the Water? Active pharmaceutical ingredients wind up in the environment in three ways: throughout the manufacturing phase, while they are being used, and during disposal. Evidence points to APIs being released in: Sewage Wastewater treatment plants have a spotty record regarding APIs, with removal rates ranging from less than 10% up to nearly 100%, depending on the technology of the treatment plant and the chemical composition of the drugs. APIs enter sewer systems in wastewater during the manufacturing phase, as post-consumer waste, and from hospital discharge. From there, APIs can wind up impacting coastal fisheries and aquaculture. Studies have found that consumers of contaminated seafood may develop antibiotic resistance, such as through fishmeal. Fisheries With the ever-increasing use of aquaculture, veterinary drugs are now used to keep cultured marine life healthy. The problem? Up to 75% of the medicine administered leaks into the environment. Ranching and farming Antibiotics frequently are added to feed, drinking water, and fertilizers to keep crops and livestock healthy. These antibiotics can contaminate groundwater and ecosystems. Waste disposal When APIs are discarded in coastal landfills, they can break down and invade groundwater or runoff, eventually entering waterways. How Big Is the Problem? APIs are found in waters across the globe. According to the PNAS study, contaminated rivers were found in Africa, Asia, Europe, the Americas, and Australia. Interestingly, no APIs were found in waters collected from Iceland or from a remote indigenous community in Venezuela where modern medicines are not used. APIs are also found in drinking water, although at levels much lower than a therapeutic dose, according to USGS Research Ecologist Dr. Paul Bradley. It is thus fortunate that people’s harmful exposure to APIs is limited in this way. Why Are APIs in Water Dangerous to Living Beings? Repeated exposure to APIs in the world’s waters can have adverse health effects, according to the American Rivers website. There is a concern that APIs may affect the growth and reproductive capacities of animals that ingest them. Endocrine disruption may change reproductive responses, including the feminization of male fish. Male fish in US rivers have been found to produce eggs. This may happen because endocrine disruptors in the rivers cause changes to the male’s reproductive system, producing oocytes, cells normally found in a female’s ovaries that grow into embryos when exposed to male hormones. These changes are thought to be the result of endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Such chemicals can come from natural estrogens, pharmaceuticals, or agricultural chemicals that run off into waterways, according to an article on EcoWatch. Birth control pills and natural sex hormones derived from livestock manure, as well as pesticides and herbicides, are also implicated in troubling changes. Another problem comes from anti-microbial resistance building to the point where bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change over time. If pathogens become resistant to antibiotics, they can cause more disease, extreme illnesses, and even death. What Methods Are Being Used to Eliminate APIs? Several techniques have been used to clean active pharmaceutical ingredients out of water bodies: Nanofiltration. Filtration method used to soften and disinfect water. Oxidation. A process that occurs when combining oxygen with another substance. Reverse osmosis. Moving water through a membrane to remove contaminants. Photolysis. Using light to decompose or separate molecules. UV-degradation. Exposing a substance to sunlight to cause materials to disintegrate. Adsorption. Used to remove dissolved impurities. Because it is inexpensive and easy to use, it is especially suitable for developing nations. What Can Consumers Do? People can make a considerable impact to address this important environmental issue. Here are some actions consumers can take to reduce the amount of APIs that end up in water bodies: Consult medical professionals to see if there are alternative therapies to drugs currently being taken. Dispose of drugs at a community or medical facility take-back program. Law enforcement agencies or pharmacies may also offer take-back programs. If medications must be put in the trash—as some medicines advise on their labels—crush the pills and place them in a sealable plastic bag full of coffee grounds or kitty litter. The home additives help absorb the medication, and the sealed bag can prevent the pharmaceuticals from leaking into the environment. Avoid flushing drugs down toilets or sinks. Ask if the Drug is Essential Sometimes alternatives to certain medications exist, such as adopting healthier lifestyles. Regular exercise, a healthy diet, and getting plenty of sleep are proven ways of preventing and alleviating many illnesses. Meditation may help reduce pain without resorting to medications. Questions that can be asked of a doctor include: Is a drug being prescribed for a minor medical complaint? Are there alternative actions or therapies that can effectively and safely treat this condition? With all the APIs found in water bodies, taking care of one’s body is the right thing to do, for the environment and for personal health. *Cassie Journigan is a writer who lives in the north-central region of Florida in the United States. She focuses on issues related to sustainability. She is passionate about numerous topics including the Earth’s changing climate, pollution, social justice, and cross-cultural communications.

By Cassie Journigan* Skiers the world over have visited or heard of Tyrol, Austria. The state, located in the Alps, is home to folk traditions, historic sites, and ski resorts. The advent of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, coupled with high numbers of tourists visiting the resorts, produced what is known as one of the first superspreader events of the pandemic. Superspreader events happen when a contagious individual infects an unusually high number of other people. And that's what happened in February 2020 in Tyrol: Small numbers of visitors carrying the virus infected many others. When the afflicted tourists returned home, they brought photos, souvenirs, and stories to tell. Many also brought the SARS-CoV-2 virus with them. The state of Tyrol thrives due to its tourism industry. Scientists from the region were among the first group of experts looking for levels of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in wastewater. Officials eager to lift pandemic restrictions, so their tourism industry could be re-energized, were looking for an early warning as to whether the disease was on the rebound. Their wastewater surveillance program has now been expanded to cover more than half the country's citizens. Testing Wastewater to Detect the Spread of COVID-19 Tyrolean health authorities began their wastewater surveillance program in May 2020. The program was a success because it triggered early alerts to the presence of the disease and provided an independent confirmation about its prevalence. Monitoring of 5,270 samples from forty-three sites was reported by the end of July 2021. Daleiden et al., from the Medical University of Innsbruck and State Institute for Integrated Care Tyrol, found that the sample tests detected outcrops of the disease and confirmed when it was absent. This experience showed that using national wastewater monitoring was an effective monitoring approach, in tandem with other forms of diagnostic testing. Why Do Officials Test Wastewater? Testing wastewater allows scientists to inexpensively look for infections like COVID-19 in large groups of people—up to millions—without resorting to the case-by-case basis of individual nose swabs. Scientists test wastewater samples for traces of disease shed in human feces and urine, which are then flushed into the sewer system. Sample data can be used to determine where cases might surge. Studying the samples for genetic or DNA sequences can also help scientists understand how the disease changes over time. “Scientists test wastewater samples for traces of diseases shed in human feces and urine, … [and studying] the samples for genetic or DNA sequences can also help scientists understand how the disease changes over time.” Dozens of Countries Using Wastewater Surveillance For the first couple of years of the pandemic, two countries—Australia and New Zealand—reported almost no COVID-19 cases. They used wastewater monitoring in their zero-COVID-19 approach, and if a positive sample was discovered, officials increased testing, informed the public of the threat, and imposed restrictions where the virus was found. Now fifty-eight countries have begun similar projects—known as wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE)—for SARS-CoV-2. Countries using WBE include Finland, Hungary, Luxembourg, Spain, and Turkey. Regional monitoring programs exist in the U.S., the U.K., Australia, Canada, France, and Switzerland. Brazil and South Africa set up wastewater surveillance panels to show results for weekly regional monitoring. How Does Wastewater Surveillance Work? Testing wastewater samples for infectious diseases can be a cost-effective and reliable means of tracking a particular community's incidence of illness. History provides a lesson as to its effectiveness. For example, it has successfully tracked polio and gastrointestinal disease. Also, information is available within a week after the effluent enters the waste stream. Here's how it works: People flush their germ-laden feces down their toilets. The feces make its way through the sewer system. Once the wastewater plant is reached, technicians test untreated wastewater samples for the presence and level of a pathogen. Public health officials receive test reports and consider disease trends to decide where to set up mobile testing sites and vaccination clinics. The Advantages and Limitations of Wastewater Surveillance There are several additional advantages of wastewater surveillance for SARS-CoV-2. For example, it: Is cost- and time- efficient. Is not dependent on other COVID-19 testing. Samples “all” people, not just those seen in healthcare setting. Is feasible to implement in the US, since nearly 80% of US households are served by sewer systems. While employing wastewater surveillance is relatively easy, it does have limitations. For example: Wastewater surveillance is not available in areas without sewer systems. It excludes samples from large hospitals, prisons, and universities with their own treatment plants. Rainfall, industrial discharge, and animal waste can dilute or contaminate samples. It cannot easily find low levels of the virus. Because of these limitations, wastewater surveillance should augment, rather than replace, more time-intensive and costly methods, such as testing individuals through nose swabs. China and COVID-19 One study noted that China had not created a national WBE system for early-detection of COVID-19, but was considering it. One concern was that China’s sewage system pipeline is “unbalanced” or offers incomplete coverage, the study said. Along with Australia and New Zealand, China also implemented a “zero covid” policy and adhered to it for three years. However, in light of recent protests over the policy's limitations, China relaxed its restrictions. Officially, the country reported that the spread has peaked, although officials in other countries doubt that assertion. The disease is believed to be spreading there; however, it is hard to know the number of affected citizens. Officials are also worried about the emergence of a new variant. As a result, European countries, Japan, South Korea, and the U.S., require extra screenings for people arriving from China. Notably, CDC spokeswoman Kristen Nordlund stated in an email to Reuters how the CDC is considering airplane wastewater analysis as an option. Using Wastewater Surveillance to Detect New Infectious Diseases A new report published by the U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommended standardizing a wastewater surveillance system. A standardized system offers the hope of economic viability with the capacity of tracking multiple pathogens simultaneously. The report stresses the importance of various organizations cooperating to have a complete picture of a newly emerging disease. In addition, it recommends going beyond the current volunteer nature of wastewater surveillance toward a plan where roles are standardized and federal investments are feasible. At least three well-known health organizations, the European Commission, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the World Health Organization (WHO), recognized the potential in worldwide wastewater monitoring for pandemic management. Because of this, wastewater monitoring programs were established around the globe. As of January 27, 2023, the WHO estimates there have been more than 752 million confirmed COVID-19 cases worldwide. There have been nearly seven million deaths attributed to COVID-19. The sense of urgency is imperative due to impacts of this highly contagious disease on public health and the worldwide economy. Clearly, COVID-19 and its variants aren't going away anytime soon, which is all the more reason to continue refining the wastewater monitoring process, bring it to areas not being tested, and combine it with other public health data. Once standardized wastewater surveillance methods are available globally, perhaps the incidence of pandemics will be reduced. *Cassie Journigan is a writer who lives in the north-central region of Florida in the United States. She focuses on issues related to sustainability. She is passionate about numerous topics including the Earth’s changing climate, pollution, social justice, and cross-cultural communications.

