World Meteorological Organization Set to Release 2026 Assessment A group of Adelie penguins on an iceberg in Antarctica. Far above their heads, the ozone hole is shrinking. Jason Auch/Wikipedia In late 2025. scientists at the US atmosphere-monitoring agencies reported that the year’s Antarctic ozone hole was the fifth smallest since 1992, the year the Montreal Protocol’s phase-out of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) began to take effect. Now the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is preparing to release its next comprehensive Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion later this year. This evaluation, coauthored every four years by hundreds of international experts and supported by the UN Environment Programme, will provide the most definitive look yet at the ozone layer’s path toward a full midcentury recovery. A ‘Healing’ in the Skies The success of the Montreal Protocol and its Kigali Amendment—which targets climate-warming hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)—remains a beacon of environmental hope. By phasing out over 99% of controlled ODSs, the treaty is projected to avoid up to 0.5°C of global warming by 2100. “Today, the ozone layer is healing,” said UN Environment Programme Executive Director Inger Andersen. “Ozone-depleting substances have now been virtually eradicated and the hole in the ozone layer is closing. That is multilateralism at its very, very best.” The Road to 2040 and Beyond Based on current recovery rates, the ozone layer is projected to return to 1980 levels—prior to the appearance of the significant “hole”—according to the following timeline: 2040 for the majority of the world 2045 over the Arctic 2066 over Antarctica. “As predicted, we're seeing ozone holes trending smaller in area than they were in the early 2000s,” noted Paul Newman, a senior scientist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. “They're forming later in the season and breaking up earlier.” Challenges for 2026 and Beyond The 2026 Assessment is slated for release in late 2026 and will not only celebrate progress but address emerging threats. Key concerns include the planned termination of NASA’s Aura mission, a satellite critical for monitoring atmospheric chemistry since 2004. Experts warn that losing such high-vertical-resolution data could impact long-term monitoring. Further, the report will evaluate the potential ozone-thinning risks of "stratospheric aerosol injection"—a geoengineering technique proposed to cool the planet—and the need for stronger ground networks to detect illegal chemical emissions.

What Animal Bonds Reveal about Consciousness and Emotion By Dirk Anthonis* A duck befriends a capybara, which is said to be one of the most amiable animals on Earth. Pierre Aden/iStock Stories of unlikely animal friendships—an elephant playing with a dog, a gorilla nurturing a kitten, or birds of different species grooming one another—have long fascinated people. Once dismissed as anthropomorphic storytelling, many such interactions are now attracting serious scientific attention. Behavioral studies increasingly suggest that animals can form stable social relationships not only with members of their own species but sometimes with entirely different species, including natural predators or animals with very different communication systems. These findings, and hundreds like them, are quietly reshaping how scientists, ethicists, and ordinary animal lovers think about the inner lives of other species. The animal kingdom, it turns out, is full of friendships—some born of survival, others of something harder to name. Researchers are increasingly interested in what these interactions might reveal about the emotional and cognitive lives of animals. Laboratory and field experiments show that many species—ranging from chimpanzees and elephants to parrots and wolves—can cooperate toward shared goals and may understand when a partner, even of another species, is needed for success. Meanwhile, studies of empathy in animals, from rodents freeing trapped companions to hens showing stress when their chicks suffer, suggest that emotional responsiveness is not uniquely human. “To endow animals with human emotions has long been a scientific taboo. But if we do not, we risk missing something fundamental, about both animals and us.” “To endow animals with human emotions has long been a scientific taboo,” said the late primatologist and ethologist Frans de Waal. “But if we do not, we risk missing something fundamental, about both animals and us.” If animals are capable of forming friendships across species boundaries, the implications are profound. Such relationships challenge traditional assumptions that animal behavior is driven solely by instinct or self-interest. Instead, they may point toward more complex forms of social awareness, emotional sensitivity, and perhaps even rudimentary moral behavior. Two Kinds of Connection Scientists generally describe interspecies relationships in two broad categories. The first is mutualism: ecological partnerships where both animals gain a clear, practical benefit. The second is something warmer and harder to quantify—genuine social bonds, the kind that look, at least from a distance, a lot like friendship. Author and lecturer Jenn Savedge compiled a list of 10 examples of where animals of different species cooperated in the wild. Her examples of mutualism include coyotes and badgers hunting ground squirrels together, each compensating for what the other lacks—the badger digs, the coyote waits above ground. Pistol shrimp, nearly blind, share burrows with gobies, who have excellent eyesight; the goby keeps watch while the shrimp tidies the home. Zebras and ostriches travel in loose companionship; the zebra’s sharp eyes are paired with the ostrich’s keen sense of smell, and each animal is safer because of the other’s presence. These are ancient arrangements, shaped by millions of years of pressure and practicality. Smaller animals, like cleaner fish, cattle egrets, and red-billed oxpeckers, remove parasites from larger “clients” like sharks, water buffaloes, and rhinos. The smaller animal gets a meal, and the larger one gets pest control.  Best friends forever? Muddy Toes Farm LLC/Unsplash But then there are the other kinds of bonds, the ones that lack a clear survival necessity. They are more frequently documented in captivity or human-controlled environments (like zoos) rather than the wild. Cooperative bonds are almost exclusively found among social species with deep-seated instincts for group interaction. Success often depends on whether different species can interpret each other’s alarm calls or body language. There are numerous recorded cases of one species adopting an orphan from another, such as chimpanzees raising tiger cubs, a fawn curled up beside a golden retriever, or a capuchin monkey that has, seemingly against all biological logic, adopted a marmoset as family. This video shows some remarkable interspecies friendships. What Cross-Species Friendship Looks Like Interspecies social bonds are most frequently observed among mammals, particularly domesticated animals and primates, which often form companionship, play, or grooming relationships. Frequent pairs include dogs and cats, dogs and other species (like deer or pigs), horses and goats, and young, orphaned animals that form surrogate family bonds. Empathy may be at the root of these pairings. One animal may take another under its wing, so to speak, “to relieve its pain, hunger, or loneliness,” said Jenny Holland, who wrote the 2011 book Unlikely Friendships, in an interview with National Geographic. “Mammals have the same brain structures, the same system, related to emotion that we have, so why not?" she said.  “Friendships” in the wild are rare and usually limited to specific scenarios, unlike the more widespread emotional bonds observed in captive environments. Captivity, interestingly, tends to intensify these cross-species bonds. When animals are removed from their natural social groups and placed alongside unfamiliar species, they often reach across the species barrier to form connection. A cheetah cub raised without feline companionship may bond deeply with a dog. The instinct for companionship, it seems, is robust enough to override even the deepest biological instincts. How do scientists tell the difference between animals that happen to be near each other and animals that actually care about each other? The answer lies in a handful of telling behaviors. Key indicators include mutual grooming (licking/cleaning), social play, sleeping in close proximity, shared resting, and protective gestures. These behaviors are largely driven by a mutual need for companionship, reduced stress, and the development of a unique, nonverbal communication system between the species.  Examples are cats “bunting” and dogs “playing bows“ to signal that what follows is fun, not threat. They show up in protectiveness, in excited greetings after separation, and most tellingly, in what researchers call active maintenance—an animal seeking another animal out simply because the other is nearby. Underlying all of this is what scientists increasingly call social intelligence: the ability to read, interpret, and respond to the emotional states of another being—even one that communicates in an entirely different language of sound and scent and movement. Dogs do this with remarkable fluency, picking up on human emotional cues with a sensitivity that still surprises researchers. Wild fish have been observed becoming bolder in the presence of domesticated ones. Vervet monkeys give specific alarm calls for specific predators, and other species nearby—birds, antelopes—have learned to understand and act on them. Using computational tools, scientists can track social interactions over time to differentiate cohesive, long-term bonds (e.g., in the plains zebra) from transient, accidental, or merely gregarious interactions.  In essence, if two animals are always together and they groom each other, it is likely a genuine bond. If they are only together at a specific feeding spot, it is coincidental proximity or mutual benefit.  Biological anthropologist Barbara J. King says in this video that “animals don’t grieve exactly like we do, but this doesn’t mean that their grief isn’t real. It is real, and it’s searing, and we can see it if we choose.” The Question of Feelings All of this points toward a territory scientists once entered reluctantly: the question of whether animals have feelings. The evidence now suggests that many do, and with a sophistication that challenges older assumptions about the uniqueness of human emotion. For example, “a growing body of scientific evidence supports the idea that nonhuman animals are aware of death, can experience grief, and will sometimes mourn for or ritualize their dead,” says bioethicist Jessica Pierce. Neuroscience experiments have identified that the same neural circuitry—spanning the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex—that activates in an animal experiencing pain also activates in the animal watching its companion suffer. Research at the University of Chicago found that free rats will learn to open a restrictive tube to release a trapped companion. The free rats also tended to the trapped rats first, even before accessing proffered chocolate, demonstrating what appeared to be empathy-driven behavior. Prairie voles groom and comfort distressed mates, driven by oxytocin, the same bonding hormone found in humans. Observations in complex social animals like primates, elephants, and dolphins show them displaying comforting behaviors toward stressed individuals and acting in ways suggesting grief for the dead, as described in this BBC Earth YouTube video.  In primates and other social animals, scientists have also documented empathy-like behaviors, including comforting distressed companions, sharing resources, or helping injured individuals. A recent long-term study of chimpanzees even found cases in which individuals treated the wounds of unrelated companions, raising intriguing questions about the origins of caregiving and compassion. How Do Animals Communicate across Species Boundaries? Social intelligence allows animals to interpret nonverbal cues and emotional states across species, fostering empathy and bridging communication gaps to form deep emotional bonds. Most interspecies communication relies on “eavesdropping” on universal auditory, visual, and chemical signals that convey vital information regarding predators, prey, or territory. These shared systems include specific alarm calls, such as those used by vervet monkeys, as well as tactile cues and scent marking to define boundaries and reduce conflict. Collectively, these methods enable social animals to navigate complex multispecies environments and build relationships through mutual understanding. Cooperative behaviors in animals strongly suggest the presence of advanced cognitive abilities, including rudimentary emotional awareness, social intelligence, and in some cases, shared intentionality. These behaviors indicate that animals are not merely driven by instinct but can possess a “theory of mind” that allows them to understand and respond to the goals, intentions, and emotional states of others.  Cooperative behaviors, such as the boundary patrols of chimpanzees or collaborative hunting, suggest that animals can plan, share intentions, and understand the need to work together to achieve a mutual goal. New research, particularly in cognitive science and neuroscience, is reshaping ethical debates by objectively validating animal sentience, emotions, and consciousness. Social species, which are more likely to cooperate, often show higher levels of self-awareness (such as mirror self-recognition in dolphins) and can distinguish between consistent cooperators and noncooperators. Some animals, such as primates, can remember past interactions and selectively cooperate with partners who have helped them before, suggesting memory-driven social relationships. Studies in mice show that cooperation relies on the anterior cingulate cortex of the brain, which acts as a hub for representing the partner’s position and making coordinated social decisions. Why It Matters New research, particularly in cognitive science and neuroscience, is reshaping ethical debates by objectively validating animal sentience, emotions, and consciousness, shifting the focus from whether animals suffer to how they experience suffering. These findings challenge existing regulatory frameworks, strengthening arguments for reducing animal experimentation and making it harder to justify practices where human benefit is not heavily proven to outweigh animal suffering.  As science demonstrates greater cognitive complexity, the debate is evolving from utilitarian arguments (is the experiment worth the cost?) toward rights-based ethical frameworks that prioritize the inherent rights of animals, particularly for higher-order mammals.  That shift matters. It indicates that humans are not alone in the capacity for connection. We share this Earth with creatures who, in their own ways, also choose loyalty, also seek comfort, also grieve. *Dirk Anthonis is a freelance writer and former New York City Tribune editor who lives in Kansas City, Kansas.

