Coral reefs are highly diverse ecosystems, valued globally at about $9.8 trillion each year. Since the 1980s, however, three mass coral “bleaching” events have been observed. Efforts to understand and prevent this damaging phenomenon are bringing new data to the surface. Coral “bleaching” refers to the loss of symbiotic algae that give coral reefs their distinctive colors and energy. If a coral is severely bleached, it can become diseased and die. There have been three “global coral bleaching events,” according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latest one, 2014-2017, started in the north Pacific in 2014, expanded to the south Pacific and Indian oceans in 2015, and spread to the Hawaiian Islands. The first global bleaching event was observed in 1998 when a strong El Niño was followed by an equally strong La Nina. A second event occurred in 2010. Corals can and do recover from mild bleaching episodes. However, severe or long-term bleaching can destroy the corals, leading to degradation of the reefs. This in turn affects shorelines and habitats for fish and other marine life. Bleaching occurs when normal summer temperature limits are exceeded by more than a few weeks. Risk factors include global climate change, fishing practices, and pollution from land. Real-time satellite and other monitoring of coral reefs can lead to early detection of oceanic heat stress, and actions can be taken, such as temporarily closing a reef to fishing and scuba diving, to protect these ecosystems. – Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Commerce

Marine mussels have been recently found in Antarctica, raising alarms about the impacts of non-native species on that continent’s frigid coasts. In 2019, a scientist found a colony of juvenile mussels on King George Island, the largest of the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica. Researchers said later these were Patagonian blue mussels—plentiful in Chilean waters— that most likely arrived on the hull of a ship. This mussel colony is viewed as the first ever invasive species to be found alive on Antarctica. Notably, when scientists returned to the same site after Antarctica’s winter (in which water temperatures drop below 30ºF for several months), they did not find any more mussels. The discovery of mussels has heightened concerns about climate change affecting Antarctica and its unique ecosystems and wildlife. Conservationists are also concerned that ship traffic related to tourism, research, and fishing is also exposing Antarctica and its pristine wilderness to human impact. At least five ports are already considered “Antarctic gateway cities,” but between 2014 and 2018 another 53 ports had vessels departing directly to Antarctica. In addition to mussels, which are notoriously proficient in attaching themselves to ships, algae, barnacles, and crabs have been found to have “hitchhiked” to Antarctica. – Source: National Academy of Sciences, Nature, The Weather Channel

Whether displaced by war, famine, or weather, refugees throughout the world are in desperate need of shelter. The situation in Yemen is particularly dire. Here are some numbers from the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC): More than 6.6 million global refugees live in temporary camps. Among those, 4.6 million live in camps that were created/managed for them. Two million live in self-made camps. A total of four million people in Yemen are internally displaced by war. Many live in urban centers and about 150 informal settlements. About 190,000 people live in camps where conditions have been reported to be deplorable. Due to conflict, only 21% of displaced residents in Yemen can be reached by aid organizations. Nine out of ten settlements in Yemen are built on private land. Threat of eviction is real. Some 85% of Yemen’s displaced families are unable to regularly pay rent. 80% of the displaced are women and children. – Source: United Nations Human Rights Council

Animal pollinators play a crucial role in flowering plant reproduction and in the production of most fruits and vegetables. Among the most familiar animal pollinators are birds, bees, bats and butterflies. Here’s why we need them: Most plants require pollinators to produce seeds and fruit. 80% of flowering plants and over three-quarters of the crop plants that feed us rely on animal pollinators. Pollinators visit flowers in their search for food, mates, shelter, and nest-building materials. More than half of the world’s diet of fats and oils come from animal-pollinated plants. More than 150 food crops in the US require pollinators, including almost all fruit and grain crops. The USDA estimates that pollinator-dependent crops are worth more than $10 billion per year. If we don’t take care of pollinators, we lose them. Honeybees, for instance, are under tremendous stress. The prevailing theory is that the declining health of honey bees is related to multiple stressors including: Pests, pathogens and viruses. Poor nutrition due to the loss of foraging habitat, as well as increased reliance on supplemental diets. Pesticides. Bee management practices (e.g., long migratory routes). Lack of genetic diversity. Neither plant nor pollinator populations can exist in isolation–if one disappears, the other is a generation away from disaster. –Sources: EPA and the US Forest Service