By Dr. Byung-gwan Lee* From grid-scale renewable energy storage to mass-produced electric vehicles, the energy infrastructure of tomorrow relies heavily on batteries. High-capacity batteries, in particular, are hot commodities for the future of energy infrastructure. However, it is not a simple matter to develop breakthroughs in battery technology and engineering. Over the years, lithium ion batteries using tried-and-true materials have been optimized near their theoretical limits. To overcome the structural limitations, new materials need to be tested. The research and development department of EUROCELL, a next-generation battery manufacturing company based in Osan, South Korea, explores methods to engineer high-capacity anode materials as part of developing high-capacity batteries. The most common anode material in commercially available Li-ion batteries is graphite. As a battery material, graphite is abundant, inexpensive, and performs reliably. However, the need for higher-capacity batteries continues to grow, leaving graphite—which is optimized to function near the limits of its theoretical capacity—behind. To overcome this limitation, my team and I have researched an alternative anode material with high energy density: silicon. Graphite is the most common anode material in commercially available Li-ion batteries because of its good stability and low potential. However, its limited theoretical capacity of 372 mAh/g falls short of the energy density required to satisfy ever-growing demands. Silicon is one of the most promising anode materials for high-capacity Li-ion batteries. The theoretical capacity of silicon is 4200 mAh/g, which is approximately 11 times higher than that of graphite. However, typically when charging and discharging, silicon particles dramatically expand and contract by up to 400 percent. Addressing this and other serious hurdles has been a focus of our work. Our research has recently achieved an engineering breakthrough. We have found a new way to harness a combination of commercially available silicon and graphite with surprising results. In general, it is extremely difficult to create silicon particles smaller than 300 nanometers (nm) through a process of mechanical pulverization. In order to suppress silicon’s severe volume expansion, particles of 100 nm or less must be manufactured. However, high costs of production make this method commercially unavailable. Our research team engineered a sophisticated ball mill that could successfully pulverize micro-sized silicon to less than 100 nm. Further, we developed a controllable and scalable method to create structured composites by using our advanced ball-milling and spray-drying methods. Analysis under field emission scanning electron microscope revealed the core-shell structure: Silicon nanoparticles were successfully embedded onto the graphite core and coated with an amorphous carbon shell. This design shortens the distance of the movement of lithium ions to minimize structural stress, resulting in a higher power density than existing artificial graphite. This anode structure then could be fabricated into a pouch-type full cell for field testing, using a standard NCA (lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide based) cathode. A drone flight test recently was conducted using the breakthrough battery design. The successful flight produced impressive results—flight times using the new battery were 155% longer than those using pre-existing batteries of the same volume. Our lab also is developing the means to conserve raw material waste produced in battery manufacturing. Generally, flake graphite mined from nature must be processed into spherical graphite in order to be used as an anode material. Unfortunately this process causes environmental pollution, because a large amount of acidic solution is used to increase the purity of graphite. Spherical graphite processing results in huge amounts of raw material waste—up to 70%—and relies intensively on the use of acid, which is also severely dangerous to the environment. We, on the other hand, have been able to take 70% of the waste described above and reassemble it into more fully usable spherical assembly graphite. Our success shows that the mass production of batteries can be completed in an eco-friendly way, thus minimizing environmental pollution while being economically viable. A full-cell pouch battery was manufactured by combining the spherical assembly graphite produced through the above-described process with the NCM622 (lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide based) cathode material. By conducted charging and discharging tests (from 1°C to 10°C conditions), we were able to observe the excellent power density of spherical assembly graphite. The capacity retention rate (ability of the battery to retain stored charge when not plugged in) after an under-six-minute rapid charge was still 81.7% compared to one hour charging. Our lab’s promising results show that new batteries can be successfully engineered to solve the high-capacity and high-power problems of existing batteries. *Dr. Byung-gwan Lee is the director of research and development at EUROCELL, INC., a Korean company that produces lithium ion batteries.

The following is an edited talk given by Bruce Johnson, PhD, Professor of Environmental Learning, University of Arizona, and International Program and Research Coordinator, The Institute for Earth Education, at the 28th International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences, in April 2022. Accomplishing meaningful change and sustainable development requires a multi-faceted, continuing educational approach, both formal and informal, addressing various aspects of our approach to environmental issues—aspects such as technology, policy, and personal vs collective behavior. To effectively resolve the critical environmental crises we face, an ever-deepening, comprehensive educational response is needed. Improved formal and informal education is needed towards a Great Awakening on these matters such as environmental science as well as hands-on immersive outdoors experiences—for more deeply learning about the environment and more intimately exploring ways to successfully encourage people, both individually and collectively, to adopt more environmentally friendly behaviors. For this generation to make meaningful change, greater emphasis needs to be placed on education that can affect values, attitudes, and behavioral intentions. Key educational factors instrumental in fine-tuning that greater awakening and awareness involve research in three areas: (1) the relationships between knowledge, attitudes, and environmental behavior; (2) psychological research on values and environmental identity; and (3) the efficacy of Earth education programs designed to influence environmental action and behavior. Relationships Between Knowledge, Attitudes, and Environmental Behavior One of the clearest models of the most productive relationships between knowledge, attitudes, and behavior in this field is the Competence Model for Environmental Education (Roczen, Kaiser, Bogner & Wilson, 2013). The first part of the model differentiates between three different types of knowledge—system, action-related, and effectiveness (see Figure 1). System knowledge is the dominant type of environmental knowledge that is taught and forms the basis for the other knowledge dimensions. This knowledge can include how ecological systems work and natural systems operate (ecological concepts) and can also include information about environmental issues and impacts, e.g., “knowing what” the problems are. Action-related knowledge concerns behavioral options and possible courses of action or “knowing how” to be more environmentally friendly. This includes individual actions (like reducing electricity use, recycling, etc.,) and group actions (such as working to change policies). Effectiveness knowledge is about the relative gain or benefit that is associated with a particular behavior or action or “knowing which”—building on action-related knowledge, going from knowing how to lessen impact to knowing the relative benefits of different behaviors and actions. This element is taught even less than action-related knowledge, which is taught less than system knowledge. Self-Enhancing vs Self-Transcendent Values and Environmental Identity People’s values and life goals are one aspect of human identity that plays a significant role in the development of pro-environmental attitudes and behavior (Crompton & Kasser, 2009). Values and life goals are critically important to consider when deciding how to convince people to act. Psychological research on values has shown that there are universal values, though they play out differently in both individuals and societies (Schwartz, 1992). Some goals are extrinsic and are related to self-enhancement; these include achievement, power, status, and wealth (Kasser, 2005, 2011; Sheldon & McGregor, 2000). Another set of opposing goals are more intrinsic and self-transcendent, including universalism and benevolence (Crompton & Kasser, 2009, 2010; Grouzet, et al. 2005). People with strong self-enhancement values and goals tend to have negative environmental attitudes and behaviors. Those with strong self-transcendent values and goals tend to be more concerned about the environment and more motivated to engage in pro-environmental behaviors. Earth Education: A Programmatic Approach to Environmental Learning Earth education grew out of the groundbreaking work of Steve Van Matre in his Acclimatization summer camp programs to help young people build a love affair with the Earth (Van Matre, 1972). An international non-profit educational organization, The Institute for Earth Education, was formed in 1974 and continues to this day. The purpose of Earth education is to nurture the process of “helping people to live more harmoniously and joyously with the Earth and its life.” (Van Matre, 1990, p. 87) Earth education programs are magical learning adventures, holistic programs designed to help learners construct understandings of the systems of life that support us, develop positive feelings for the natural world and our place in it, and begin to craft lifestyles that lessen impact. There are several earth education programs for different ages and contexts, including three for 10-11 year-olds: Sunship Earth (Van Matre, 1977), Earthkeepers (Van Matre & Johnson, 1988); and Rangers of the Earth (Van Matre & Farber, 2005); and one for 13-14 year-olds Sunship III (Van Matre & Johnson, 1997). Other programs are in development. All are focused on helping participants grow in three general ways: Construct understandings of fundamental ecological concepts, such as flow of energy, cycling of materials, interrelating of life, and changing of forms; Develop positive feelings, such as joy, at being in touch with the elements of life, kinship with all living things, reverence for natural communities, and love for the Earth; and Processing what they learn and experience into action by internalizing understandings for how life works on the Earth, enhancing feelings for the Earth and its life, crafting more harmonious lifestyles, and participating in environmental planning and action. All earth education programs include substantial time for participants to experience nature first-hand through highly participatory activities. As an example, Sunship III: Perception and Choice for the Journey Ahead, is designed to help young adolescents begin to craft lifestyles that will have less impact on the natural systems of our planet. The program is designed around the nature