Why the World Treks to Slovenia to Taste Her Love of Nature and Place By Mark Smith* Chef Ana Roš ©Ciril Jazbec Like something from a fairy tale, Slovenia’s Soča Valley possesses an almost ethereal beauty. Stretching from the heart of the Julian Alps to the Italian border, the luminous emerald waters of the Soča River wind their way from the rocky slopes, where edelweiss flowers bloom, to the rolling pastures where world-famous Lipizzaner horses run. It is here, in this extraordinary landscape, that a quiet culinary revolution has taken root. At its center is Hiša Franko, a restaurant shaped by the philosophy of Ana Roš, one of the most influential chefs in modern gastronomy. Hiša Franko is housed in a guesthouse that dates back to 1861. ©Ciril Jazbec A former Alpine skier and would-be diplomat who taught herself to cook, Roš has transformed this remote restaurant into a global destination. It is not only celebrated for its cuisine but for its deep connection to the surrounding environment. Roš has transformed the remote restaurant into a global destination. It is not only celebrated for its cuisine but for its deep connection to the surrounding environment. Located just outside the town of Kobarid, Hiša Franko is housed in a guesthouse that dates back to 1861. Mountain view of the Soča Valley and the town of Kobarid, Slovenia. Istock Grounded in local ecosystems, biodiversity, and sustainable food systems, its menus are built from what the Soča Valley provides. From wild herbs and mushrooms gathered in nearby meadows and forests, to river-caught trout and cheeses made by farmers high in the mountains, the valley is its pantry. Chef Ana leads foraging in the mountains surrounding Soča Valley. ©Ciril Jazbec “I believe the Soča Valley is the greatest source of inspiration for Hiša Franko’s cuisine and for the way I think about food,” Roš told The Earth & I. “Everything is rooted in seasonality and micro-locality. “Around 95% of our fruits, vegetables, and wild plants come from an incredibly small area. In fact, when you stand on one of the nearby mountain peaks, you can almost see every place we source from.” “Around 95% of our fruits, vegetables, and wild plants come from an incredibly small area. In fact, when you stand on one of the nearby mountain peaks, you can almost see every place we source from.” ©Ciril Jazbec That deep-rooted connection to place, however, predates Roš herself. Long before she took the reins, the restaurant relied on local producers—not out of philosophy but “a necessity,” she explained. “When I first arrived, my former mother-in-law, who was the chef at the time, already worked closely with what she could find around the restaurant,” she said. “She used wild blueberries when they were in season, foraged mushrooms, and even bear meat from local hunters. “The truth is, Hiša Franko is so remote from most Slovenian cities that suppliers rarely reach us. Being local—and therefore seasonal—wasn’t a stylistic choice but a necessity. We had to rely on what the land around us provided, and over time, that became a defining part of who we are.” That philosophy has brought global recognition. In 2017, Roš was named the World’s Best Female Chef by The World's 50 Best Restaurants. In 2023, Hiša Franko became the first Slovenian restaurant to be awarded three Michelin stars. It was also among the first restaurants in the country to receive the Michelin Green Star in 2020, an award specifically for establishments at the forefront of sustainable gastronomy. It has successfully retained this distinction every year, including in the 2025 Michelin Guide. Hiša Franko became the first Slovenian restaurant to be awarded three Michelin stars. It was also among the first restaurants in the country to receive the Michelin Green Star. “I believe one of the greatest achievements any chef can reach is earning three red Michelin stars and a Green Star,” Roš said. “The red stars represent the highest level of culinary excellence and a certain world of luxury. The Green Star is equally meaningful, but very different—it represents true sustainability,” she said, adding: “It recognizes chefs who may not work with luxurious ingredients, but who elevate simple, honest products into something extraordinary.” “Sunflower praline and stone fruit bite” is crafted from sunflower fields in Kobarid. The cottage cheese is also from Kobarid. ©Ciril Jazbec “Summer harvest” is made from melon, squash blossoms, and Mirabelle plums from Orto Felice. ©Ciril Jazbec For Roš, sustainability is not an add-on but a guiding principle embedded in every aspect of the restaurant’s work. “We focus strongly on reducing food waste, working strictly with seasonal and local ingredients, and collaborating closely with the local community,” she said. “We focus strongly on reducing food waste, working strictly with seasonal and local ingredients, and collaborating closely with the local community.” In recent months, Hiša Franko has added a composting system to its rear garden. “We have a dedicated person overseeing it and sharing knowledge with the entire team, ensuring that everyone feels involved and responsible for the process,” she said. The valley has benefited from the restaurant—the sustainability mindset is being widely credited with boosting jobs and tourism in the region. In fact, Roš was appointed an Ambassador of Gastronomic Tourism by the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) because of her efforts to revitalize the valley through sustainable food tourism and local sourcing. Indeed, Roš’ ability to work with and inspire others seems to be as innate as her passion for the culinary arts. Fluent in seven languages, she trained in international and diplomatic studies in Italy, seemingly destined for a career in diplomacy before life took a very different turn. That global perspective now informs her latest venture. In March 2026, she opened a new restaurant, JAZ, in Poreč, Croatia, on the Istria peninsula. Located along the seaside promenade in the heart of the old town, its menu is once again shaped by place—this time, the Adriatic Sea. Aerial view of Poreč’s old town. istock “I know Istria very well, so nothing here feels entirely new to me,” she said. “I like to work a lot with vegetables, and I believe one of the biggest opportunities lies in foraging—something Istrians rarely do beyond wild asparagus.” The region, she noted, offers an abundance of exceptional ingredients: “Some of the best tomatoes in the world, traditional homemade pastas, beautiful olive oils, and, of course, truffles. And once you move to the coast, you enter a different world, with exceptional scallops, sole, and wild oysters.” Looking ahead, Roš remains both hopeful and cautious about the future of sustainable fine dining. “I honestly hope it will survive. My generation has spent more than 20 years working to show that nature itself can be the greatest luxury. I would hate to see people—guests and chefs alike—losing sight of that.” And for aspiring chefs hoping to follow a similar path, her advice is simple: “Keep your eyes open—and don’t stop dreaming.” *Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

How Home Cooks Can Heal Themselves and the Earth with Nutritious, Tasty Cuisine By Julie Peterson* Dietician teaches class on nutritious meal prep. Istock One of the world’s most powerful (and overlooked) healthcare settings is the home kitchen. But there’s no need to bring in a professional chef, subscription meal plan, or expensive appliances to transform a kitchen into a space where healthy mealtimes happen. A little knowledge of culinary medicine can turn ordinary cooking practices into effective disease prevention, adjuncts to medical treatments, and keys to any healing or wellness journey.   Culinary medicine is an emerging field that blends nutrition science, preventive medicine, and culinary skills. It can benefit anyone looking to improve their health by eating better, but it can also be used to prevent or manage conditions, such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease.   Unlike traditional nutrition education, culinary medicine covers skills like food shopping, meal planning, cooking, and food storage. The results are positive, science-backed health outcomes and a reduced environmental footprint.   Food is Medicine Historically, physicians knew that food provided health and healing and came from local sources. But that wisdom was lost somewhere between fast-food restaurants and highly processed shelf-stable groceries. Farmers’ markets weren’t always a luxury found in particular neighborhoods; they were places to purchase or trade for food that you did not grow. A farmer’s market in Brazil. Pexels Fast-forward to today, and one might assume that family physicians and medical providers are knowledgeable about nutritional needs. However, according to a 2014 article in the American Journal of Medicine, healthcare professionals (excluding registered dietitians) spent only 1% of their medical school lecture hours learning about nutrition.   According to a 2014 article in the American Journal of Medicine, healthcare professionals (excluding registered dietitians) spent only 1% of their medical school lecture hours learning about nutrition.   That situation is rapidly improving, thanks to medical doctors and professional chefs like John La Puma, MD. They have been ahead of the curve, creating a wave of interest in culinary medicine that has sprouted college courses and degrees, cooking clinics, and awareness that food can and should be part of the body’s defense against illness and disease.   La Puma is a professionally trained chef and regenerative organic farmer. In 2003, he partnered with Michael Roizen, MD, to teach the first culinary medicine course in a medical school. As founder of Chef Clinic, La Puma helped establish culinary medicine as a clinical and educational movement, demonstrating how cooking skills can serve as therapeutic tools in chronic disease prevention and lifestyle medicine. This idea quickly caught on and, today, similar classes are taught in 80% of US medical schools.   Organizations, such as the American College of Culinary Medicine and the Teaching Kitchen Collaborative, continue to advance research, certification, implementation, and instruction frameworks in culinary medicine for clinicians, chefs, and communities. Culinary medicine education is also ongoing at several American universities, including Tulane University, Yale, the University of Chicago, Ohio State, Penn State, the University of Kentucky, and more. Video introducing culinary medicine and ACLM’s Culinary Medicine Program. Another forerunner in the field is Michael Fenster, MD, known as Chef Dr. Mike. Fenster is an interventional cardiologist and professional chef who shifted toward combining medicine and culinary arts after realizing that his cardiology patients were being fed hospital food that went against everything he would recommend to someone with heart disease. He now holds cross-faculty appointments at the University of Montana College of Health and the Missoula College Culinary Arts Program and, with help from “professionals from around the world and the University of Montana,” developed the Culinary Medicine Program.   Fenster believes that assembling and eating food should be joyful, delicious, and healthy. “Our relationship to the ingredients we gather for the meal is a powerful connecting point for ourselves with family and friends, the larger community, our environment, and the planet,” he explains. He adds that the new ways culinary medicine looks at food are actually the old ways. After all, it was Greek physician Hippocrates (460 BC to 370 BC) who said: “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food.”   Your Kitchen Clinic The USDA Economic Research Service shows that, as of 2023, Americans spend about 55% of their food budget on restaurants and takeout. In addition, frozen meals are becoming a main dish for many due to rising grocery costs and convenience. However, these food choices have health implications. By making small changes, every meal can provide preventive healthcare.   The USDA Economic Research Service shows that, as of 2023, Americans spend about 55% of their food budget on restaurants and takeout. About 55% of US food budgets are spent on restaurants and takeout. Pexels La Puma emphasizes that the first step to implementing culinary medicine at home is to cook more meals in your own kitchen, pointing out that “Home cooking allows you to have complete control over what goes into your body.” From choosing ingredients, to preparing and cooking for nutrient preservation, one can manage any food sensitivities, portion sizes, and flavor preferences. Regularly preparing and eating healthy meals improves cooking skills, saves money, and improves health.   Because people are busy and often say they don’t have time to cook, La Puma recommends setting one to two days aside each week to cook and then prepare large enough quantities to have leftovers. Cooking days are also the time to wash and package raw veggies for quick snacks (a great job for kids). Veggies such as bell peppers, broccoli, cauliflower, carrots, celery, cucumbers, grape tomatoes, radishes, and sugar snap peas are easy to wash, slice (if needed), and store.   For those who feel a bit lost when it comes to cooking, do not despair. Chef Dr. Mike offers free cooking tutorials and recipes. The USDA has a healthy recipe collection for all ages, food preparation videos, and tips on shopping, cooking, and meal planning. The American Diabetes Association has free live virtual cooking classes with others available on-demand. Homemade Cooking provides cooking shows led by chefs and a library of recipes. In addition, there is an abundance of free apps that cover similar topics.   The research continues to support the idea that culinary medicine programs enhance metabolic health, food literacy, and chronic disease prevention. If the idea that hands-on cooking in your kitchen can prevent disease isn’t enough to motivate you, consider that simple shifts in food preparation strategies have also been shown to increase survivorship in those who already have chronic illness.   Environmental Health A 2019 EAT-Lancet summary report indicated that to meet our global sustainable and healthy eating goals by 2050, we need to “double our fruit, vegetable, nut and legume intake and reduce our meat and sugar consumption by 50%.” Culinary medicine’s alignment with these recommendations places it at the intersection of health and environmental sustainability.   Dietary shifts toward plant-forward, minimally processed foods are associated with lower greenhouse-gas emissions, reduced land use, and improved ecosystem outcomes, according to research summarized by the Tulane School of Public Health.   Dietary shifts toward plant-forward, minimally processed foods are associated with lower greenhouse-gas emissions, reduced land use, and improved ecosystem outcomes.   Other small changes cooks can make to support health and create a sustainable food future include buying food locally and in season.   A Healthier, Holistic Future Culinary medicine is gaining momentum as healthcare systems look for more holistic approaches, prioritize patient empowerment, and focus on prevention. When nutrition is fully integrated into medical education and practice, we may receive prescriptions for blueberries and broccoli—and have them covered by insurance.   As kitchens in schools, hospitals, corporations, and homes embrace the principles of culinary medicine, human health can evolve in ways that honor the body’s innate capacity to heal when given the right tools—beginning with what’s for dinner. *Julie Peterson writes science‑informed articles for healthier people and a healthier planet.