Australia is tackling plastic waste through a new National Plastics Plan. In a government-sponsored survey for 2018-2019, the compilers decided to see how Australia has been doing with those one-use plastic retail supermarket bags that end up in landfills and trash heaps across the planet. Take a look at their findings: Australian manufacturing of single-use HDPE retail carry bags basically ended in 2017. Almost all bags are now imported. Until mid-2018 the most commonly used single-use plastic bags were made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastic (the standard supermarket single-use bag). Over a two-year period from 2016–17 to 2018–19, plastic retail carry bag use decreased in Australia 32% by weight and 54% by number. Single-use HDPE plastic bag consumption has fallen by 77% since 2016–17, driven by instituted bans that began on July 1, 2018. The 77% reduction was further assisted by major retailers, Woolworths and Coles, phasing out single-use bags in July 2018. Single-use bag consumption in 2002 numbered 5.95 billion units, weighing 32,700 tons. By 2018-2019, those use-numbers had dropped to 1.30 billion units, weighing 7000 tons. –Source: Australian government’s department of Agriculture, Water, and the Environment

Want to know the potential for reforesting the Earth? Here's what NASA researchers found: Earth’s ecosystems could support another 900 million hectares (ha), or over 3.4 million square miles, of forests. That would be a 25% increase from the forests we have today. Planting over a half-trillion trees could capture about 205 gigatons of carbon (one gigaton = one billion metric tons = 1.1 billion tons) That would cut atmospheric carbon by about 25%. That’s enough to negate nearly half of all carbon emitted by humans since 1960. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change proposed that 950 million ha (3.7 million square miles) of new forests could help limit the increase in global average temperature to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels by 2050. Reforesting a region the size of the United States and Canada (1 billion to 2 billion ha or over 7 million square miles) could take from one to two thousand years to accomplish—if we plant a million ha per year at 50 to 100 trees per ha. Source: NASA Information in this article was derived from NASA’s Vital Signs of the Planet: https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2927/examining-the-viability-of-planting-trees-to-help-mitigate-climate-change/

If you are new to ginseng, you may be surprised to learn of its fervent following, especially when it comes to wild-harvested varieties. Here’s what we unearthed about American ginseng, a sought-after member of the ginseng family. Tens of thousands of pounds of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) are harvested from the wild each year. While the average harvest amount has dwindled, the price has skyrocketed. Between 2000 and 2007, harvesters made an estimated $22 million to $43 million each year from the sale of wild-harvested American ginseng root. Counties with more poverty and unemployment had much higher harvest rates. Indiana, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, and West Virginia account for about 70% of the total harvest from the wild. Wild American ginseng roots fetch 10 to 25 times more money per pound than ginseng grown in fields under shade cloths. A dry pound of wild-harvested roots can sell for hundreds of dollars. About 90% of farmed ginseng is exported. Since 1999, there has been a federal ban on exporting roots younger than five years old. Source: US Department of Agriculture Information in this article was derived from the US Department of Agriculture’s Southern Research Station: https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/compass/2020/05/07/american-ginseng-in-the-forest-and-in-the-marketplace/

NASA tracks global summer conditions such as surface heat and fires. This summer’s heat waves broke records across the planet. Here’s a taste of what NASA was monitoring: Hurricanes are affected by rising temperatures. In the Atlantic, five named storms formed between May 19 and July 9, with Hurricane Elsa becoming the earliest fifth-named storm on record for a single hurricane season. More than 62,000 hectares (239 square miles) have burned in Algeria this year. In one of the worst heat waves since the 1980s, more than 110,000 hectares (424 square miles) have burned in Greece this year. The massive wildfires in the Republic of Sakha in eastern Russia this year have set a record for estimated carbon emissions for the period from June 1 to August 1. As of August 6, 2021, the Dixie fire in California had charred more than 432,000 acres. More than 136,000 hectares (525 square miles) have burned in Turkey this year, nearly three times the annual average. At the opening of the 2020 Summer Olympic Games, held this year in Japan, Tokyo was in the midst of a humid heat wave that pushed temperatures above 34°C (93°F) several days in a row. On May 14, 2021, winter ice still covered most of Canada’s Lake Winnipeg. By May 19, temperatures hovered between 30°C and 33°C (86°F to 91°F), and the dry landscape was covered with smoke and fire. Source: NASA Information in this article was derived from NASA’s Earth Observatory: https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/topic/heat