of young people at this stage of life, becoming more independent, making more decisions, and interacting with peers in new ways. Participants are invited to a three-day residential “Commencement Exercises,” held away from school and home. To learn about the ecological systems that support us, four ecological concepts are explored through outdoor, participatory activities designed to take these abstract concepts into reality. For instance, to learn about energy, they visit “Solarville” to order a pizza, discovering the often-hidden ways energy is used in our daily lives. To learn about the cycling of materials, they become workers at the “Cycle Factory,” operating the air, water, and soil cycles. Feelings are enhanced through activities like “Objet Trouve,” an exhibit of nature’s art that participants create as well as view, and at “Magic Spots,” where they can experience solitude with the elements of life. Applying their new understandings, perceptions, and choices in their homes and schools is the focus of the “Quest” they embark on after the three-day commencement exercises. Participants, who are encouraged to seek truth, adventure, and harmony, work together in small sharing groups to support each other. For instance, they interview role models in their community who are using energy and materials wisely, demonstrating care for natural places and things, and developing a deep personal relationship with the Earth. Research on Earth education programs has investigated changes in participants’ understandings, values and attitudes, and pro-environmental behaviors. Results consistently demonstrate increased understandings, more pro-environmental attitudes, and more environmentally positive behaviors. Next Steps Individuals can change their own behaviors, engage in group actions, and vote for candidates and policies that will lessen our impact on the environment. Many people across the globe have taken these and other steps. How do we encourage even more to do so? Education is a key, but it must be more than just formal schooling. To be successful, we need to keep in mind what we know about why people act as they do and how we can encourage pro-environmental views and actions. First, we must recognize that simply providing information about environmental issues is not enough. We need to pay attention to developing pro-environmental concern and attitudes. We need to help people learn about environmentally positive actions they can take and their effectiveness. Information without the corresponding attitudes and skills is unlikely to result in change. Second, we must recognize that people’s environmental identity—or how they see themselves in relation to the environment and non-human nature—matters. We can encourage pro-environmental views through appealing to self-transcendent values and life goals, while avoiding reinforcement of self-enhancing values and goals. Finally, education programs that take a comprehensive approach to address ecological understandings, feelings, and behavior can result in increased knowledge, more pro-environmental attitudes, and the adoption of more pro-environmental behaviors. Editorial Note The Institute for Earth Education, Greenville, WV is an international non-profit that creates holistic earth education programs and trains learners of all ages to live more lightly on the earth. Its education programs emphasize understanding basic ecological processes, developing positive feelings for the natural world, and making personal lifestyle changes. The institute published following books by Steve Van Matre: Acclimatization (1972); Sunship Earth (1977); Earth education: A new beginning (1990); Earthkeepers: Four Keys to Helping Young People Live in Harmony with the Earth by Van Matre, S., & Johnson B. (1988); Sunship III: Perception and choice for the journey ahead by Van Matre, S., & Johnson, B. (1997); Ranger of the Earth: Young People Responding to the Planet’s Call for Help by Van Matre, S., & Farber, L. (2005). A complete bibliography will be included in the edited transcript of Dr. Johnson’s presentation in the ICUS XXVIII conference proceedings publication.

By Becky Hoag* Buffalo River On a cold January day in 1968, the Buffalo River in New York caught fire. It would be the first of several river fires in the Great Lakes over the following year. The Lakes had been long polluted by gallons of oil and grease being poured into them every day. “We’re at the end of the Erie Canal, so Buffalo was the reason for the westward expansion in the United States,” Buffalo resident Marcus Rosten explains. “So we were an industrial hub and just abused our natural resources.” As a result, people grew up learning to stay clear from the water, and the pollution in the waters increased with sewage and garbage being dumped in it. The less people interacted with the water, the less they cared about it. Out of sight, out of mind. Local Ecology Teacher Marcus Rosten Inspires Students Rosten teaches aquatic ecology at McKinley High School, which sits in front of a creek trickling off the Buffalo River. He says the creek could have been the school’s main water supply and even provide fish if it were clean enough. For now, he works to remind his students of the creek’s existence and to teach them the history behind why they cannot drink the water. He started the job this school year and says it has not been easy teaching kids to appreciate nature from a screen. It often can feel like he is talking to himself, but he does his best to at least get his students out virtually by using his phone to take class outside to sample bird songs. “I can put my phone on my scope and zoom in so they’re looking at the robins like they would with binoculars,” Rosten says. “Digital outside is better than no outside.” Luckily, the aquatic ecology class at McKinley is unique. As a vocational school, students pick between multiple hands-on tracks, such as carpentry, plumbing, printing, and aquatic ecology. Once they choose a track, the vocational teacher works with the students for an hour and a half every school day for the next three years. Rosten teaches his students fish husbandry, conservation, and ecology through a combination of lectures, guest speakers, field trips, and hands-on labs. The school’s campus holds a greenhouse and two large ponds filled with tilapia especially for this class. Until in-person teaching can fully resume, Rosten has taken the opportunity to familiarize his students with the ins and outs of these systems. “The whole idea is that we have all these living systems and we teach environmental education and career and technical education using those living systems with a hands-on approach—getting kids out in the fields doing sampling work,” Rosten says. The western New York native focuses his lessons with a regional lens as a way to personalize environmental lessons to the students. It also just makes sense to do so with how much environmental history surrounds them. Just a half hour drive away from Buffalo sits Love Canal, Niagara Falls. The area was originally slated to be a canal between the upper and lower Niagara Falls, but it became a municipal and industrial chemical dumpsite when the plan fell through in the 1920s. The property’s owners, the Hooker Chemical Company, then covered the landfill up in the 1950s and sold it to the city for a dollar. Unaware of what was just beneath the soil, the city built about 100 homes and a school there, which was fine until it poured the first day of August 1978. The ground began leaching chemicals into the streams and drinking water. Trees began to turn black and die. Cases of birth defects and miscarriages began to skyrocket. Kids got cancer after playing in the creek. Community members, particularly members of the homeowners association, demanded government action. The Love Canal disaster sparked the movement to start the EPA’s Superfund, or CERCLA (the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980). Love Canal became one of the first locations to receive a Superfund to clean up the hazardous waste. Now the area lies abandoned. Since this tragedy, many other similar developed dumpsites have been found around the country. Rosten brings this story home to his students by inviting one former Love Canal homeowners association member, a mother whose son died of cancer after playing in the creek by Love Canal, to speak. For Rosten’s class, this is both an environmental disaster to learn from and an example of how impactful community action can be. It also reminds his students how fragile ecosystems can be. “I worry about getting too doom and gloom sometimes,” Rosten admits. “The more you are aware of your environment, of the fragility of our ecosystem, the more you see the environmental detriment and harms.” He mitigates this by focusing on the complexity of the system and inspiring stewardship. He likes to remind students of what the lakes and streams used to be like before industrialization, and what they can become again. For example, the creek behind McKinley High School used to be known for its water sports. Rosten says he is starting to see the creek come back to life again as people are realizing the value of being a waterfront city, if not environmentally then definitely economically. A 2018 study by the Great Lakes Commission showed that for every dollar invested in the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative, an average of $4 in economic activity will be paid back to the region. Health is another factor inextricably linked to the environment. Rosten says it is more compelling to remind people how the health of the water connects to human health, rather than relying on them to care for nature’s intrinsic value. So far this adjustment in communication seems to be working. “What we’re seeing now is a reawakening,” Rosten says. “People are starting to realize that a clean waterway is the key to our revitalization and a clean environment is the key to our economic revival.” This reawakening is in big part thanks to community effort via nonprofits and dedicated citizens. Rosten emphasizes the importance of community-based action by inviting different local environmental organizations to speak to his students. He invited many of his contacts from his previous roles as an aquatic invasive species program manager for the West New York Partnership for Regional Invasive Species Management and as a fish and wildlife technician for the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, among other jobs. Western New York is turning a corner, thanks in part to Rosten's work. Named one of North American Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE)’s 30 Under 30, Rosten has spent his career fostering environmental stewardship through the Youth Environmental Leadership Program (YELP) with the non-profit Buffalo Niagara Waterkeeper. He takes what he has learned out in the field back to community members and educational programs. While Rosten has worked in positions that hold educational elements, he chose to go all in to an education position to inspire the next generation of environmental stewards. “I realize these problems that we have in the environment and our natural resources are so complex, and I can’t solve them [on my own],” Rosten says. “The only thing I could do is hopefully change and inspire the next generation of stewards to take the lead and shift society in a better direction.” *Becky Hoag is a science writer with a special interest in climate change communication. You can find her work on her site beckyhoag.com or through her YouTube channel Beckisphere at https://www.youtube.com/c/Beckisphere.

By Becky Hoag* In Canada, one of the most freshwater-rich nations in the world, members of the Neskantaga First Nation in Northern Ontario only see water the color of dehydrated urine pour out of their faucets. People typically experience itchy, dry skin after showering in this water, and many children run around with skin conditions like eczema as a result. Drinking the water can be even worse. People suffer from cancer, diarrhea, influenza, whooping cough, and pneumonia, among other waterborne illnesses. Neskantaga is just one of the hundreds of First Nations without access to clean water. Earlier this year, they joined forces with the Circle Lake First Nation and the Tataskweyak Cree First Nation to sue Canada’s federal government over these conditions deemed “consistent with life in developing countries.” This lawsuit represented every indigenous individual who experienced a “boil water” advisory every year from November 20, 1995, to the present. As a result, at the end of July 2021, the federal government reached a settlement of nearly C$8 billion ($6.4 billion USD) with the First Nations. Without Clean Water for Decades The 630 First Nations of Canada, representing 330,000 people, are very diverse in their locations and their water supplies. Some get their water from open lakes or streams while others get their supply from groundwater or wells. This can result in different contamination issues from naturally occurring parasite or bacterial build-up to rusting pipes and pollution from nearby industry activity. The one thing many First Nations have in common is a lack of access to a stable clean water supply. Canadian First Nations either have no water treatment facility, have a facility but no money to maintain it, or have no pipes to run clean water to all homes in a community. For example, the Neskantaga First Nation received a water treatment plant in 1995, but it quickly began failing to properly filter the water. A month later, the Nation received a boil water advisory that has persisted ever since. Solving the Problem Demands Government Action Tragically, there is nothing that First Nations can individually do to fix this problem. Canada maintains its colonial rules over native tribes, which restrict tribes from funding and managing their own water treatment facilities. Instead, it is up to the federal government to run the water treatment facilities and address any water issues, which has usually come in the form of issuing “boil water” advisories rather than updating existing treatment plant infrastructure. As a result, several nations have been without clean water for almost thirty years despite some technically having a water treatment plant. Communities have had to pay for bottled water, and because some First Nations are quite remote, that means flying supplies over by plane. When Canada’s Prime Minister Justin Trudeau ran for office in 2015, he promised to right this long-standing injustice. Upon taking office, he invested more than C$2 billion in the 105 communities that had drinking water advisories in 2016. At that time, those communities had lacked access to clean drinking water for over a year. Trudeau was able to bring this number down to thirty-three as of April 2021 but missed his goal of getting one hundred communities out of their water crises by March. Delays Leave Communities in Crisis The Canadian government says it would have dropped this number further if not for delays in projects from the pandemic, an argument that its own auditor general’s February report conflicts with. The report found that progress in providing safe drinking water was delayed long before COVID-19 interrupted daily life. And rather than making long-term updates to facilities, many advisories got dropped due to temporary fixes. In addition, much of the government funding mainly goes to building water treatment facilities, not maintenance or operation costs. Progress in providing safe drinking water was delayed long before COVID-19 interrupted daily life. Moreover, the government only looks at communities with drinking water advisories, which is the worst-case scenario for water safety. Many communities live in unsatisfactory conditions while not being considered for a water advisory. “I am very concerned and honestly disheartened that this longstanding issue is still not resolved,” Canada Auditor General Karen Hogan told reporters. “Access to safe drinking water is a basic human necessity. I don’t believe anyone would say that this is in any way an acceptable situation in Canada in 2021.” The actual numbers of contaminated water sites might be higher than reported by the federal government too because they don’t count wells, which twenty percent of First Nations communities rely on as their main water supply. Their numbers also don’t include communities in British Columbia or Canada’s territories. Canada vs. First Nations Early this year, the Neskantaga First Nation, the Circle Lake First Nation, and the Tataskweyak Cree First Nation all sued the federal government for C$2.1 billion ($1.7 billion USD)—the cost of getting bottled water to those nations and getting a water treatment plant for the community. C$1.5 billion of the proposed settlement would go to about 142,000 individuals from 258 First Nations. Individual compensation would be calculated based on how remote the individual’s community is (how much it cost to get clean drinking water transported there), how long they went without clean drinking water, and if the individual suffered any health problems. Settlement Affirms Canada’s Responsibility to Provide Canada’s federal government ended up reaching a settlement of nearly C$8 billion with First Nations as of the end of July 2021. It includes the C$1.5 billion in compensation mentioned in the original proposed settlement, but also a C$400 million First Nation economic and cultural restoration fund and C$6 billion that will be distributed as C$400 million annually over the next ten years to First Nations to maintain their access to clean drinking water. As Canada's senior general counsel Catherine Moore described in a letter to the First Nations, "There is no relationship more important to Canada than our relationship with Indigenous peoples." She went on to say, "Canada will continue working with Curve Lake First Nation, Tataskweyak Cree Nation, and Neskantaga First Nation, as well as any other First Nations who opt into this litigation, to develop and implement sustainable solutions for addressing their water system needs. All Canadians should have access to safe, clean, and reliable drinking water, and Canada respects the right of Indigenous peoples to obtain guidance from the courts in matters where it is necessary and important to do so." *Becky Hoag is a science writer with a special interest in climate change communication. You can find her work on her site beckyhoag.com or through her YouTube channel Beckisphere at https://www.youtube.com/c/Beckisphere.

By Becky Hoag* It’s hard to know that an animal is endangered when, to you, it’s seemingly everywhere. That was the case for Jamal Galves growing up in Gales Point Manatee, Belize. He grew up watching manatees lounge in the water off his grandmother’s lawn. Belize has the highest known density of manatees in the world after all. “My life has been surrounded and intertwined with manatees,” Galves says. It was not until a large research vessel showed up when Galves was eleven years old that he realized how threatened the manatee population was. The vessel was run by James “Buddy” Powell, the executive director of the Clearwater Marine Aquarium Research Institute out of Clearwater, Florida, in the United States. Young Galves charmed his way onto the manatee rescue boat that day with his wide-eyed curiosity, and the trip quickly turned into the beginning of his career. It was one thing to see the manatees relaxing in the shallows but quite another to see them sliced up by ship turbines near cruise ports. This experience grew a fierce need in Galves to protect these sweet sea cows. “I wake up in the morning knowing that I’m doing something to save a species’ life, knowing that I’m going to be contributing to something—saving a species that can’t save itself,” Galves says. He started doing small jobs around the boat to help the rescue efforts before being officially recruited as a field assistant with Sea to Shore Alliance at the age of sixteen. Being a field assistant allowed him to work closely with the manatee health assessment processes. He eventually worked his way up to becoming their program coordinator. Then, in 2019, he took on the position of program director of the Clearwater Marine Aquarium’s Belize Manatee Conservation program. Protecting Manatees Requires Public Education and Outreach This program conducts “countrywide community-related education and outreach programs” with the Belize Marine Mammal Stranding Network, according to the program’s website. They track and monitor Belize’s manatees and work with government officials and local communities to increase protections for the creatures. “We pair scientific research with education and awareness because you can collect data for twenty years, but, if you do not put that data out to people to learn and understand what the problems are, you’re wasting time and money while the species is dying away,” Galves says. While Galves was earning an undergraduate degree in natural resources and conservation from the University of Belize, he decided that furthering his education will make his conservation efforts more effective. Just recently he has started his Master of Science in Conservation Science and Policy at the University of Santa Cruz. “[I’m going to school] to have the skills to think more scientifically to make sure my arguments and my suggestions regarding safeguarding specific areas are backed up by academia from a reputable institution that would be respected by politicians and lawmakers and the general public as well,” Galves explains. Manatees: Gentle Giants that Support Their Ecosystems Manatees are niche creatures, only living in shallow marshy tropical coastlines and rivers where they eat primarily different fresh and saltwater plants, earning them the nickname sea cows. “They’re one of the largest herbivores in the waterways, and it’s the only marine mammal that is eating seagrass at the magnitude it does, keeping the seagrass in the oceans low and keeping the ecosystem balanced,” Galves explains. Manatees eat nine to ten percent of their body weight per day, maintaining the marshy ecosystems for other species that live there. Their poop then fertilizes the area and feeds the local small fish and crustacean populations. Each growing to about 10 feet in length and weighing around 800 to 1,200 pounds, manatees come in three species: Amazonian, West Indian, and West African They locally migrate throughout the year, but they’re very slow, only moving about five miles an hour. They usually come up for air every thirty seconds, but they can stay underwater for twenty minutes. Manatees are very shy and gentle creatures that can live for up to sixty years. They start birthing calves around five years of age, and usually only have one calf every two to five years, which they nurse for a few years. Despite having the lowest brain-to-body ratio, they’re very smart creatures, rivaling dolphins and their closest relatives, the elephant. Ships and Tourism Cause the Most Harm To Manatee Populations Manatees have no natural predators, yet all three manatee species are considered vulnerable due to human activity. The West Indian manatee that Galves grew up around has seen particularly sharp declines in recent years. This species is being pinched from all directions. In Belize, cruise ships dock in the little natural manatee habitat that remains. Manatees are often injured or killed from getting caught beneath the giant ships and ripped by their turbines. Ships can also scare mother and baby in opposite directions, resulting in babies being stranded. The tourism cruise industry in Belize City represents eighty percent of unnatural manatee deaths in Belize—around fifty per year—which is a hard blow to a population that’s only between 700 and 1,000 individuals. Tourism represents forty percent of Belize’s GDP as people come to see the world’s second-largest barrier reef and, ironically, the diverse marine life, including the manatees. But, when the pandemic hit, it stalled the nation’s tourism industry, a horrible thing for Belize’s economy, but a great thing for the environment. The tourism cruise industry in Belize City represents eighty percent of unnatural manatee deaths in Belize. The Belize manatee population only lost twenty individuals in 2020, a huge drop in deaths from prior years. “We had the lowest numbers [of manatee deaths] that we’ve seen since we started recording,” Galves says. However, he’s already noticed that the tourism industry is starting to bounce back and the investors are hungry. One new cruise port by Royal Caribbean is already under construction in Belize City, and two more are awaiting government approval only ten to fifteen miles from each other. In addition, the city is proposing to build a causeway through the only manatee habitat left in the area so that tourists can be shuttled across from the island to the mainland. The construction would require dredging the area. “Those are the pressing problems we’re facing right now. The development, the destruction of the coastal habitats, destroying the environment, digging up the ocean floors. It’s unprecedented. These things are reaching to the point of ridiculousness,” says Galves. And while the pandemic slowed the manatee death count in Belize, an influx of water pollution and a resulting toxic algal bloom has killed a record number off the coast of Florida. As of September 10, 2021, 942 manatees have died, and that number is expected to rise to 1,100 to 1,200 by the end of the year. That would be about fifteen to twenty percent of the Florida manatee population. This is a huge step backward, especially since Florida was already having the same problems as Belize from ship-related deaths. New Policy and Programs Address Threats to Manatees The Clearwater Aquarium announced in September that they will add an exhibit called Manatee Springs that will act as a needed rehabilitation center for sick and injured sea cows. They also announced in July that they were speeding up plans to build a manatee rehab center at Fred Howard Park in Tarpon Springs, Florida. Back in Belize, manatee protections recently received a facelift. Manatees were being protected by an act from 1981 that was outdated in properly addressing conservation needs. This new comprehensive fisheries reform law enacted in 2020 made it illegal to “feed, harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, kill, annoy, or molest manatees.” Galves says this is a good development. “I think we have more opportunities to pass more stringent measures and be able to keep up with the change,” Galves says. “As you know, government processes are very slow. The government needs to move along with the world as things change.” Clearly, with the new development projects, there is more work to be done to get the government, businesses, and communities to prioritize manatee lives. And that is where continued outreach and engagement efforts matter. Social Media Spreads the Message of Conservation Galves can’t stop talking about manatees. He is recognized around Belize as the Manatee Man, a title he wears with pride. His Instagram account, which has over 42 thousand followers, is @therealmanateeman. He has been on television, YouTube, published in articles, and been invited to speak everywhere from schools to the Embassy of Belize in the United States. He has earned praise from National Geographic, the World Wildlife Foundation, Oceana, and The Dodo, among others, for his work. Using social media outlets is particularly useful for reaching the next generations. Galves doesn’t take a break and says he cannot afford burnout. Luckily, he is surrounded by support from members of the Clearwater Marine Aquarium, who have become his family over the years. In fact, he attached his mission statement to his door at home to remind him what he is fighting for every day. “I have to look after [the manatees]. I am my best friend’s keeper. And if I’m going to keep them well, I’m going to have to keep a positive mindset, despite the drawbacks, despite the negativity, despite discouragement. I have to be able to push forward,” Galves says. “We don’t live in a bubble. Conservation should be the most mutual foundation that we all stand on...” — Jamal Galves He recognizes that not everyone can devote their whole being to conservation like he has, though, so when he talks to new people, he tries to meet them where they are at. “My goal is to make every single person in the room feel like I’m talking to them individually, directly, because it’s the one thing that will make them change,” Galves explains. For fishermen, that means talking about how manatees maintain the food chain and ecosystems. For tourism companies, they can’t advertise seeing manatees if there are no manatees. For lawmakers, it means showing them the economic impact of manatee tourism. “We don’t live in a bubble. Conservation should be the most mutual foundation that we all stand on, the real no man’s land that belongs to every single person on this planet,” Galves says. One way for a message to go global in this digitized world is by utilizing social media outlets like YouTube, Instagram, Facebook, and TikTok. It is especially helpful to reach the next generations. Galves tells his origin story a lot, a good reminder that one can start without even having a high school diploma (though education helps, which is why he’s still furthering his). *Becky Hoag is a science writer with a special interest in climate change communication. You can find her work on her site beckyhoag.com or through her YouTube channel Beckisphere at https://www.youtube.com/c/Beckisphere.

By Becky Hoag* As the human population continues to rise, it is essential that agriculture increases in efficiency and sustainability. This is particularly the case for smaller countries with limited land available to agriculture. Imports are still important, but domestic agriculture can provide economic benefit, independence, and the preservation of culture. Many variables such as labor retention and recruitment, technological development, and climate change impact the success of a country’s food system. Small countries can be especially sensitive to changes brought on by these variables, but with much of their sector based in family farming, they can innovate and adapt faster than industrial agriculture systems if the government provides the money and resources to help. Norway is a good example of a small country that has prioritized agricultural innovation. Norway’s land-based food production has doubled since the 1960s even though their labor input has dropped by 35% since the 2000s. The key to this is technological innovation. Only 3% of Norway’s mainland is devoted to agriculture because a third of this hilly country is covered by forest or other cultivated land. While Norway’s agriculture accounts for a very small part of Europe’s GDP, Norway is known for dairy, pig, poultry, egg, and salmon farming. The nation’s food impact might change soon because Norway will likely reap agriculture benefits from global warming, at least in the short term. Climate change is likely to increase the growing season by one to four weeks, positively impacting the yield of several crops. For example, potato yields are expected to increase by 25-30%; wheat yields could increase by as much as 14%. Aligned with this trend, Norway established the Food Nation Norway Initiative in 2020, a broad political framework for business development and value creation based on safe and healthy Norwegian food and sustainable food production. The initiative looks to increase and promote sustainable food production and reduce food waste by 2030. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the global agriculture industry directly accounts for 17% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with an additional 7-14% of indirect emissions through land use changes. Meanwhile, about a third of all food produced in the world goes to waste, and the producing, transporting, and rotting process together result in about 8-10% of global GHG emissions, as calculated by the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization. So even if Norway’s agriculture industry itself contributes a very small amount to the country’s GHG footprint, developing new methods to improve the nation’s agriculture and tackle food waste can help other countries transition to better practices, making a greater impact. Norway established the Food Nation Norway Initiative in 2020 with goals to increase and promote sustainable food production and reduce food waste by 2030. Another piece of the puzzle to emphasize is the small farmer aspect. Smallholder farms represent more than 80% of the world’s farmers. While results vary from studies looking into the environmental impact of small farms compared to larger ones, a recent meta-analysis by Springer Nature found that many studies reported smaller farms having higher yields and greater crop diversity. Crop diversity decreases the smaller the farm is, though, suggesting that a mix of small and medium farm sizes could yield the best crop biodiversity. While there is no evidence supporting any relationship between farm size and use efficiency, GHG emissions, or profitability, smaller farms are more likely to use less pesticides and promote organic management, further promoting regional biodiversity. In addition, promoting smallholder farms can be a powerful tool to improve humanity’s relationship with nature. Here are some examples of Norwegian homegrown technologies that are benefiting these farmers: Tech Replaces Traditional Chemical Applications Scientists have warned against the use of synthetic chemicals in agriculture since Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring was published in 1962. Pesticides and herbicides have resulted in the mass killing of bugs and mass causalities of bird and other organisms, putting regional ecosystems out of balance. The chemicals seep into groundwater, contaminating drinking water with carcinogens. Meanwhile, the use of nitrogen-based chemicals in fertilizers is responsible for deadly algal blooms like the one that demolished the manatee population in Florida, USA, this past summer. Several companies are finding alternatives to the prevalent use and application of chemicals. As a replacement for synthetic fertilizers, N2 Applied has developed an on-farm system that lets farmers produce their own fertilizer using locally sourced manure that is turned into fertilizer using solar energy. For pesticides, Soil Steam International developed mobile and stationary machines that use steam instead of pesticides to remove fungi, weeds, seeds, and nematodes from soil before farmers plant in it. The company reports a 40% larger harvest and that many vegetables grown from the steamed soil can be stored for longer periods of time, reducing food waste. For herbicides, Kilter Systems developed an autonomous weeding robot that uses a Deep Learning Neural Network to map around weeds and crops to drop an exact amount of herbicide on weeds. The company says the technology reduces herbicide usage by 95% compared to traditional methods. Another Norwegian agricultural robot, Saga Robotics’s autonomous modular robot, Thorvald, is designed to perform fieldwork tasks such as picking fruit and vegetables, cutting grass, spraying herbicide in specific spots, providing in-field transportation, performing UV treatment, phenotyping, and the collecting and analyzing of data for crop predictions. Thorvald can perform in most environmental conditions, and because the robot is lightweight, it does not compact the soil. Tech That Keeps Track of Livestock The company Nofence has created the world’s first virtual fencing system for grazing animals. Similar to virtual fences that are common for containing dogs, every animal wears a collar that beeps when the animal crosses a virtual barrier. Farmers can see where every animal is via an app, and the company says it takes about a week to teach the livestock what the beeping noise means. A pilot project using Nofence technology began in Norway in 2016 using 850 goats. In 2020, the Norwegian Food Safety Authority approved use of Nofence for goats, sheep, and cattle. The technology can now be found in the UK as well. Another organization Findmy offers collars that use GPS to track livestock via a smartphone. Beyond the Farm: Reducing Food Waste Once crops are grown and sold, the next step is reducing food waste. TotalCtrl and Foodlist have apps that give consumers and businesses better control of food waste by helping them keep track of inventory and expiration dates. Unlike poorer countries where most smallholder farms are located, Norway has the funds to encourage technological development in the agriculture industry. As the human population continuously adds pressure to the food system, innovations like these will provide a pathway towards sustainably supporting future generations. *Becky Hoag is a science writer with a special interest in climate change communication. You can find her work on her site https://www.beckyhoag.com or through her YouTube channel Beckisphere at https://www.youtube.com/c/Beckisphere.

By Arpan Rachman* For years, Sumba Island in southeast Indonesia has been considered a goldmine of renewable energy potential. Water, sunlight, wind, and biogas from animals are abundantly available on the island and are considered the most significant renewable resources that can be harnessed. However, despite substantial financial investments and international support, the growth and development of renewable energy capacity on the island has continued at a much slower pace than expected. The situation on Sumba Island exemplifies the fundamental challenges faced by developing countries that strive to incorporate clean energy as part of their development plans. Renewable Energy Potential on Sumba Island Sumba Island is a sparsely populated island, home to 780,000 people on roughly 4200 square miles. In 2014, the Asian Development Bank funded a study to analyze the energy resources that could be supplied to the grid as well as the overall electricity demands for Sumba. The study explored the technical potential of developing new renewable energy sources in Sumba, particularly water sources (rivers, reservoirs, and water pumps), biomass, solar energy, and wind energy. Ultimately, the research was meant to determine the best possible combination of energy sources to meet the needs of future generations on the island. Apart from the renewable potential, Sumba heavily relies on diesel-fueled power plants for electricity. Over the years, the local government’s Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources worked with organizations including Hivos (an energy development NGO), the Asian Development Bank, and the Norwegian government on what was called the Sumba Iconic Island project. The ambitious goal that the project set out to achieve was providing 100% renewable energy and 95% electrification to the island’s population by 2025. Even further, the renewable energy sources installed were meant to also boost the economy and promoted gender-equitable development. Through the project’s investments, renewables gained a foothold in the island’s energy grid. For a population that only had an electrification rate of 37.4% by the end of 2014, 9.8% was provided by renewables. Locals Skepticism Stems from a Lack of Visible Change However, some locals are skeptical of the promises to bring widespread renewable energy and electricity to the island. Taking steps to overcome poverty conditions and limited physical infrastructure, such as rough and inaccessible roads, to improve quality of life even incrementally on the island is a slow and difficult process. “The big dream to make Sumba Island an island that only uses non-fossil energy seems almost impossible. Only large-scale program implementing elites seriously discuss how Sumba will be free from fossil energy by 2025,” said Umbu Wulang Tanaamahu Paranggi. The forty-year-old who lives in Waingapu, Sumba’s largest town, is known locally for his active humanitarian and environmental services. Paranggi, the director of the East Nusa Tenggara (regional) branch of the Indonesian Forum for the Environment (Walhi), is dedicated to his work of providing environmental literacy throughout Sumba. While conducting field research in Sumba’s villages, Paranggi did not find many people using renewable energy. He observed that large-scale initiatives did not have strong local foundations to support them. Villages did not have policies in place to develop and utilize biogas resources or procure materials for solar installations. Delayed Progress Caused by Fundamental Issues The monitoring and evaluation team for the 2018 Sumba Iconic Island program, led by Dagi Consulting (a research-based management consulting company), released a report in December 2018 that discussed progress up to that point. By the end of 2018, the electrification ratio on Sumba Island had increased to 50.9% with 20.9% coming from renewable energy. In the July 2019 report Sustainable Decentralized Renewable Energy through the RESCO Model in Indonesia, Marc Torra stated that comparing the goals of the project to its present condition, one can see that it had not been effective. The 50.9% rate of electrification is still far from the 95% target, and the 20.9% achievement is also well below the 65% targeted. According to the International Energy Agency, Indonesia is struggling to simultaneously develop a fully electrified population while meeting its clean energy targets. To achieve its national goal of 23% renewable primary energy by 2025, Indonesia intends to take the lessons learned over the last decade and finalize a revised policy framework for renewable energy development. Mobilizing new investment capital in the sector with greater policy support is expected to be essential for improvement. The Pathway Forward When Sandra Winarsa, the Green Energy project manager of Sumba Iconic Island, first arrived in a remote village in southwest Sumba, she immediately saw that the community needed electricity. However, when she interviewed several households, she was surprised to hear that stable access to electricity was not their top priority. Rather, the people would much prefer access to clean water over electricity. Their explanation was that, if needed, they could still buy lighting, but clean water was much harder to secure. “The people of Sumba have their own dream of a better life regardless of the solutions offered by anyone, whether it is the government or the private sector. So, it is necessary to look at their common goods. Maybe the priority is access to clean water first, then electricity,” said Winarsa. Still, Winarsa points out that remote communities typically don’t understand the value or purpose of large-scale electrical grid installations or investments until they can see the direct benefits to their lives. “Diversifying electrification planning is very vital. It should not only extend the interconnection of the electricity grid but also be followed by real solutions to reach the most marginalized people,” she said. “Diversifying electrification planning is very vital. It should not only extend the interconnection of the electricity grid but also be followed by real solutions to reach the most marginalized people.” “The people of Sumba are so poor which keeps electricity demand very low. If a large grid investment above 10 MW is made available while the demand from the people has not yet increased, there will still be positive effects. Access to electricity will make changes that better their lives, whether or not the people fully understand the scope of benefits beforehand,” she added. Winarsa sees that many energy system developers are more concerned with maximizing the business model at the expense of what’s best for locals. Not all parts of islands can electrify through the main grid. Some areas may be better served through off-grid or mini-grid electricity production. Paranggi agrees that tailoring energy solutions to local contexts is the way forward. “The future of renewable energy in Sumba is very bright but depends on whether we share the same vision,” Paranggi said. “Renewable energy programs should target smaller scales that are easier to handle, such as at the sub-district city level, where a homogeneous population with shared needs can more easily build an energy system that works for them. Don’t just take a business perspective on the issue.” *Arpan Rachman is a journalist with fourteen years of experience based in Jakarta, Indonesia. He specializes in environmental issues with a local perspective, as well as politics, economy, sports, and investigative reporting. He has written for numerous international publications and is an author at Global Voices.

By Angelica Sirotin* Taking on Meal Prep Pollution Four million people worldwide, mostly women and children, will die every year from household air pollution due to the smoke and pollutants from open fire cooking and outdated stoves. Women and children in developing countries are especially affected as they spend up to 20 hours a week gathering biofuel for cooking. As a result of burning wood fuels, one gigaton of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. The emissions from deforestation for wood and charcoal fuel for cooking contribute up to 5% of greenhouse emissions, which is equivalent to the emissions generated by the aviation industry each year. Therefore, the introduction of more clean and efficient cooking stoves saves many lives and, besides that impact, contributes significantly to the reduction of CO₂ and other pollutants released into the atmosphere. Yet this sector is one of the most overlooked climate solutions. Types of Clean Cookstoves There are several types of clean cookstoves with different designs that have been developed to address the inefficiency of open fire cooking and to reduce the exposure of harmful smoke. The main types are: Biomass cookstoves: These stoves use wood, agricultural residues, and dung as fuel. The stoves are designed to minimize the exposure to harmful smoke by burning the fuel more efficiently. Solar cookstoves: These stoves use sunlight to heat food. The stove is usually a box with a reflective surface that focuses the sun’s rays on the cooking pot. The main benefit of solar cookstoves is that they do not use any fuel, so there are no emissions. Natural gasifier stoves: These stoves use a gasifier to convert solid fuels such as wood or charcoal into a combustible gas. The gas is then used to cook food in a similar way to using natural gas. Gasifier stoves can be more expensive than other types of clean cookstoves, but they are very efficient and have low emissions. Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) cookstoves: These stoves use LPG, which is a clean-burning fuel, as their source of energy. LPG cookstoves are similar to natural gas cookstoves in terms of efficiency and emissions. Highly efficient coal cookstoves: These stoves use coal as fuel. The stove is designed to burn the coal more efficiently, which results in less smoke and pollutants. Furthermore, the design of clean cookstoves varies depending on the type of fuel that is being used. For example, solar cookstoves are typically box-shaped to maximize the surface area that is exposed to sunlight. Biomass cookstoves are often designed with a combustion chamber that is separate from the cooking pot, to minimize exposure to harmful smoke. Based on the design, clean cookstoves demonstrate a wide range of efficiency, and can be disruptive in both positive and negative ways. In some societies, the smoke of traditional stoves is preferred, as it keeps the mosquitoes away. Other hurdles slow this sector’s growth; these include energy access; competing low-quality products of marginal effect; perfection vs good-enough design; and financing and business models that can supply affordable innovations to the weekly market. Over the past 10 years, there is much heated debate chronicling the clean cooking conversation. Health Benefits of Clean Cookstoves The main health benefit of clean cookstoves is that they reduce exposure to harmful smoke. Household air pollution from open fire cooking is a leading cause of death and disease, especially in developing countries. According to the World Health Organization, household air pollution from cooking with solid fuels kills 4 million people each year. Most of these deaths are due to pneumonia caused by exposure to harmful smoke. In addition, exposure to smoke from open fire cooking has been linked to other health problems such as lung cancer, bronchitis, and heart disease. Therefore, by reducing exposure to harmful smoke, clean cookstoves can save many lives. Environmental Benefits of Clean Cookstoves In addition to the health benefits, clean cookstoves also have environmental benefits. One of the main environmental benefits is that they reduce emissions of harmful pollutants. Open fire cooking with solid fuels such as wood and dung releases harmful pollutants into the atmosphere, including CO₂, black carbon, and methane. These pollutants contribute to climate change and have negative health effects, whereas clean cookstoves that use efficient combustion techniques can reduce emissions by up to 50-90%. Reducing Black Carbon Impact Black carbon, or soot, refers to tiny carbon particles that form during incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels (such as wood, charcoal, coal, and kerosene), and is by far the most significant short-lived climate pollutant emitted during cooking. This soot is estimated to be second only to CO2 in its warming impact on the climate. The particulate absorbs sunlight, warming the atmosphere. It only remains in the atmosphere for a short period of time, then it falls back to earth with precipitation, in some cases darkening such surfaces as snow and ice, or reducing the reflecting power of a surface, thus causing sea ice and glacial melting. Black carbon emissions from household cookstoves that consume solid fuel produce approximately 25 percent of total anthropogenic BC emissions. Due to the high use of inefficient biomass burning cookstoves, the residential sector is found to be the greatest contributor to black carbon emissions. Clean cookstoves differ in that they might be solar-powered or fuel-burning household stoves that reduce greenhouse gas emissions by increasing thermal efficiency, reducing specific emissions, or increasing ventilation. Reducing Deforestation Impact Another environmental benefit of clean cookstoves is that they can help to reduce deforestation. In many developing countries, people rely on wood as their main source of fuel for cooking. This reliance has led to widespread deforestation, as trees are cut down to meet the demand for fuel. Clean cookstoves that use alternative fuels such as LPG can help to reduce the demand for wood, and therefore help to reduce deforestation. Replacing traditional wood and coal-burning cookstoves with cleaner technology could trim nearly a tenth of a degree from global temperature. Research shows that the effect of cutting emissions on global average temperature is far greater for some parts of the world than others. For example, greater climate benefits by 2050 would come from halting cookstove emissions in China, India, and Ethiopia, research shows. Indications are that phasing out emissions in these countries could account for about half the total potential reduction in global temperature. Companies and Organizations Supporting Clean Cookstoves There are many nonprofit and for-profit organizations that support the funding, building, and operation of clean cookstoves. Some of these organizations include Greenway Appliances, The Cookstove Project, and UNESCO Green Citizens’ Vash Green Schools Project. Greenway Appliances Greenway Appliances is a social enterprise that manufactures and sells clean cookstoves in India. Greenway's mission is to make clean cooking accessible and affordable for all while creating jobs and combating climate change. The company was founded in 2011 and today operates in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Africa. Greenway Appliances has a wide range of cookstoves that use diverse types of fuel, including wood, charcoal, dung, and agricultural waste. The company also provides financing options and after-sales service to make sure that their products are accessible and affordable for all. The Cookstove Project The Cookstove Project is a 501(c)3 US non-profit organization that helps women and their families gain access to efficient, clean cookstoves through solutions that are unique to each country. The non-profit encourages the use of clean cookstoves with health, hygiene, aesthetic, and economic advantages. The Cookstove Project specifically trains homeowners in building and maintaining their own clean cookstoves using local and readily accessible materials. The project also emphasizes personal and community ownership to keep costs low and ensure the organic growth of the project. The Cookstove Project has impacted over 60,000 people by building 12,000+ stoves in countries like Uganda, Nepal, and Kenya. UNESCO Green Citizens’ Vash Green Schools Project UNESCO's Vash Green Schools Project is an energy transition project that works to address energy poverty in rural schools and households in Uganda. The project provides schools with solar panels and ecological stoves and cookers. The project has provided 15 schools with access to lighting by equipping them with solar panels. Ecological stoves and cookers have also been built, with the involvement of users, to better meet the needs and economic capacity of these communities. Furthermore, teaching methods have improved with the availability of electricity. For example, teachers can distribute typed materials with greater ease. The Way Forward: Why Switch to a Clean Cookstove? Back in 2010, Hillary Clinton, as secretary of state, launched a public-private partnership called the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. Over the years, the initiative has encountered many obstacles. Challenges such as push-back from tradition in many cultures, efficiency failure, poor durability of the products, lack of infrastructure for supplying cleaner fuel, costs of materials and projects. Cheap clean stoves were supposed to save millions of lives. Where are we? As of 2018, clean cookstoves were indeed used by over 53% of families in developing regions with the rest using open wood or charcoal fires for cooking, with the concomitant health and environmental effects. Even so, an ever-widening range of “improved” cookstove technologies exists, with a wide range of impacts on emissions. Advanced biomass stoves are more promising. By forcing gases and smoke from incomplete combustion back into the stove’s flame, some cut emissions by an incredible 95 percent, but are more expensive and can require more advanced pellet or briquette fuels. Progress and development have been slow in fits and starts. Yet there are many reasons to continue the switch to clean cookstoves. Clean cookstoves offer health, environmental, and economic benefits. They also have the potential to help reduce deforestation and combat climate change. Lastly, there are many organizations and companies that support the funding, building, and operation of clean cookstoves. Switching to a clean cookstove is a step in the right direction towards a sustainable future. *Angelica Sirotin is a social impact venture entrepreneur, founder and CEO of Sirotin Ventures. She is a member of the WEF AI Youth Council, B20 Indonesia 2022 Digitalization Taskforce, and has been selected as a SwissCognitive Global AI Ambassador 2022.

By Angelica Sirotin* Climate Change Impacts an Alpine Treasure It is no secret that climate change has a serious impact on the quality and ecology of aquatic environments. Switzerland is an example of a mountainous, alpine region that is at risk of experiencing a decline in water supply due to global warming as well as the human response to it. Researchers at Swiss research institute Eawag have revealed that human responses to climate change are just as impactful on our water systems—for example, through agriculture and hydropower installations. But what does this mean for the future of Switzerland’s water security? Alpine Water Supplies Could Become at Risk Switzerland is traditionally a water-rich country, averaging about 5,000 cubic meters (or 5 million liters) of renewable fresh water available per person per year. However, this abundance is unevenly distributed, and some alpine regions of Germany, Austria, and Liechtenstein are also already facing water scarcity. Most of Switzerland’s water resources come from the Alps, which are also the main source of water for neighboring countries. Moreover, the Alps are an important source of hydropower, which provides approximately 60% of Switzerland’s electricity. As the climate changes, the amount of water available in the Alps is expected to decline. This is due to a combination of factors, including increased evaporation, decreased precipitation, and melting glaciers. The resulting decline in water availability will have a number of impacts on Switzerland, including decreased water supply for households, industry, and agriculture; increased costs for water treatment and distribution; and negative impacts on the environment. In response to these anticipated impacts, the Swiss government has put in place a series of measures. One such measure was the revision of the Water Protection Ordinance (WPO) in 2020, which introduced more stringent limits for twelve pesticides that are especially harmful to aquatic organisms. In addition, three medicinal compounds were added to the list of regulated substances for the first time. Moreover, The Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) reports that water quantity is not yet the most pressing issue in Switzerland. Rather, it is water quality that is cause for current concern, as agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, and livestock waste can contaminate water supplies. To address this problem, the Swiss government has implemented policies to improve water quality. For example, The Green Economy Action Plan, which was approved by the Federal Office for the Environment of the Swiss Federal Council in early 2013, includes several measures relating to consumption and production, waste, and raw materials. Ultimately, the goal is to better utilize minimal resources, such as freshwater, while also maintaining production needed for economic and societal functionality. Aside from legislation, the promotion of vertical farming (cultivating plants in stacked layers in a controlled environment) is one way Switzerland is working to reduce the water footprint of crops. Vertical farming uses 95% less water than traditional farming methods and does not require pesticides or herbicides. This type of farming provides not only environmental but also economic benefits. Its reduced water consumption results in less strain on municipal resources and infrastructure, enabling farmers to save money on irrigation costs. As Switzerland strives to become carbon-neutral by 2050, it is accelerating the transition to renewable energy, which includes doubling-down on its hydropower resources. For example, Switzerland will inaugurate its new, state-of-the-art pumped storage hydropower plant Nant de Drance on September 10/11, with a storage capacity of 900 MW of electricity (roughly 400,000 EV batteries). While hydropower is generally considered to be a low-carbon technology, it can have significant environmental impacts, including alteration of river flows, which can impact the ecology of the river system. The effects of climate change on water resources are not unique to Switzerland. Many countries around the world are grappling with the same issue. For example, in Australia, the Murray-Darling Basin—which is the country’s food bowl and supports a $75 billion agriculture industry—is under immense pressure from the effects of drought and climate change. The Australian government has implemented a series of measures to try to mitigate the effects of climate change on the Basin, including water efficiency plans and assessment of environmental flows. In addition to Australia, many countries in Africa are also struggling with the effects of climate change on water resources, including flooding, droughts, changes in the distribution of rainfall, drying-up of rivers, and the receding of bodies of water. It is evident that Switzerland's actions serve as a model for other countries to follow to mitigate the effects of climate change. Ultimately, the effects of climate change on water resources require a coordinated effort from all countries to address. It is evident that Switzerland's actions serve as a model for other countries to follow to mitigate the effects of climate change. Moreover, Switzerland has several key lessons that can be applied to other countries when it comes to climate change and water resources. Switzerland’s Key Lessons First, it is important to have clear and stringent legislation in place to protect water resources. Second, the promotion of alternative farming methods, such as vertical farming, can help to reduce the water footprint of crops. And finally, the transition to renewable energy sources is crucial to achieve carbon-neutrality. As a country with a long history of environmental stewardship, Switzerland is setting the standard for other countries to follow. According to Eawag, “We have long been aware of the direct impact of climate change on natural freshwater systems [in Switzerland]. ... This does not just threaten the habitats of aquatic life and their biodiversity. Around 1.5 billion people [worldwide] who rely on the water resources from … mountainous regions will also suffer if the quality and quantity of the drinking water deteriorate." While the effects of climate change are global in scope, countries must act at the domestic level to mitigate the negative impacts of this phenomenon. It is incumbent upon Alpine nations to take action to protect their water resources through a combination of legislation, technology, and education. In doing so, these nations will not only be protecting their own resources but serving as an inspiration for other countries to follow suit. *Angelica Sirotin is a social impact venture entrepreneur, founder, and CEO of Sirotin Ventures. She is a member of the WEF AI Youth Council, B20 Indonesia 2022 Digitalization Taskforce, and has been selected as a SwissCognitive Global AI Ambassador 2022.

By Alina Bradford* Donkeys are not usually thought of as invasive species, but, in the American Southwest, feral donkeys have become a nuisance and drain on the local environment. New research has found, however, that wild donkeys and equids of the American Southwest may not be as harmful to their surroundings as once thought. Wells dug by these creatures have come to be a much-needed source of water to local plants and animals alike. The Donkey Invasion Takes Hold in the Southwest Although not native to North America, donkeys are found naturally in the deserts and savannahs of northern Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Middle East. They were first introduced to North America by Spanish colonists in the 1400s as domestic donkeys bred from African wild ass. It was not until later on that donkeys brought to the American Southwest during the 1800s Gold Rush got loose or were abandoned by their owners and became feral. Since wild donkeys naturally thrive in dry, arid areas, they adjusted well to life in the Southwest. These feral donkeys bred, and, as the population grew, they became an environmental problem, as invasive species tend to do. They ate up grasses meant for livestock and stole resources from native species. To combat the damage being caused, the wild donkeys were then hunted nearly to extinction. For example, in Death Valley National Park, California, donkeys competed with bighorn sheep for the limited food and water in the area, almost wiping out the sheep population. In response, National Park Service Rangers shot around 400 wild donkeys between 1987 and 1995 as part of the park’s "Direct Reduction" policy. After the slaughter of wild donkeys led to massive declines in their numbers, Congress passed the Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971. The act stated, “Wild free-roaming horses and burros shall be protected from capture, branding, harassment, or death, and, to accomplish this, they are to be considered in the area where presently found as an integral part of the natural system of the public lands.” Once protected, populations began to grow again. Currently, the donkey population has reached levels that many consider to be out of control and even dangerous. Growing Numbers of Feral Donkeys Lead to More Accidents and Environmental Damage There are currently more than 95,000 wild donkeys and horses in the western United States. Each of these donkeys consumes around 6,000 pounds of forage a year. There is already minimal vegetation in the western US, so this amount of foraging significantly impacts the availability of food for native ground species. They also eat plant seeds, which means less food for birds. Beyond nibbling up food meant for livestock and native species, donkeys can also be a danger to humans. In Arizona, the booming donkey population has led to thirty-six car wrecks in three years. The herds have also impacted the geography of where they live. Compacted soil and trampled plants from hooves lead to increased erosion. Donkeys also destroy crops and tear down fences. New Study Finds Wild Donkeys Build Wells, Helping Ecosystems While feral donkeys have been getting a bad rap for decades, it turns out that they may not be as harmful to their environment as once thought. An early 2021 paper published in Science sheds some light on how donkeys create a better environment for the species they share a home with. A researcher and co-author of the paper became interested in African elephants that dig wells to find water in dry areas where they live. These wells not only become a life source for the elephants and their herd but also for other species. The researcher, Erick Lundgren, a biologist at the University of Technology Sydney, wondered about the impact of donkey wells after noticing donkeys digging wells in 2012. Curiosity led to observing wild horses and donkeys in the dried riverbeds of the Sonoran Desert in Arizona and California for three summers between 2015 and 2018. What Lundgren and colleagues found was similar behavior to those African elephants. The donkeys dug wells up to six feet in depth. They supplied a significant amount of water to local species (including black bears, badgers, Woodhouse's scrub jay, mule deer, mountain lions, and javelinas) throughout the area during dry periods. In fact, during the driest part of the season, the wells dug by the donkeys and horses were the only water source. The wells increased the local surface water by fourteen times and became a boon to local wildlife. Areas with wells had sixty-four percent more species than other areas nearby, including 59 species other than donkeys. Most of those species took advantage of drinking from the wells. Not only animals benefited from the new water sources. Surprisingly, many of the wells stayed intact for long periods of time, allowing river trees like willows and cottonwoods to sprout from the moisture. Deeper Discussions Are Needed to Decide the Fate of Wild Donkeys These findings have opened discussions about how ancient wild horses and donkeys may have helped other species before their extinction in North America more than 12,000 years ago. They have also challenged the conventional thinking that all invasive species are 100% detrimental to their new environments. Others in the scientific community urge that the paper’s findings do not negate the harm that donkeys cause to ecosystems, overall. For instance, donkeys have been found to prevent other animals from drinking at watering holes. The herds have also lessened plant diversity, even if their wells act as growing areas for some species of plants. One thing has become clear. If we are to make informed decisions on how to handle feral donkey populations adequately, more research is needed to determine the environmental benefits and detriments that feral donkeys bring to the western landscape. *Alina Bradford has been a published writer for more than two decades and has contributed her insights to SafeWise, CBS, MTV, Life Science, and many others.