How One of America’s Filthiest Waterways Became a Model of Urban Environmental Recovery By Deborah Harvey* The Chicago River, once described as a fetid industrial sewer, now hosts pleasure craft and riverside restaurants. Ajay Suresh/Wikipedia On warm spring mornings, kayakers glide past downtown Chicago’s glass towers, their paddles cutting through water that reflects the skyline in shimmering blue. Along the riverwalk, joggers and families pause to watch herons stalk fish near the shoreline. It is a scene that today feels ordinary, almost serene. This was not the case many years ago. Instead, the Chicago River was once viewed as one of the most polluted waterways in the United States. Now, thanks to decades of government and private efforts, this mighty river has been largely rehabilitated and now stands as an example of environmental recovery in a heavily populated and industrial urban area. Reversing the River For much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Chicago River was inundated with industrial waste from factories, runoff from slaughterhouses, and untreated sewage that flowed directly into its channels. Residents described the river as a foul, “stinking” corridor that could make a person ill simply by standing nearby. Fish populations collapsed, aquatic life struggled to survive, and by the 1920s, river swimming had all but disappeared. The crisis forced Chicago to do something unprecedented. In 1900, engineers completed one of the most ambitious urban infrastructure projects in American history: the reversal of the Chicago River’s flow. Instead of allowing the river to dump its pollution into Lake Michigan, the city’s primary source of drinking water, engineers redirected the river inland, through the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, toward the Mississippi River system. The move helped protect public health in Chicago, but it did not solve the river’s underlying contamination problems and ended up sending its toxic waters downstream. The river reversal was “an extraordinary engineering response to a public health emergency,” said author Richard Lanyon, former executive director of the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago. “But reversing the river was only the beginning. It bought time. It did not clean the river,” he wrote in his 2012 book, Building the Canal to Save Chicago. For decades after the reversal, combined sewer system overflows continued to send untreated waste during heavy rains into the river, and industrial runoff and urban development worked to destroy its water quality. By the mid-20th century, the Chicago River had become a symbol of the environmental costs of rapid industrial growth. The Taylor Street Bridge was raised to allow a three-masted ship to pass along the heavily industrized Chicago River, circa 1919. H.C. Leighton Co., Portland Me. No. 686 - Postcard scan A Chicago “L” Ravenwood train (Brown Line) crosses the north branch of the Chicago River as kayakers enjoy the water. © Jeremy Atherton, 2006 Policy and Infrastructure The turning point came in the latter half of the 20th century, when environmental awareness began to reshape public policy across the United States. The Clean Water Act of 1972 marked a critical shift, establishing enforceable standards for water quality and regulating pollutant discharges. For the Chicago River, this legislation set in motion a long-term recovery process. “We have made a lot of progress in cleaning up historic pollution and in trying to prevent more pollution through both a system of regulation and laws and permits,” Debra Shore, a former EPA regional administrator and previously a commissioner of the Chicago area’s Metropolitan Water Reclamation District, told Goucher Magazine in 2022. “Everyone deserves safe water to drink, clean air to breathe, and to not live on contaminated soils.” Yet policy alone was not enough. Chicago also invested in massive infrastructure projects to address one of its most persistent problems—combined sewer overflows. During storms, rainwater and sewage would overwhelm the system, sending untreated waste directly into the river. To combat this, the city undertook the Tunnel and Reservoir Plan, commonly known as the Deep Tunnel, a vast underground network designed to capture and store excess stormwater and sewage until it could be treated. The Deep Tunnel system is one of the most significant urban water management projects ever built, according to Lanyon and many others. It dramatically reduced the frequency and volume of untreated discharges into the river. At the same time, wastewater treatment plants were upgraded to remove more contaminants from the water. Advances in treatment technology reduced nutrient loads, improved oxygen levels, and created conditions that allowed aquatic life to return. A River Reborn From a scientific perspective, the river’s recovery has been striking: Improvements in water chemistry and sediment conditions have led to the gradual return of microbial communities and aquatic ecosystems. In fact, the number of fish species inhabiting the river has risen dramatically—from 10 to 77—from 1972 to now. The fish populations “changed because the water is cleaner due to cleaner sewage management practices,” Austin Happel, research biologist at Chicago’s Shedd Aquarium, recently told Inside Climate News. In 2025, hundreds of swimmers took part in the first organized swim in the Chicago River in nearly a century. Today, herons, cormorants, and even bald eagles call the river home, as do beavers, otters, muskrats, and a variety of other mammals. Sections of the river that once repelled visitors now attract kayakers, anglers, and tourists. In 2025, hundreds of swimmers took part in the first organized swim in the Chicago River in nearly a century, a symbolic milestone that underscored how far the river has come. “It’s pretty clear that the Clean Water act has played an absolutely critical role in why we’ve had decades of progress,” said Jared Policicchio, deputy chief sustainability officer for the Chicago Department of the Environment, in an interview with CBS News in 2025. The Ida B. Wells Boulevard Bridge raises to allow tall boats to pass. Sea Cow/Wikipedia But infrastructure and regulation tell only part of the story. Civic engagement played a crucial role in transforming the river’s identity from an industrial sewer to a shared public resource. Margaret Frisbie, executive director of Friends of the Chicago River, has spent decades advocating for the river’s restoration along with other civic groups. “I cannot tell you what it feels like for me to stand here [amid] the magic of the river and know how many people worked together to make this happen,” she told a gathering in 2015 that opened the Chicago Riverwalk, a pedestrian promenade along the river with restaurants, bars, cafes, boat and kayak rentals, and floating wetland gardens for ecological education. The Chicago Riverwalk [is] a pedestrian promenade along the river with restaurants, bars, cafes, boat and kayak rentals, and floating wetland gardens for ecological education. “Friends of the Chicago River,” she continued, “was founded in 1979 to improve and protect the Chicago River. Our vision is that the Chicago River is one of the world’s greatest metropolitan rivers, and I really think that we’re on our way. We have been working for decades to improve the water and the resources for people and for wildlife, and the city’s been an extraordinary partner.” Organizations like Friends of the Chicago River have worked to raise awareness, promote habitat restoration, and push for stronger environmental protections. Their efforts have helped reconnect Chicago residents with a waterway that had long been ignored or avoided. A portion of the Riverwalk, a Chicago River-side pedestrian promenade in downtown Chicago. Dimi Talen/Wikipedia Urban design has further reinforced this reconnection. Riverwalk developments, floating wetlands, and habitat restoration projects have transformed the river’s edges into accessible public spaces. These initiatives not only improve ecological conditions but also encourage people to engage with the river in everyday life. “When people experience the river directly, whether kayaking, walking, or simply sitting by the water, it changes their perspective,” Frisbie added. “They begin to see it as something worth protecting.” Despite its remarkable recovery, the Chicago River still faces challenges. Combined sewer overflows, though reduced, have not been entirely eliminated. Legacy pollutants remain embedded in river sediments, posing long-term risks. Urban runoff continues to carry contaminants into the waterway, particularly during heavy rainfall. These ongoing challenges highlight an important reality. Environmental restoration is not a one-time achievement but a continuous process. Maintaining progress requires sustained investment, adaptive management, and public commitment. Yet the Chicago River’s transformation offers a powerful example of what is possible. Once dismissed as irredeemably polluted, the river now serves as a model of urban environmental recovery, demonstrating how engineering, policy, science, and community action can work together to restore degraded ecosystems. Its story carries lessons for cities around the world. First, large-scale environmental problems can be addressed when governments commit to long-term solutions. Second, infrastructure investments, while costly, can yield profound public health and ecological benefits. Third, public engagement is essential. When people value a natural resource, they are more likely to support its protection. Perhaps most importantly, the Chicago River shows that even heavily damaged ecosystems can recover when given time, resources, and care. Standing along its banks today, it is difficult to imagine that this same river was once considered beyond saving. The water may not be pristine, and the work is far from complete, but the transformation is undeniable. Whether other cities can replicate Chicago’s success likely depends on two things: 1) their willingness to invest in infrastructure and policy and 2) embracing a vision of restoration that sees polluted waterways not as lost causes but as opportunities for renewal. *Deborah Harvey is a writer and researcher focused on science, technology, sustainability, and global innovation. Her work explores how emerging ideas shape the future of energy, infrastructure, and the environment.

Rapid Climate Changes in the Far North Are Rippling Worldwide By Chi-Hyun Park* Warmer oceans lead to less summer sea ice, rising sea levels, and increased heat absorption. Courtesy of Chi-Hyun Park/Clipart Korea/News Penguin The planet isn’t warming evenly—it’s unraveling fastest at the top. In the Arctic, temperatures are rising four times faster than the global average, turning what was once Earth’s frozen stabilizer into a rapidly shifting engine of change. The data no longer sketch centuries-long natural cycles; they spike, surge, and accelerate. Ice that endured for millennia is vanishing within decades, and the consequences are no longer confined to the Far North. This is not a warning about the distant future—it is a transformation already underway. What's happening in the Arctic has become the clearest, most immediate signal of how the Earth system is responding to a warming world. What happens here does not stay here: It reverberates through oceans, atmosphere, and coastlines worldwide, reshaping the conditions on which modern civilization depends. What a 1.5°C Warmer Climate Means In 2025, the World Meteorological Organization announced that the global mean temperature, averaged over the previous 12 months, was effectively 1.5°C above preindustrial levels. Crossing this threshold significantly increases the likelihood that extreme heat waves, droughts, floods, and ice loss will intensify. For decades, scientists have identified 1.5°C as a critical tipping point. Observed warming trends are unambiguous. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global mean temperature for 2011–2020 was already 1.09°C above preindustrial levels. The rate of increase has since accelerated. In 2023, the global temperature reached 1.45°C above preindustrial levels. In 2024, driven by a strong El Niño weather phenomenon and continued greenhouse gas emissions, global temperatures reached the highest level on record. Warming has grown steadily. The oceans continuously absorb heat, while atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations continue to rise. Over the past decade alone, global temperature has increased by an additional 0.3°C. Climate change cannot be attributed to a single cause; it reflects a planetary-scale accumulation of energy. That energy manifests differently across regions. According to the IPCC baseline (relative to 1850–1900), the global mean temperature has risen sharply since the late 20th century, with the rate of increase accelerating markedly over the past decade. Credit: NOAA Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have risen from 280 parts per million (ppm) to over 420 ppm. Methane has also increased significantly. These gases trap heat: They absorb infrared radiation emitted from the surface and reradiate a portion back toward Earth. As a result, the planet now retains slightly more energy than it emits to space. Acceleration in the Arctic The Arctic is the most rapidly warming region on Earth. Over the past 40 years, it has warmed nearly four times more rapidly than the global average. Since satellite observations began in 1979, Arctic temperatures have increased by approximately 0.6°C per decade, compared to about 0.2°C globally. This disparity originates from surface changes. Snow and ice reflect 80%–90% of incoming solar radiation, limiting heat accumulation. When ice melts, however, it exposes darker ocean surfaces that absorb rather than reflect sunlight. Consequently, the same solar input results in significantly greater heat retention. In regions where ice has retreated, absorbed summer solar energy has increased by as much as 20 watts per square meter. The ocean has a strong capacity to store heat. Heat accumulated during summer is released back into the atmosphere during autumn and winter. As a result, Arctic winter temperatures are rising faster than summer temperatures. The Arctic continues to warm through a cycle of seasonal heat storage and release—an energy flow directly confirmed by observations. When Permafrost Thaws Arctic soils contain an estimated 1,500–1,700 gigatons of carbon—roughly twice the amount currently in the atmosphere. For millennia, this carbon remained locked in frozen ground. As temperatures rise, however, permafrost is thawing. In some regions, ground temperatures have increased by more than 1°C over the past two decades. As soils thaw, microbial activity resumes, releasing carbon dioxide and methane. Methane, over a 20-year time scale, has more than 80 times the globe-warming potential of carbon dioxide. Satellite observations have confirmed methane emissions increasing in regions such as Siberia and Alaska. Some projections suggest that an additional 150–200 gigatons of carbon could be released by 2100. Wildfires further amplify this process. Since 2003, Arctic fires have emitted an average of 0.2 gigatons of carbon annually. Rising temperatures and increasing dryness have made fire-conducive conditions more frequent. According to recent NOAA reports, when wildfire emissions are included, parts of the tundra—particularly in eastern Siberian lowlands—have already shifted from being net carbon sinks to net carbon sources. The Arctic carbon cycle is gradually changing direction. Arctic Change and Sea-Level Rise Greenland’s ice sheet is rapidly losing mass, with 250–270 gigatons disappearing annually since 2002. This contributes approximately 0.7–0.8 mm per year to global sea-level rise—about four times the rate observed in the 1990s. Melting is particularly pronounced near Jakobshavn Glacier. Glaciers are melting, collapsing into the sea, and rapidly retreating due to global warming. Scientists are closely observing the emergence of darker ocean surfaces as the ice shrinks. Courtesy of Chi-Hyun Park/Clipart Korea/News Penguin Arctic sea ice has also declined significantly. Since 1979, summer sea ice extent has decreased by 40% to 45%, while the proportion of older, thicker ice has fallen from 60% to below 15%. Ice-free ocean surfaces absorb more solar radiation, accelerating warming. In ocean areas such as the Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Chukchi Sea, and Beaufort Sea, summer sea surface temperatures are now 2–4°C higher than in the past. This heat is transferred back into the atmosphere. As the Arctic warms, the temperature gradient between the poles and midlatitudes weakens. This reduces the strength of the jet stream and destabilizes its flow. Since 1990, winter minimum temperatures over Northern Hemisphere midlatitude land areas have increased by about 0.4°C per decade. Extreme cold events are generally becoming less frequent, reflecting progressively milder winters. Arctic warming is altering atmospheric circulation, with measurable impacts on midlatitude climates. Meltwater from Greenland flows into the ocean. Being less saline, it is lighter than surrounding seawater, reducing vertical mixing and weakening ocean circulation. This affects the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, which has shown signs of weakening by 10%–15% since the mid-20th century. Arctic change does not end with ice loss; it propagates through sea-level rise, ocean circulation, and broader climate systems. Changes Already Underway—and What Remains More than 90% of the excess heat accumulated in the Earth system is absorbed by the oceans. Ocean heat content has continued to rise since 2000 and remains at record levels. Once stored, this heat is released slowly over decades to centuries. Sea-level rise reflects this accumulated heat. Since 1900, global mean sea level has risen by more than 20 cm. The rate of rise has accelerated from 3.3 mm per year since 1993 to about 4.5 mm in recent years. Thermal expansion of seawater and melting land ice both contribute to this increase. Future changes depend on greenhouse gas emissions. With low emissions, sea-level rise by 2100 may be limited to around 0.3 meters. Under high-emission scenarios, it could rise by more than a meter. While existing heat ensures continued change, future emissions will determine its pace and magnitude. A Calculated Future Revealed by the Arctic The Arctic summer is losing its previously uninterrupted whiteness. Sunlight that once reflected off ice now penetrates the dark ocean. The sea quietly accumulates heat. Though invisible, the measurements are unequivocal: Ocean temperatures and heat content continue to reach new records year after year. Glacier margins retreat by tens of meters annually. Satellites track this movement, and the data point in a consistent direction. Ice is thinning, and melt seasons are lengthening. This is not a seasonal fluctuation. Heat stored in the ocean persists and circulates over decades. Once initiated, this trajectory is not easily reversed. Energy already integrated into the system continues to produce outcomes. If current trends persist, future coastlines will be drawn in different places. What is considered “average” today will no longer serve as a baseline, and extremes may become the norm. The Arctic stands at the forefront, revealing these changes. What it shows is not a possibility, but an unfolding reality—one that foreshadows the future of regions yet to arrive at the same threshold. *Chi-Hyun Park is a longtime Korea-based environmental journalist who holds a PhD in engineering.

Investigating the Intelligence and Social 'Conversations' of an Extraordinary Bird By Jana Perez-Angelo* Crows congregating on a pine tree. Vitalii Petrushenko/iStock Across North America, ribbons of crows stretch over highways, rivers, and neighborhoods, converging with uncanny precision on favored roosts. They arrive in waves, first a dozen, then hundreds, then thousands, until entire trees seem to pulse with life. The air fills with a chorus of caws, clicks, and rattling calls.   To the human ear, it borders on overwhelming. To the untrained eye, it appears chaotic. But this apparent disorder conceals structure.   The timing of these gatherings is not coincidental. As winter transitions into spring, large communal roosts begin to disperse. According to the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, crows move from communal living to territorial pair bonding. By April and May they are engaged in nest building, egg incubation, and raising young. Before the isolation of nesting, there is a congregation. Before reproduction, there is an assembly. Whatever unfolds within these roosts may quietly influence what comes next.   Cognition beyond Expectation Crows, particularly the American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos), are among the most cognitively sophisticated birds studied to date. Published research highlights advanced reasoning and problem-solving in corvids (a family of birds that includes crows, ravens, magpies, and nutcrackers), demonstrating abilities once thought unique to primates. This is bolstered by findings that crows can apply flexible statistical reasoning when foraging, using probabilistic information based on experience to guide decisions, something previously seen mostly in humans and some mammals.   But cognition isn’t only behavioral. Crows recognize individual human faces.   For instance, University of Washington Professor John Marzluff conducted an experiment with wild crows. It began with the professor and others putting on a “dangerous face” mask and then trapping several crows at five different sites. The researchers put leg bands on all the birds and released them.   For almost three years, Marzluff and his colleagues would periodically wear the same scary mask while walking around campus, sometimes feeding the local crows. “After trapping, crows consistently used harsh vocalizations to scold and mob people of different sizes, ages, genders, and walking gaits who wore the dangerous mask, even when they were in crowds,” Marzluff wrote in the 2010 study in Animal Behaviour.   Even more remarkably, this recognition spread to crows that had never encountered the person directly, which indicates a level of social transmission and culturally shared knowledge, the study said (see video below). A carrion crow scavenging on a beach near Canford Cliffs, Poole, Dorset, England. Ian Kirk/Wikipedia Do Crows Communicate Information? Scientific evidence strongly supports the idea that crow vocalizations are structured and meaningful rather than random noise. A comprehensive review of corvid vocal communication finds that calls often encode ecological and social information across species, including predator type, food availability, and individual identity, and play roles in group cohesion and social interaction.   The Audubon Society notes that these vocalizations vary not only by situation but also across populations, suggesting the presence of dialects within crow communities. In practice, what sounds like an undifferentiated chorus to human ears may, in fact, be a layered exchange of information.   Researchers have identified several broad categories of crow calls: Alarm calls that differ depending on the type of threat Social calls used in close-range interactions Contact calls that help maintain group cohesion.   Taken together, these patterns suggest that crow communication is both expressive and functional, capable of directing attention, coordinating behavior, and transmitting information across individuals. A pair of crows chases away a red-tailed hawk from their nest. NikkyPA1/Wikipedia Roosts and Mobbing To better understand the purpose of large crow gatherings, it’s essential to ground speculation in expert insight. One central question is whether large crow roosts primarily serve deliberation, information exchange, or social bonding. “Certainly,” Marzluff tells The Earth & I, these assemblies promote “social bonding, as those seeking mates may find them in gatherings. Also, they serve to reduce the risk of predation and to allow communal feeding at locations where food is unlimited or indefensible.” Crow vocalizations convey specific information about threats, including the discrimination and memory of individual human faces. Scientific evidence supports the idea that crow vocalizations convey specific information about threats, including the discrimination and memory of individual human faces. Threats can be met by what is known as mobbing, as when a group of crows harass a predator into leaving the vicinity of a nesting area. “The mobbing call,” Marzluff says, “brings individuals together around a perceived danger. New dangers can be learned by joining mobs and by mobbing. This was demonstrated in our work that documented learning of dangerous people.”   In Marzluff’s view, crows learn about dangers “at a place where danger occurs, through mobbing,” not in roosts.   This distinction is subtle but important. While roosts may not operate as deliberate “briefing centers,” they exist within a broader system in which information is actively shared, especially in moments of urgency. Crows learn directly from environmental cues and social interactions, reinforcing both survival and collective intelligence within the flock.   The idea that communal roosts function as information-sharing and vocal communication hubs has long been explored in behavioral ecology, including studies published in the journal Animal Behaviour. Even without explicit conversation, information can move through a group simply by being witnessed and observed.   Decoding the Soundscape Understanding crow communication has become one of the more technically ambitious challenges in animal behavior research. Scientists, including Marzluff, increasingly rely on combinations of acoustic recording, movement tracking, and computational analysis to decode what was once dismissed as noise.   Resources from the Cornell Chronicle demonstrate how varied and context-sensitive vocalizations can be. Although some interpretations in popular media suggest the presence of human-like language, current evidence supports a more grounded conclusion: Crow communication is structured and flexible, shaped by ecological and social needs rather than grammar as humans define it.   The intelligence of crows is rooted in a brain that is both different from and comparable to the human brain. Unlike mammals, birds do not possess a layered neocortex. Instead, their cognition arises from brain structures like the nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL), which functions as a kind of avian “central executive” by encoding sensory and cognitive variables during complex tasks. Crows do not simply learn as individuals; they learn as a society. Knowledge about threats, food sources, and behavior can spread through groups and persist across generations. Studies of neural processes, including those underlying tool use and working memory, show that birds engage circuits analogous in function to mammalian prefrontal regions, supporting advanced cognition such as planning, abstraction, and behavioral flexibility. Culture and Collective Intelligence Crows do not simply learn as individuals; they learn as a society. Knowledge about threats, food sources, and behavior can spread through groups and persist across generations, forming what researchers increasingly describe as cultural transmission. In large flocks, this individual intelligence scales into something broader. Unlike insect swarms, where coordination emerges from simple rules, crow groups consist of thinking individuals whose interactions shape collective outcomes. The result is a form of collective intelligence, fluid, adaptive, and responsive to change.   Cities have become unexpected arenas for this intelligence to unfold. As noted by the Audubon Society, crows have adapted remarkably well to urban life. They exploit traffic patterns, adjust their calls to compete with noise, and take advantage of human-generated food sources. In doing so, they reveal not just resilience but the capacity to learn from and respond to rapidly changing environments. This BBC video depicts the remarkable session in which a crow solves an eight-step puzzle task that involves analysis, abstract thinking, strategic planning, and visual-spatial processing. AI and the Hidden Patterns in Crow Vocalizations As researchers grapple with the complexity of crow communication, some teams have turned to the same tools humans use to understand large, noisy datasets: artificial intelligence. One public example, a collaboration between the Earth Species Project and two researchers from Spain’s University of Leon, illustrated in this YouTube video, involved feeding thousands of hours of crow vocal recordings into machine-learning algorithms designed to detect patterns beyond human perception.   While much of the sensational interpretation has been exaggerated, the core finding is intriguing: AI can detect repeated acoustic patterns associated with specific events, such as human presence, food discovery, or the approach of danger.   For a vivid illustration, see Scientists Used AI to Decode Crow Sounds, which explores how algorithmic listening reveals structured vocal patterns in crow communities. The video is produced by Nature Video, a YouTube channel owned by PBS.   The algorithms identify recurrent sequences of notes corresponding to specific contexts, reinforcing that crow vocalizations carry contextual information shaped by social and ecological pressures.   Crow Intelligence in Action Crows are astonishingly intelligent, with cognitive abilities often compared to those of a 7-year-old child. They remember faces for years, hold “funerals” for their dead, use and create tools to solve complex problems, and drop nuts in traffic to crack them open. If wronged, a crow may hold a grudge and communicate that knowledge to others. Their intelligence extends further: They can mimic human speech, understand traffic signals, deceive observers, cooperate to drive away predators, and pass knowledge across generations.   Additionally, Why Crows Are as Smart as 7 Year Old Humans—a video from Real Science, an educational YouTube channel that focuses on biology, oceanography, and general science topics—shows problem-solving experiments and tool innovation that rival primate intelligence. Observing these behaviors in both lab and field settings underscores that crows are capable of abstract reasoning, planning, and social learning, qualities that put them among the most intelligent animals on Earth. Recognizing the advanced intelligence in urban wildlife like crows challenges the traditional human–wildlife hierarchy and shifts our relationship from one of “pest management” to one of ethical coexistence. Recognizing the advanced intelligence in urban wildlife like crows challenges the traditional human–wildlife hierarchy and shifts our relationship from one of “pest management” to one of ethical coexistence, according to former ecology professor Marc Bekoff in a conversation with environmental educator Julie Morley.   Ethically, this realization opens the door to nonlethal management, Morley intimates in a 2023 interview in Psychology Today. If a crow, for example, can remember a human face for years or communicate a specific threat to its kin, lethal culling becomes not just a population control measure, but the elimination of a sentient, social being. Such a new understanding suggests the need for a transition toward “shared space” ethics, where urban planning accounts for the cognitive needs of nonhumans.   Ecologically, acknowledging crow intelligence highlights their role as a cultural keystone species. Crows don’t just fill a niche; they navigate it with intent. As such, it would seem they should be cherished—even though they lack fur and four legs.   This shift in perspective forces us to ask: If we are being watched and understood by the wildlife around us, does that change the way we behave in our own backyards? *Jana Perez-Angelo is a Denver-based writer and multidisciplinary creative and digital strategist passionate about brand storytelling and purpose-driven content. Her work has been featured in Relevant Magazine, Medium, and Faithful Life.

Scholar Examines the Transformation of Language for Better Earth Care By Becky Hoag* Words like Friluftsliv shape a way of being that is aligned with living outdoors in nature. Pexels Language does more than describe reality—it shapes it.   For example, Scandinavians use the word “friluftsliv” (pronounced free-loofts-liv) to convey “getting out into nature.” Friluftsliv translates to “open-air living.” In Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark, people can friluftsliv—walk or camp—pretty much anywhere, as long as they respect nature. Corporate culture maintains an expectation that people should have time to get outside during work hours. To encourage friluftsliv, companies in Sweden and Finland can even get tax breaks for outdoor sports activities and equipment. Friluftsliv is often accompanied by the word “allmansrätten,” which means the “right to roam.” Access to nature is an expected part of the culture, so natural spaces are a must. Plus, Sweden has a phrase that says, “There’s no such thing as bad weather, only bad clothes.” That phrase removes the negativity associated with certain weather conditions like rain, encouraging people to enjoy being out in all weather. The English language doesn’t typically have words or phrases like these. Instead, many Americans grew up hearing the myth that they’ll catch a cold being out in the rain. This gap in vocabulary matters. It shapes how people prioritize being out in nature, how they view the natural world, and how they deal with ecological issues. “These kinds of words show us that, for other people, there are other ways of representing our relationship with nature,” explains Dr. Cristina Soriano, a senior linguistic researcher at the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences at the University of Geneva. Adopting Words from Other Languages Soriano studies how language and metaphors evoke emotion and span across cultures. She and her colleague, psychologist Tobias Brosch, contributed to a 2023 climate change exhibit at Geneva’s Natural History Museum called Tout contre la terre (or Close to the Earth). While the exhibit covered climate change science, it was specifically designed to evoke visitors’ emotional responses. “I had looked at language for emotion, but not at language for emotion in the context of the climate crisis,” Soriano tells The Earth & I. “I learned a lot of useful things, not only about how the language we use will influence our emotions—which in turn influences our behavior in the crisis—but also the words that have come to exist to talk about our emotions in the climate crisis.”   Soriano fell in love with several words and phrases, like the Scandinavian ones mentioned above, that present a different way of looking at the human-nature relationship. Another phrase she found powerful came from the Mexican Rarámuri tribe: “Iwígara” (pronounced ee-WEE-ga-ra). Iwígara represents a familial way of viewing non-human entities in nature. Rarámuri woman braiding with palm tree leaf. istock Iwígara represents a familial way of viewing non-human entities in nature, such as other animals, plants, and even landscapes. It goes beyond phrases in English like “Mother Earth” and represents the interconnectedness of all these natural forms. Ethnobotanist Enrique Salmón helped popularize this word in the English-speaking world through his 2020 book Iwígara: The Kinship of Plants and People. “It is alien to us [English-speakers]!” Soriano says. “We can kind of do it metaphorically—“mother nature”—but it is not quite as engrained as [in] these other communities.” By using words already developed by other cultures, English speakers can learn to conceptualize their feelings and thoughts better. English is already such a hodgepodge of different languages, she notes, why not add a few more? Expanding the English Lexicon Having words to describe something provides an opportunity for more emotional regulation and to develop personal and societal frameworks around it. For example, the term, “ecocide,” which means the destruction of the environment by humans, was first used in 1969, according to Merriam-Webster. Ecocide has now become a formal legal term in many countries and is being considered for a new crime prosecutable by the International Criminal Court. In addition, the term “eco-anxiety” defines a specific form of anxiety that is driven by climate change concerns. This term allows psychologists to develop modalities and strategies to help patients manage. Central European deforestation as seen from Space. Wikimedia Eco-philosopher Glenn Albrecht continues to introduce new terms, such as in his 2019 book Earth Emotions: New Words for a New World, to help people describe what humans are doing to the planet and how it makes them feel. These words include “the Symbiocene” (described below), “solastalgia” (the distress or homesickness caused by environmental transformation, degradation, or loss), and “terrafurie” (Earth anger/rage). “I do this because the world is rapidly changing in powerful and novel ways,” Albrecht explained to Dr. Marc Bekoff in a 2019 Psychology Today article. “Novel global contexts require new concepts, new words.” The Symbiocene is his suggested follow-up to the Anthropocene, a term describing our current geological age or epoch. The “anthro-“ prefix refers to humans (think anthropology). The word describes an era in which humans began to affect the planet enough to impact how its global systems operate. While there’s disagreement amongst geologists on whether the term is formal or not, and when the Anthropocene began, many geologists think Earth transitioned from the Holocene to the Anthropocene during the Industrial Revolution, when human activity began to drastically accelerate the amount of greenhouse gases spewed into the atmosphere. The “symbio” in Symbiocene comes from the word “symbiotic.” Albrecht believes Earth will have transitioned from the Anthropocene to the Symbiocene when humans have switched from having a destructive, extractive relationship with nature to a mutually beneficial one. While this feels like a far-off goal, developing the word now gives people something to strive for. Albrecht believes Earth will have transitioned from the Anthropocene to the Symbiocene when humans have switched from having a destructive, extractive relationship with nature to a mutually beneficial one. Words to Shape a Positive Future New words like the Symbiocene allow people to express current emotions and problems as well as an opportunity to dream of a positive future. “Solarpunk”—a futuristic society that plays off the ideas of “steampunk” and “cyberpunk,” where societies are based on steam or computers, respectively—envisions a world built on sustainability, technology, infrastructure, and practices in tune with the natural world. Solarpunk worlds can already be seen in films like Studio Ghibli’s 1984 film Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Marvel Studio’s 2018 film Black Panther. Solarpunk may take practical inspiration from Earthships, which are an example of sustainable architecture. Wikimedia While new words can catch on and help develop human consciousness around different environmental topics, they also risk being jargony. Soriano stresses that words won’t click if they sound too scientific, are too hard to pronounce, or if their meanings are too difficult to parse out. “If we are demanding society adopts these new words,” Soriano says, “it needs to serve a proper function.” That’s one of the reasons she likes the idea of working with words from other cultures and languages. The words already exist because they are relatable and valuable. “I do think it might be enough to look outside of our language and see what other cultures use to represent things,” Soriano suggests. “I do think it might be enough to look outside of our language and see what other cultures use to represent things.” A positive-framing, non-English word she enjoys is the Spanish word “ilusión.” While it can directly translate to “illusion” in English, the meaning of the word goes far beyond that. “You feel ilusión for something in the future, irrespective of the odds of it being true,” Soriano explained. “It could be ilusión like looking forward to something certain or looking forward to something that I hope will happen. It’s the same word. [Either way] you rejoice in it, and you inhabit the joy of what it would be like if or when it happens. “And I think we need that because we could just get lost in the [negative] numbers. If we run the numbers, they’re kind of pessimistic to be honest. It’s unlikely that things turn out well; however, we need to go all in because doing nothing, and therefore resulting in nothing, that’s just too hard a loss.” In a way, ilusión is a similar idea to “radical optimism.” This is not the British singer Dua Lipa’s album (though that also encompasses positive vibes) but the philosophy of actively and consciously trusting that positive outcomes are possible even when they don’t always feel possible. Radical optimism is more of an active, evidence-based choice than simply hoping. Soriano says that while radical optimism is similar, ilusión gives deeper meaning to the native Spanish speaker. Ilusión brings more guttural joy; it’s a way of envisioning one’s existence in a positive future that has the ability to fuel real change, as documented in a 2023 Argentinian study. “The odds, the numbers, should not factor into your anticipatory joy and that way you can fuel your internal motivation,” Soriano says. *Becky Hoag is a freelance environmental reporter. You can find her work on her site beckyhoag.com and through her YouTube channel https://youtube.com/beckisphere.

How Juunoo is Turning Interior Walls into Circular Assets By Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe* The iconic Refinery at Domino, Brooklyn, New York. Wikimedia Juunoo’s modular office installations for Two Trees at Refinery at Domino. Courtesy of Juunoo Commercial buildings are often seen as long-term assets—but their interiors are not. That’s because modern office spaces are in constant flux: Companies will typically do a full renovation every decade with additional changes every three to five years, design companies say. Each year, millions of square feet of interior space are renovated or torn out, generating large volumes of construction and demolition waste. While office-specific figures are limited, renovation projects such as tenant improvements and interior demolition contribute significantly to the roughly 600 million tons of construction and demolition waste produced annually in the United States. In 2025, a notable shift occurred: Office conversions and demolitions surpassed new construction for the first time in years. At the same time, vacancies reached record highs, with nearly 19% of office space sitting empty. These trends are forcing a rethink, not just of where people work but how offices are built and rebuilt. Modular interior systems are emerging as one response. Designed to reduce waste and allow flexible layouts, they offer a pathway toward circular construction. In a sector responsible for nearly 40% of global carbon emissions, rethinking interior spaces may be as important as improving building envelopes or energy systems. Building for Change, Not Disposal Belgian-founded Juunoo is among those companies reimagining office interiors. Its modular systems replace traditional drywall with easy-to-configure demountable walls, glass partitions, and soundproof pods that can be installed quickly and removed without generating waste. [Juunoo’s] modular systems replace traditional drywall with easy-to-configure demountable walls, glass partitions, and soundproof pods that can be installed quickly and removed without generating waste. A Juunoo office pod installation for Lantis in Antwerp. Courtesy of Juunoo The company’s approach reflects a broader shift toward designing buildings for change rather than permanence. Instead of treating renovations as a cycle of demolition and replacement, modular systems allow materials to be reused across multiple life cycles. Juunoo aligns its work with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly those focused on infrastructure and sustainable cities. “We design systems that separate what changes from what doesn’t,” Maxime De Scheemaeker, Co-CEO at Juunoo, told The Earth & I. In practice, this means structural components are built for durability and repeated use, while finishes can be updated to match evolving design trends. Even finishes are reused or repurposed when possible. “Without restarting from zero every time—that’s where sustainability and design finally align,” said De Scheemaeker. Breaking the Build–Demolish Cycle Traditional construction follows a familiar pattern: build, use, demolish, repeat. This linear model generates waste and locks in emissions each time materials are discarded and replaced. Modular construction offers prefabricated systems that can be installed faster, with less disruption and waste. More importantly, they allow spaces to evolve—without being torn apart. Modular office systems like Juunoo’s can be installed quickly. Courtesy of Juunoo With modular interiors, companies can reconfigure offices quickly—sometimes within days or even over a weekend—while keeping the workspace operational. This reduces downtime and allows organizations to respond to changing needs without major construction. That flexibility is increasingly important. Office use patterns are shifting, and interiors usually change far more frequently than buildings, which may last more than 50 years. “[Renovation] is a big piece of global embodied carbon pollution and waste, especially since many spaces are turning over quickly as companies and workers are weighing the pros and cons of work from home versus a central office,” Kjell Anderson, Principal at LMN architects, told The Earth & I. "[Renovation] is a big piece of global embodied carbon pollution and waste." Measuring What Matters The environmental promise of modular construction is linked to reducing Scope 3 emissions, which refer to a company’s indirect emissions—particularly those tied to materials and supply chains. Scope 3 emissions account for a significant share of the built environment’s climate impact. They include emissions from: Manufacturing and transporting building materials Construction and renovation activities Waste generated during demolition The full life cycle of products used in a building In construction, Scope 3 emissions are closely tied to “embodied carbon” or the emissions produced during the extraction, production, transport, and disposal of materials. Modular interior systems aim to reduce Scope 3 emissions by extending the life of materials.  While modular systems are still relatively new, experts see strong potential. “As none of the modular systems available today have a very long track record, it's hard to tell [what their impact will be]; however, I think there is a high potential to reduce emissions,” University of Washington Professor Kathrina Simonen, founder of the Carbon Leadership Forum, told The Earth & I. Juunoo uses life cycle assessments to evaluate impact across a product’s full lifespan. "They tell the full story, covering not only production but the entire lifespan," said De Scheemaeker. Still, trade-offs exist. Modular systems often rely on transportable components, but larger prefabricated units may increase emissions due to shipping. “In some cases, [prefab units] save embodied carbon, but in others, they add embodied carbon since they need to be transported as a unit,” said Anderson. “In some cases, [prefab units] save embodied carbon, but in others, they add embodied carbon since they need to be transported as a unit.” Design firms are already experimenting with ways to reduce these impacts. LMN Architects has incorporated reuse and material recovery into its projects, including its own renovation in 2015, which later inspired Metropolis Magazine’s Interiors Embodied Carbon Toolkit. LMN’s more recent renovation of Hines Seattle Headquarters was designed to push the envelope on in-place reuse, salvage, and reuse. LMN’s recent renovation of Hines Seattle Headquarters. ©Benjamin Benschneider Courtesy of LMN Offices and Beyond Juunoo began with office interiors, where change is frequent and the benefits of reuse are immediate. The company is now expanding into the education and residential sectors, where similar principles can apply. Its reusable drywall system, DryClick, offers a cost-neutral alternative to conventional materials—an important factor in encouraging adoption. Detail of Juunoo’s DryClick drywall joinery. Courtesy of Juunoo “Ultimately, this model can scale anywhere interiors are built and rebuilt,” De Scheemaeker said. For that to happen, however, circular construction must be economically viable. “It has to. Otherwise, it won’t scale,” De Scheemaeker said. “We believe the idea of a ‘green premium' should disappear,” he added. Juunoo’s model emphasizes residual value: Materials retain worth after use and can be redeployed rather than discarded. The concept is straightforward—more like LEGO than landfill, to paraphrase Juunoo’s Founder, Chris Van de Voorde, in an interview with Kamp C. The Barriers to Circularity Despite its promise, circular construction faces significant challenges. Regulations, market structures, and industry habits still favor linear systems built around single-use materials. “We currently live in the least circular economy that humans have ever been part of, and our laws, policies, and practices have been built around cheap, single-use items,” Anderson added. “We currently live in the least circular economy that humans have ever been part of, and our laws, policies, and practices have been built around cheap, single-use items.” One major obstacle is the lack of infrastructure for reused materials. Unlike new products, salvaged components are harder to source, store, and certify. There is no consistent supply chain, and maintaining inventory requires storage space. Reused materials may also lack warranties, making them less attractive to buyers. Lease agreements can further complicate matters. Many require tenants to return spaces to a basic “grey shell,” encouraging demolition rather than careful removal. “Since they are moving out, they have no desire to do anything but demolish everything in the space as cheaply as possible,” said Anderson. Deconstruction—removing materials for reuse—also takes more time and effort than demolition. “It happens when there is a ready market for materials, but the market doesn’t (yet) exist for most products/materials,” said Anderson. Navigating Trade-offs and Standards Sustainability in construction is rarely straightforward. Certification systems such as LEED, WELL, and BREEAM help guide decision-making but can be complex to navigate. “There can always be unintended trade-offs,” Simonen said. Transportation impacts, durability, and energy use all influence whether a modular system delivers net environmental benefits. Inspection and regulatory systems can also create friction. Prefabricated components may not align with local codes or inspection practices, slowing adoption. Efforts to standardize these processes have had mixed success. For example, the ICC/MBI 1200 Standards Adoption Bill, which has been adopted in Virginia, was proposed in Washington State, but did not pass in its latest review. Ultimately, the environmental impact of modular construction depends on how often systems are reused. “The modular system might actually be more durable than standard construction but [it’s] less flexible,” said Simonen. Closing the Loop Having recently secured $6.6 million in funding and a New York expansion, Juunoo has positioned itself as both a climate solution and a capital efficiency offer.  Juunoo modular system at 6 West 66th Street, Manhattan, New York. Courtesy of Juunoo Under Juunoo’s buy-back warranty—designed to keep materials in circulation—components can be returned, reused, or resold. The warranty allows clients to recover 10% to 30% of the original value, creating a financial incentive for reuse. In practice, many clients simply reuse the materials themselves. Office pods, for example, are often relocated with the company. “That’s when you know it works—when circularity becomes the obvious, practical choice,” said De Scheemaeker. Buy-back and product-as-a-service models could become standard across the industry. “We see Interface carpets being able to beneficially recycle their own carpet tiles into new backing,” says Anderson. “This addresses the issue that most companies are heavily incentivized to make poor quality products since [their products] are likely to be removed and landfilled quickly,” Anderson added. *Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe is a freelance journalist and editor. Over the past 14 years, Natasha has reported for a host of publications, exploring the wider world and industries from environmental, scientific, business, legal, and sociological perspectives. Natasha has also been interviewed as an insight provider for research institutes and conferences. Editorial notes Sources: Interview with Maxime De Scheemaeker, CO-CEO at Juunoo Interview with Kathrina Simonen, Professor at the University of Washington and Founder of the Carbon Leadership Forum Interview with Kjell Anderson, Principal at LMN

Lakeside ‘City-Within-a-City’ Offers Residents Eco-friendly Lifestyle By Robert Selle* Young families enjoy the sun in one of the many communal courtyards among Aspern Seestadt’s residential buildings.  ©Luiza Puiu Imagine a city where daily errands are a delightful stroll or a quick bike ride away, where lush green spaces are abundant, and where the air is noticeably fresher and cleaner. This isn’t a distant utopia; it’s the lived reality in Aspern Seestadt, also known as Aspern Lakeside City. This visionary northeast Vienna development, with a large man-made lake at its center, is being built  on the site of Vienna’s long-disused first airport and is even repurposing a huge mass of materials from the old airfield in its construction. The city-within-a-city—which boasts a broad mix  of multi-story apartment buildings, condo blocks, towers and street-level shops—aims to provide residents with an enjoyable urban lifestyle  while prioritizing convenience, community, and environmental responsibility.  Vienna’s old airport (left), upon which the Seestadt city-within-a-city (right) is being built.  Wikimedia Commons ©I. Wirthi (left) and ©Wien 3420 (right) Here, amenities are thoughtfully integrated, ensuring a high quality of life for residents. Seestadt dwellers can reach nearly 80% of essential destinations within 15 minutes on foot, by bicycle, or via efficient public transportation. The design drastically reduces reliance on private vehicles, cutting down on urban emissions and congestion. Residents enjoy easy access  to medical facilities, post offices, grocery stores, and educational institutions, including a university campus.   One of the key amenities is the beach around portions of the district’s central lake. ©Luiza Puiu Beyond the practical, Aspern Seestadt , spanning 660 acres and under development since 2007, boasts a diverse range of recreational amenities, fostering a strong sense of community and well-being. The residential buildings are arranged to provide spacious public courtyards where individuals and families can gather, relax, talk, and play together. The district is one of Europe’s largest urban development areas and is expected to house 25,000 residents and provide over 20,000 jobs and training positions by 2030.  ‘Rebuild, Reuse, Repurpose’ Trend The growing Vienna quarter is not only a test bed for new architectural, energy-saving, and community-building approaches, it is a pioneering district that embodies  the principles of circular construction  and urban mining .   Peter Hinterkörner is head of planning and quality management for Seestadt’s construction. ©Luiza Puiu When Seestadt development began, the two airport runways were still intact. But, using the principles of urban mining, the airfield concrete was recycled onsite and used as construction material for roads and pathways, according to Peter Hinterkörner, head of planning and quality management for the district’s construction. Even some 600,000 tons of material from excavating the lake and building plots were not transported away but instead stored within the district and reused as construction material and terrain modeling. For example, Hinterkörner said in an email interview with The Earth & I , “the first local recreation area—the Aspern Terraces—was formed using the lake excavation material. Altogether, this mass management has saved around 7.5 million truck-kilometers and avoided approximately 8,400 tons of CO₂ emissions, as of fall 2024.”  The worldwide building sector is responsible for about 40% of global CO2 emissions and at least a third of the world’s waste material. The worldwide building industry’s environmental impact generally flies under the radar of popular consciousness. Yet, the sector is responsible for about 40%  of global CO2 emissions and at least a third  of the waste material generated in the EU. As cities everywhere grapple with the consequences of climate change, nature-minded urban planners and architects are rethinking construction methods and city design. “The building sector represents 40% of Europe’s energy demand, 80% of it from fossil fuels,” said Inger Andersen , executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme. The UN agency predicts raw resource use will double by 2060, with steel, concrete, and cement already major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions.   Blossoms in one of the green spaces beckon to a young Seestadt resident. ©Luiza Puiu The Urban ‘Mining’ Model   Across the globe, visionary architects, innovative city planners, and environmentally conscious citizens are beginning to challenge the traditional linear model  of “take, make, waste.” They see the inherent value locked within existing urban infrastructure and view cities not just as devourers of raw materials but as storehouses of building resources waiting to be rediscovered and repurposed.  One of the cornerstones of this approach—vividly illustrated in Aspern Seestadt’s urban mining—was pioneered by Professor Anja Rosen, a leading expert in circular construction  at the University of Applied Sciences, Münster, Germany. Prof. Rosen’s notion of urban mining sees demolition debris and discarded materials not as refuse to be landfilled but as valuable raw materials for future construction. She has even developed a sophisticated Urban Mining Index  to quantify the potential for material recovery within urban areas, providing a crucial tool for assessing and maximizing resource reuse.  The significance of urban mining becomes even clearer when considering the concept of gray energy . This refers to the embodied energy—the energy consumed in the extraction, processing, manufacturing, and transportation of materials—already locked within existing buildings. Traditional sustainable construction often focuses on optimizing the operational energy efficiency of new buildings, such as heating, cooling, and electricity use. However, by prioritizing the reuse of existing building materials, urban mining actively conserves  this substantial gray energy, potentially greatly reducing the overall environmental impact of new construction. As Prof. Rosen aptly puts it , “With the Urban Mining Index, we aim to guide building materials into loops that are as closed as possible and make the quality of the reuse of value and waste materials in buildings measurable.”  To “mow” the lawn in the Aspern Terraces area, the Seestadt governing body rented a flock of sheep and goats.  ©Luiza Puiu Energy Sources in Aspern Seestadt   Aspern Seestadt’s primary energy sources for the district are heavily weighted toward renewable options , with solar energy harnessed through photovoltaic panels and geothermal energy explored for heating and cooling. Currently , 70% of Seestadt’s energy comes from renewable sources, and the goal is to be completely emission-free by 2030.   Currently, 70% of Seestadt’s energy comes from renewable sources, and the goal is to be completely emission-free by 2030. Waste management in the district benefits directly from the city of Vienna’s system, according to Robert Grüneis, a member of the district’s executive board, in an email exchange with The Earth & I . It emphasizes comprehensive source separation programs to maximize recycling and divert waste from landfills, transforming it into valuable resources. City authorities are also planning to build a state-of-the-art recycling center within Seestadt in the coming years.  An aerial view of the district’s newly built and soon-to-be-opened geothermal plant.  ©Wien 3420 “There are no gas-fired individual heating systems or other fossil fuel-based heating systems in Seestadt,” Grüneis said. “At the same time, more and more projects using alternative energy sources were introduced—some of which are already largely energy self-sufficient. The range of energy solutions in use includes solar energy/photovoltaics, waste heat recovery from appliances and occupants, and geothermal energy.” Robert Grüneis is a member of the district’s executive board.  ©Luiza Puiu In 2028, Vienna’s first deep geothermal plant is scheduled to go into operation on the Seestadt site. The 40-megawatt plant , drilled down to a depth of 3,000 meters (about 1.8 miles) to tap into the heat of a natural hot water reservoir beneath Vienna, is expected to supply heat for 20,000 households.  Lessons Learned So Far   As Aspern Seestadt continues to evolve, valuable lessons are being learned from the extensive planning and construction process that began 18 years ago. One key takeaway is the crucial importance of early and continuous stakeholder engagement, focusing on “a dedicated development company as a central platform,” Hinterkörner said. This allows for “developing a vision, translating it into clear quality standards, and integrating development, sales, planning, marketing, and communications” all at once. The unity and active collaboration of all stakeholders over time also allow for agile work in an interdisciplinary team, including quick decision-making, which saves money. Moreover, this administrative seamlessness lends credibility to the brand and to the site itself through maintaining clear and ambitious quality standards. Such teamwork, Hinterkörner said, makes it easier to continuously question established processes and practices and to break out of administrative silos.  Grüneis agrees. “Investment costs, which the developers initially expected to be very high, can be minimized through a closely guided dialogue process on an expert level. This approach leads to more cost-effective and environmentally friendly energy solutions in operation,” he says. “From our perspective,” he adds, “the more ecologically sound solution is usually also the more economically beneficial in the long run.”  The journey toward a truly eco-friendly urban future will undoubtedly be complex and require a concerted effort from policymakers, industry leaders, and individual citizens. However, the tangible progress being made in places like Aspern Seestadt offers a beacon of hope.   By embracing the principles of urban mining, prioritizing sustainable transportation and energy systems, and fostering a culture of reuse and resourcefulness, cities can begin to be rebuilt into resilient, vibrant, and environmentally responsible ecosystems for generations to come. The future of urban centers, and indeed the planet, may very well depend on builders’ ability to see the potential not just in the new but in the valuable resources that already exist.  *Robert Selle is a freelance writer and editor based in Bowie, Maryland.

How an Italian Startup Creates Luxury from Orange and Cactus Waste By Gordon Cairns* Sicilian prickly pear cacti stand as the sun sets behind Mount Etna. Istock In Sicily, where citrus groves glow under the shadow of Mount Etna and prickly pear cacti dot the landscape, agricultural waste has long been part of the scenery. Each year, more than a million tons of orange peels, pulp, and cactus by-products are left behind—too often discarded, overlooked, or treated as a burden. But in this corner of the Mediterranean, a quiet transformation is underway. What was once waste is being given a second life—one that feels, quite literally, luxurious. The story unfolds not just in a laboratory but in the rhythms of the land itself. Here, three founders—a textile designer, an engineer, and a chemist—began with a simple question: What if the materials we throw away are not the end of a story, but the beginning of another? Their answer became Ohoskin, a material crafted from the remnants of Sicilian oranges and cactus plants—soft, durable, and refined enough for fashion, interiors, and even automotive design. Ohoskin CEO and co-founder Adriana Santanocito. ©Ohoskin Yet this is less a tale of invention than of rediscovery. “We didn’t start from the idea of replacing leather, we started from the idea of valorizing what already exists,” CEO and co-founder Adriana Santanocito tells The Earth & I. “Ohoskin is the result of transforming that resource into a material that combines performance, aesthetics, and meaning.” Sicily, Soul of the Product Sicilian oranges. istock Sicily is not just the source of the raw ingredients—it is the soul of the product. The island’s extremes have always demanded adaptability, and its ecosystems have adjusted in ways both subtle and striking. Even the deep red color of its oranges, Santanocito notes, is impacted by the temperature shifts caused by Mount Etna’s presence. “This is a resilient land, shaped by extreme conditions and unique biodiversity,” she explains. “That same territory, where agriculture, nature, and adaptation coexist, defines our approach.” In that sense, each sheet of material conveys more than texture or strength—it conveys a place. “We don’t just create materials; we translate a place into a product,” she says. “Every square meter of Ohoskin carries a story of Mediterranean identity, transformation, and innovation rooted in a landscape that has always turned challenges into value.” From Familiar Fruit to Unexpected Beauty Ohoskin has nautical interior applications. ©Ohoskin There is something quietly disarming about the idea that a handbag or car interior might begin with an orange. That familiarity is part of the magic. “Storytelling is fundamental,” Santanocito says. “When consumers understand that a material comes from something as familiar as an orange, it creates an immediate emotional connection. Design then translates that story into a tangible experience, through texture, color, and quality.” That connection has already drawn the attention of international brands such as GANNI, Moea, and Monica Zuccheri. Companies like these are looking for alternative materials that enhance their products and align with their values. Ohoskin has automotive interior applications. ©Ohoskin Rethinking Luxury For Ohoskin, the transformation is not only physical—it is philosophical. “For us, luxury is no longer about exclusivity at any cost but about the freedom to enjoy what you love without compromising your values,” Santanocito says. “It is the luxury of not having to choose between aesthetics, performance, and respect for nature and animals.” Indeed, traditional leather production is not only resource-intensive, it’s chemically complex. Ohoskin’s process—collecting agricultural residues, transforming them into proprietary bio-polymers, and maintaining traceable supply chains—demonstrates how various stakeholders, including agriculture, materials science, and manufacturing, can intersect to form new green industries. Two examples of Ohoskin’s leather alternative lines. ©Ohoskin “It’s no longer just about how something looks or feels,” says Santanocito, “but also about where it comes from, how it’s made, and the impact it generates. True luxury today is conscious, measurable, and aligned with a new generation of values.” The Journey from Peel to Product Citrus and cactus remnants are first stabilized, then combined with bio-based or recycled polymers. The resulting material is layered onto a textile backing and tested for strength, durability, abrasion resistance, and color fastness—ensuring it performs like the materials it seeks to complement or replace.   Ohoskin product is layered onto textile backing. ©Ohoskin “This is a key point,” Santanocito explains. “Sustainability without performance is not viable at scale. We use second-generation polymers—bio-based or recycled—to ensure durability, flexibility, and resistance over time, while reducing dependency on virgin fossil resources.” “This approach also enables industrial scalability. By working with established technologies and advanced formulations, we can guarantee consistency across large volumes, [which is] something essential for sectors like automotive and fashion. It’s a pragmatic approach: enabling transition, not compromising performance, and making innovation scalable.” The result is a material with a carbon footprint of about 2.57 kg CO₂ per square meter—far lower than traditional leather and conventional synthetic alternatives. Traditional leather can be nearly 10 times higher, with more than two-thirds of this figure attributed to upstream farming and slaughtering. New Life from Old Beyond design and performance, the story circles back to where it began: the land and its people. By purchasing agricultural by-products, Ohoskin creates new income streams for local producers and reduces the need to dispose of organic waste. Ohoskin rescues orange rind waste. ©Ohoskin Ohoskin shreds the rinds before processing. ©Ohoskin “We take a linear waste stream from the agri-food sector and transform it into a high-value input,” Santanocito says. “At the same time, we enable brands to integrate circular materials into their products without compromising on quality or performance.” “This strengthens local economies and introduces a more resilient, diversified model for agricultural regions, especially in Southern Italy.” To achieve this, says Santanocito, “we have not focused on biodegradability as a primary goal, because today it often comes with trade-offs in durability and performance that are not compatible with industrial applications. Instead, we focus on increasing the bio-based content of our formulations, reducing fossil inputs, and improving overall material efficiency and longevity.” She adds: “We believe that creating long-lasting, high-performance materials with a reduced environmental footprint is currently the most impactful direction for large-scale industries.” The Real Transformation Like any good Cinderella story, the transformation here is not just about appearance—it is about perception. “Ohoskin helps shift the perception of what materials can be. It shows that what was once considered waste can become something desirable, high-quality, and valuable. This changes how both industries and consumers think, moving from a culture of extraction to one of transformation, where materials are designed with purpose and responsibility from the beginning.” And perhaps that is the deeper narrative: not simply that waste can be turned into something beautiful but that beauty itself can be redefined—rooted not in excess but in care, ingenuity, and a willingness to see value where others do not. *Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English at the Forest Schools, based in Scotland.

Objectively Assessing the Economic Worth of Ecosystems By Rick Laezman* Without honeybees and other insects to provide “free” pollination, wheat harvests would be meager. Vitalii Stamat/iStock Imagine a local government weighing two futures for a 100-acre plot of pristine wetlands. On one hand, a developer offers a $50 million subdivision, promising immediate property taxes and housing. On the other hand, the existing marsh sits quietly, apparently “worthless” on a balance sheet. However, that marsh acts as a sponge; during every major storm, it absorbs millions of gallons of runoff, each time preventing $80 million in potential flood damage to the surrounding town. Without the marsh, the town must build an expensive concrete levee—costing taxpayers millions more in construction and maintenance than the subdivision would ever have generated.   For too long, global markets have seemingly operated under the delusion that if a tree isn’t cut into lumber or a wetland isn’t paved into a parking lot, it has no economic value. Society treats the “services” nature provides—clean air, storm protection, and crop pollination—as free, infinite gifts. But new efforts to calculate the costs of development on nature suggest the costs will be high—even into the trillions of dollars.  Researchers are trying to move beyond simple aesthetics to calculate the cold, hard cash value of the natural world. Enter the emerging frontier of environmental valuation, a field that seeks to put a literal price tag on what are now being called the ecosystem services that sustain human life. Researchers are trying to move beyond simple aesthetics to calculate the cold, hard cash value of the natural world. By understanding these metrics, conservation becomes not just a luxury but a vital economic necessity for a stable future.   While society slaps a price tag on a man-made barrel of oil or a new sedan, it treats the very air we breathe and the soil that feeds us as if they are worth zero on the open market.   While society slaps a price tag on a man-made barrel of oil or a new sedan, it treats the very air we breathe and the soil that feeds us as if they are worth zero on the open market. But environmental valuation theorists argue that nature isn’t just a backdrop for people’s lives; it’s the very skeletal framework of the economy. Thus, when an ecosystem fails, the shockwaves ripple through markets and into everyone’s homes, these researchers say.   One example of this is the overplowing of native grasslands for decades in the central United States, leading to topsoil erosion and collapse of agricultural land productivity. This opened the door, together with drought, to the Dust Bowl of the 1930s. In the absence of grassland resilience, crop yields collapsed across millions of acres, thousands of farms failed, and food production disruptions contributed to broader economic stress during the Great Depression. All of this led to mass migration (the “Okies”), rising food prices, and federal intervention programs. The loss of soil as a natural asset translated directly into incredible economic losses in terms of household hardship, unemployment, and national economic strain.   To fix societies’ broken planning process, there needs to be a yardstick. Environmental valuation is intended to provide that metric, translating the complex wonders of nature into the language of economics so business and political leaders can make smarter, more sustainable choices.   What Is Environmental Valuation? The practice of assigning value to the environment is relatively new. According to Stephen Carpenter, professor of limnology and zoology at the University of Wisconsin, “We know that ecosystems do these things for us and we know that we currently undervalue them in the marketplace, and this is a frontier of research right now.”   In a 2020 article published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Francisco Guijarro of the Polytechnic University of Valencia and Prodromos Tsinaslanidis of the University of Western Macedonia describe environmental valuation as “a variety of techniques to assign monetary values to environmental impacts, especially non-market impacts.”   They add that the field has experienced “steady growth” over the last three decades, noting that the term first appeared in a study in 1987. Dr. Gretchen Daily says in this 2025 video that “if we don’t put a price tag on nature, we are effectively saying nature is worth nothing.” Ten years later, a group of ecologists led by Stanford University Professor Gretchen C. Daily authored a paper in Issues in Ecology, a journal published by the Ecological Society of America. Entitled “Ecosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems,” the 1997 paper notes that in addition to the basic raw materials derived from nature, like seafood and timber, society also benefits from other “fundamental life-support services” that natural ecosystems perform. These include such noncommoditized essentials as the purification of air and water, detoxification and decomposition of wastes, regulation of climate, regeneration of soil fertility, and the production and maintenance of biodiversity.   All these essentials provide sustenance to various markets, including agricultural, pharmaceutical, and industrial. However, they have never been measured in terms of dollar value because they are not bought and sold. In fact, the paper argues that historically they have largely been ignored until they begin to fail.   One such failure is the Chesapeake Bay ecosystem on the US East Coast, which underwent a multidecade ecological breakdown driven by nutrient pollution (nitrogen and phosphorus from agriculture, sewage, and runoff), overharvesting of key species, and habitat loss. Oyster populations fell to less than 1% of historical levels. Striped bass and blue crab populations experienced major declines. These species weren’t just “resources”—they were ecosystem engineers and economic drivers.    Oysters once filtered the entire bay in days; their collapse led to murkier, oxygen-poor water. Loss of habitat and water quality reduced fish and crab populations. Excess nutrients fueled algal blooms and “dead zones.” The oyster fishery—once the backbone of the bay economy—collapsed in the 20th century. Thousands of watermen across Maryland and Virginia lost livelihoods. Crab and fish industries became highly volatile, with bad years hitting incomes hard. All of this produced rising costs for water treatment and infrastructure, along with higher taxes, utility bills, and public spending burdens—essentially replacing lost “free” ecosystem services with costly engineered solutions. In addition, the tourism industry was hurt badly, and even waterfront property values were affected. Moreover, there were public health and other hidden costs from the algal blooms and contaminated waters.   The negative consequences of the strains human society has placed on natural systems are now apparent, Daily believes, and a method for ascertaining the value of these systems has become an imperative. She admonishes that “if we don’t put a price tag on nature, we are effectively saying nature is worth nothing. Nature scores a zero.”   Daily and her colleagues concede that quantifying the value of ecosystem services and measuring their worth against other possible uses is “no simple task.” It often involves a choice or comparison between short-term economic gains to a limited group of individuals, like landowners and businesses, on the one hand, and long-term benefits to the community or society overall.    Put another way, they argue that the question should be posed as: “Which is greater, the economic benefits of a particular development project or the benefits supplied by the ecosystem that would be destroyed, measured over a time period of interest to people concerned about the well-being of their grandchildren?” “Free” water for irrigating crops comes from nearby waterways or deep-underground aquifers, but if human activity pollutes or overuses those sources, the cost of farming and food can soar. French Sweetie/Pexels In the same year that Daily’s article was published (1997), Robert Costanza, professor of ecological economics at the Institute for Global Prosperity at University College London, published a study with a team of scholars in the journal Nature entitled, “The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital.”   They took the concept of ecosystem services one step further, from definition to measurement, and attempted to calculate an actual dollar value for ecosystem services. The authors acknowledged that the exercise is “difficult and fraught with uncertainties.” Despite these challenges, they felt it must be done, adding that “one choice we do not have is whether or not to do it.”   Costanza makes the case for this exercise in actual economic terms. He explains that “the current economic model does not achieve real economic efficiency. A new, sustainable ecological economic model would measure and include the contributions of natural and social capital and could better approximate real economic efficiency.”   In their Nature article, Costanza and his team explain that various methods have been used to try to assign value to ecosystem services, and most of these employ a concept utilized in economics known as willingness to pay. It refers to the maximum amount of money a consumer is willing to pay for a product or service.   Nature’s annual “work” was valued at $33 trillion—nearly double the entire world’s economic output at the time—and they added that this was almost certainly a vast underestimate.   The price of a forest’s carbon-absorbing power won’t appear on a receipt for two-by-fours at the hardware store, but Costanza’s team worked to make that invisible value visible. After analyzing 17 different categories of ecosystem services, such as the regulation of atmospheric gases, pollination, and soil and oxygen for food production, their final tally was staggering: Nature’s annual “work” was valued at $33 trillion in 1994 US dollars—nearly double the entire world’s economic output at the time—and they added that this was almost certainly a vast underestimate.   In 2014, Costanza published a significant update of his work in the journal Global Environmental Change titled “Changes in the global value of ecosystem services.” This study revised the 1997 estimates, accounting for land-use changes and updated unit values. The 2014 update estimated the value at $125–$145 trillion per year (in 2007 US dollars). Then, in reviews in 2020 and 2021, Costanza and various international teams have continued to refine these models, often focusing on the progress made since the 1997 publication and integrating the UN's Sustainable Development Goals.   Multiple Methods of Measurement Since these groundbreaking studies, several methods have emerged to calculate nature’s worth based on context: Deliberative Methods: Use focus groups and democratic deliberations to uncover deeply held values, especially in developing regions where cultural or language barriers exist. Benefit Transfer Method: A time-saving approach that applies data from one site to a similar location, though its accuracy depends on how well the sites truly match. Revealed Preferences: Uses human behavior to determine value. This includes hedonic pricing (e.g., measuring how proximity to parks raises home prices) and replacement cost evaluations (calculating what it would cost to build a water treatment plant to replace a natural wetland). Damage Avoidance: Estimates value by the cost of harm prevented, such as a wetland’s role in stopping flood damage. While economic tools are effective, they often miss nonmarket factors. Consequently, newer models incorporate cultural implications—like spiritual inspiration and identity—and the psychological impacts of nature, including the healing benefits of ecotherapy. These diverse metrics ensure that nature’s “hidden” benefits are finally accounted for in global markets. France’s Saint-Alban nuclear power plant draws vital water from the Rhone River to cool its reactor. Without the “free” water, the multibillion-dollar plant, which provides millions of dollars of electricity and incalculable comfort and convenience to 6 million households, would shutter. Pilat Oueb/Wikipedia Implementation As the study of ecosystem services has become more sophisticated, its implementation has also expanded. In fact, there are many examples of governments and other, nongovernmental organizations applying various metrics to policy- and decision-making.   For example, the US Geological Services (USGS), part of the Department of the Interior, is applying various methods of ecosystem services valuation to their assessment of natural resources. Scientists at the USGS’s Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center (GECSC) developed a tool called Social Values for Ecosystem Services. It assesses the social values and, in particular, the cultural values of ecosystem services. The tool is used to aid in natural resource management. At the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area on the US East Coast, for example, GECSC conducted surveys of visitors to determine what portions of the reserve had the greatest emotional appeal. This guided the park to alter nature trails accordingly.   GECSC scientists are also developing methods to assess the impact of landscape change on ecosystem services. For example, energy development, like a new geothermal power plant, can have a significant impact on the surrounding environment. Similarly, urban growth, like adding a new subdivision, can also impact the ecosystems it encroaches upon.   As scientists and economists get better at pricing nature, these experts believe society will stop flying blind. Instead of guessing, planners will finally have the data to see how every acre of forest or wetland directly impacts communities’ bottom line.   Putting a price on nature isn't just about carbon credits or emissions. It’s about recognizing that everything from the bees pollinating crops to the mental peace found in a park has a measurable, essential worth.   As the study of these impacts evolves, appropriate measures are also becoming more effective. In the words of Gretchen Daily, “Our economic systems are blind to the values of nature. We could assume that nature was infinite and that’s what was assumed for the most part. But now, everybody’s waking up to reality.” *Richard Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has been covering renewable power and other related subjects for more than 10 years.