For this issue of E&I, we looked at Germany’s solar panel waste problem, but Germany isn’t alone. The US and other nations are looking into their versions of the same problem. Here’s how things are looking for the US and other nations: Analysts predict that 59 gigawatts (GW) of solar photovoltaics (PV) will be installed between 2019 and 2022 in the United States. That amount would double the total capacity of PV that had been installed prior to 2019. The anticipated global PV capacity by 2030 is 1600 GW. By 2050, it’s possible for capacity to build to 4500 GW. Estimated solar PV waste by 2050 for the top five nations: China – 20 megatons, US – 10 Mt, Japan – 7.5 Mt, India – 7.5 Mt, Germany – 4.3 Mt. Solar waste recycling could develop into an entirely new waste management industry as it continues to expand. In terms of the total patents filed for solar recycling technologies from 1995 to 2016, these are the top countries or regions by percentage: China – 48%, South Korea – 16%, Japan – 15%, Europe – 6%, US – 4%. The US is far behind other countries in public sector support for PV recycling. By 2030, PV recycling is estimated to yield 75,000 Mt of aluminum and 90 Mt of silver. Reducing the amount of silver used in new PV technology is a key target. However, doing so would significantly reduce the overall value of recycled modules. Source: US Environmental Protection Agency Information in this article was derived from the following US Environmental Protection Agency report: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-08/documents/heath.pdf

“Soil” never ceases to amaze. It is so much more than “dirt.” Here are some soil stats to ponder: The National Cooperative Soil Survey has identified over 20,000 different kinds of soil in the US alone. Carbon is incorporated into soil by the decomposition of organic matter. In fact, 48% to 58% of soil weight is made of carbon. Soils hold more carbon than all the world’s vegetation. It is estimated that the Earth has taken a 59% loss of available carbon in soil through the conversion of grasslands to crops. Soil pH measures soil acidity or alkalinity. A pH of 7 is neutral, while less than 7 is acidic and higher than 7 is alkaline. The nutrition, growth, and yields of crops decrease with low soil pH. An area is not considered to have soil if the surface is permanently covered by more than 2.5 meters (8.2 ft) of water. This depth is considered too deep for the growth of plants with roots. Because soils are so varied, the lower boundary of soil has been arbitrarily set at 200 cm (6.6 ft). Source: US Department of Agriculture, UN Environmental Statistics Division Information in this article was derived from the US Department of Agriculture and UN Environmental Statistics Division - https://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/FDES/EGES5/Session 1_6Mexico Francisco Soils.pdf

The UN Sustainable Development Goal #6 is to “ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all” by 2030. Right now, many indigenous peoples worldwide lack access to acceptable drinking water. Let’s look at the situation in Latin America, where numerous indigenous communities live: In Latin American countries (LAC), indigenous peoples are 10% to 25% less likely to have access to piped water than the region’s non-indigenous population. There are over 800 distinct indigenous peoples in Latin America. 41% of Guatemala’s population is indigenous. 43% of the approximately 42 million indigenous peoples in LAC live in poverty. 71% of indigenous peoples have access to piped water in LAC, compared to 90% of non-indigenous peoples. One reason for the access gap is that about 50% of LAC’s indigenous peoples live in rural communities that are often remote. In rural Nicaragua, 63% of indigenous peoples have access to improved sanitation coverage, compared to 72% for non-indigenous peoples. Source: World Bank Group Information in this article was derived from the following World Bank Group report

There is broad awareness that the world’s air is polluted, indoors and outdoors, but there is nothing like seeing the numbers to get a grasp on the extent of the situation: Worldwide, 4.2 million deaths every year are caused by exposure to ambient (outdoor) air pollution. China and India account for half of global deaths due to outdoor air pollution. 91% of the global population live where air quality is worse than the World Health Organization’s guideline limits. People with COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), a lung disease experience increased health risks from exposure to particle pollution. COPD is the third leading cause of death in the US. When an air-polluting steel mill in Utah closed for one year, nearby hospital admissions for bronchitis and asthma fell by almost 50%. Approximately 3% of cardiopulmonary and 5% of lung cancer deaths are attributable to air pollution globally. Up to 80% of particulate matter pollution in EU countries can be reduced with currently available technologies. Source: US Environmental Protection Agency, World Health Organization Information in this article was derived from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the World Health Organization, and the World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe