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A form of urban infrastructure planning, Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), is on the rise. The goal of TOD is to revitalize inner city areas, especially near transportation hubs, and mitigate stress and pollution. When people walk, shop, play, commute and reside near train stations and other mass transit hubs, here are some of the benefits they can enjoy. Benefits of Transit-Oriented Development People who use mass transit are 81% less likely to become obese (over time). Urban car ownership requires parking, and it costs between $4,200 (surface parking) to $37,300 (in an underground garage) to construct one parking space. This cost impacts residential rents and purchase prices. Taking mass transit can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by nearly 76%, compared with driving. Compared with rural and suburban dwellers, people who live near transit can travel up to 40% less vehicle-miles. TOD has the potential to increase transit ridership by 20%-40%. This makes investment in transit more efficient and effective. Eliminating one car per household can save nearly $12,000 annually. TOD-type development patterns can slow traffic and reduce injuries and fatalities by up to 25% less than that of auto-oriented development. TOD projects can generate 47%-63% more in tax revenues for every $1 invested than non-TOD projects. Source: Regional Transportation Authority (RTA) TOD Brochure

By Yasuhiro Kotera* Modern times have led to modern problems, such as the proper disposal of the massive amounts of commercial and household waste that accompanies prosperity. A “zero-waste” movement has arisen to revive practices that were once used by generations of humanity: reuse, recycle, and repurpose almost everything for as long as possible. In Japan, the town of Kamikatsu on the island of Shikoku has taken the lead in pursuing the goal of zero waste, which means very little household waste—less than 20%—goes to a landfill or is incinerated. The bulk of unwanted items from the town’s 1,500 people are now repurposed in some way; the town has been so successful that people now come to visit to learn about its zero-waste practices. More Prosperity, More Waste The Japanese economy developed rapidly from 1955 to 1972 through what is often described as "mass production, mass consumption, and mass disposal.” As part of this period of strong economic growth, the amount of waste the nation generated also continued to increase, as did the acreage taken up by landfills. Today, Japan’s 1,661 landfills are inexorably filling up, and if Japan’s businesses and homes continue to generate forty million tons of general waste a year, these landfills will be filled to capacity around 2038, according to Nippon.com, using data from Japan’s Ministry of the Environment’s Survey on Disposal of General Waste. Incineration cannot solve the waste problem because it produces mountains of ash that must be deposited in a landfill. Moreover, packaging waste—which accounts for 60% of general waste by volume and 20% by weight in Japan—carries its own problems for disposal. Packaging waste includes plastics, films, and other durable materials used to encase products, single-serve foods, or family-size foods, like PET containers for water, juice, and soft drinks. Most of this packaging waste ends up in landfills because when plastics are burned, they release gases and other hazardous emissions. Taking Legislative Action In 1995, the Japanese government enacted the Containers and Packaging Recycling Act (CPR) to guide people on how to handle waste generated from households. This system was partially enforced in 1997, fully enforced in 2000, and updated in 2006. The Containers and Packaging Recycling Act, officially “the Law for Promotion of Sorted Collection and Recycling of Containers and Packaging,” aims to recycle product containers and packaging discarded from households. Recyclable items include glass bottles, PET bottles, paper boxes, film bags for snacks, and plastic bags. Previously, municipalities were solely responsible for the entire procedure; however, the CPR sets out the roles for various parties: Consumers are responsible for sorting waste according to the rules set by the municipality. This will result in good quality waste that is easy to recycle and can be reused as a resource. Additionally, consumers are also expected to try to reduce waste by bringing their own bags (not using extra plastic bags), choosing products with simpler packaging, and actively using returnable containers. Municipalities are to collect sorted waste from households and deliver it to recycling businesses. In addition, municipalities promote thorough sorting and reduction of waste in the community. Businesses are responsible for recycling the containers and packaging they use, manufacture, or import in their business. In practice, they can outsource this to a designated company under the CPR. In addition to recycling, businesses must also make an effort to reduce waste containers and packaging by, for example, making containers and packaging thinner and lighter, selling them by weight, and charging for plastic bags. Only about 20% of municipalities were engaged in the sorting of PET bottles in 1997, but by 2006, almost all municipalities were doing it once additional laws for the CPR were implemented. Other enacted laws include the Home Appliance Recycling Act (1998), Food Recycling Act (2000), Construction Recycling Act (2000), Automobile Recycling Act (2002), and Small Home Appliance Recycling Act (2012). These laws spell out producer and consumer responsibilities for proper recycling of products. The results of these new initiatives have been promising. More municipalities are participating, and the amount of sorted waste that is collected is increasing. For example, only about 20% of municipalities were engaged in the sorting of PET bottles in 1997, but by 2006, almost all municipalities were doing it. Moreover, these laws have increased people’s awareness of recycling. In 1995, only about 10% of households recycled their waste. Ten years later, this rate almost doubled, to 19%, and by 2012, it was almost 21%, according to Waste Atlas. Correspondingly, the final disposal of general waste collections from households has dropped from approximately thirteen million tons in 1996, to seven million tons in 2005, and 4.6 million tons in 2012, according to the Ministry of Environment’s 2014 publication, “History and Current State of Waste Management in Japan.” Kamikatsu as a Model Town Kamikatsu is located on the southwest island of Shikoku in the prefecture of Tokushima. Kamikatsu’s population does not reach 1,500, and more than half of residents are 65 years old or older. About 90% of the land is either mountains or forests. These figures may make Kamikatsu sound like a quiet, countryside town, but it has become quite well known among Japanese people—and others in the world who are interested in “zero-waste” practices. Before the emergence of the zero-waste movement, Kamikatsu was known for its “happa,” or leaf, business. Japanese cuisine often uses seasonal leaves, called “tsuma,” as garnishes or decorative elements. For example, on a sashimi plate, leaves are placed between the slices of raw fish. These leaves not only beautify the dish, but they also keep the food fresh (e.g., separating different types of fish). Many elderly Kamikatsu residents are involved in this business to grow and collect seasonal leaves. They found “ikigai” (meaning in life) in their work, and it is believed that having purpose in life improves their health. In 2003, the Kamikatsu municipality issued a bold declaration—that they would achieve “zero waste” by 2020. The purpose of this declaration was to pass clean air, water, and land on to children. The declaration highlighted three key items: (1) educating people about how to keep the Earth clean, (2) doing our best not to need incineration and landfill disposal by recycling waste, and (3) networking with peers who engage in environmental conservation around the world. What stood out in this declaration was that people were placed at the center of this movement. The Japanese words used in the first point do not readily translate to English, but “hito zukuri” means “creation of people” [who do not make the earth unclean]. While government policies focus on tangible, often external issues (e.g., new resources provided, behaviors required), Kamikatsu’s declaration focused on people’s mindset and behavior, hence their culture. Since Kamikatsu already had deep, nature-friendly attitudes, the 2003 zero-waste declaration was well-received and converted into action with relative smoothness. Lessons to Learn Kamikatsu, which was recycling 81% of its refuse in 2016, according to Nippon.com, has been an inspiration to many other communities in Japan and beyond. The “big things” that Kamikatsu has been doing do not rely on big things: Their great achievements are the result of many people’s relatively small but consistent efforts. For instance, in the 1990s, when the town confirmed that raw food waste was a large part (almost a third) of its waste stream, leaders collaborated on a recycling plan to help residents efficiently compost it. The town decided to offer financial assistance for its residents to purchase in-home processors; today, almost all of Kamikatsu’s raw food is composted locally. With the passage of CPR, the town worked to respond, finding businesses to recycle various materials, and setting up recycling programs for metal, plastics, paper, glass, rubber and many more items. Today, the residents sort household waste into thirteen major categories and then forty-five subcategories. Some materials, like paper and metal, can be sold, which helps defray Kamikatsu’s costs for landfill or incineration disposal for the things it cannot recycle, such as used diapers and feminine products. Other items that are used but still have value in homes or businesses are made available—people can drop off usable items and take other items as they like. In this way, Kamikatsu says it has managed to recycle more than 80% of its refuse, according to the Kamikatsu Zero Waste Center. Changing the Culture The enormous scale of environmental issues may be overwhelming. Sustainable and effective changes may not happen if people’s hearts are not moved to implement them, so changes in policy that do not alter people’s opinions may not be enough. But the example of the Kamikatsu people may prove otherwise. Recognizing that education and networking are important to create a positive attitude and culture around recycling, Kamikatsu leaders sought to implement it in their policies. First of all, the “mottainai” spirit is clearly relevant to their recycling and waste management. The word, “mottainai,” (roughly translated as “wasteful”) started to receive global attention since it was used by Wangari Muta Maathai, a Kenyan environmental activist who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. “Mottainai” is used to describe something that has not performed its full value. Its simplest meaning is "What a waste!" and it has undertones of regret or guilt or sorrow. For example, throwing away a strawberry after taking a small bite on the top may be called “mottainai.” The word can also be applied to people. For example, an athlete with great potential who is performing at a mediocre level can also be described as “mottainai.” Another cultural virtue is the idea that “a small step taken consistently by many for a prolonged time can create a significant impact,” also known as “many a little makes a mickle (a lot).” Indeed, this proverb is used in many cultures. But it is particularly strong in Japanese culture—especially among its thrifty and resourceful elderly—and, paired with the spirit of “mottainai” and appreciating the value of little things, Japan’s towns are well-suited to successful recycling and waste management in Japan. *Yasuhiro Kotera, Ph.D. is Associate Professor for Mental Health at the University of Nottingham and Accredited Psychotherapist for the British Association of Counselling & Psychotherapy. He explores mental health recovery and cultures, focusing on compassion.

By Daniel Kobei* The Ogiek are a forest-dwelling, hunter-gatherer community who are officially identified as one of Kenya’s indigenous people.* They are also known as the ancestral guardians of Kenya’s largest, closed-canopy, forest ecosystem, the Mau Forest complex. The 52,000 members of the Ogiek tribe live in and around a forest that once stretched over 400,000 hectares (1,544 sq miles) in southwestern Kenya. Most Ogiek live within Mau Forest, inhabiting the Nakuru, Narok, Baringo, Kericho, Nandi and Uasin Gishu counties. The remainder of the population inhabit Mount Elgon in the area of Chepkitale, Bungoma County. The Ogiek, whose name means “caretakers of flora and fauna,” are experts at thriving within a forest ecosystem, conserving resources, and maintaining biodiversity. The Forest as Home, Market and Holy Place The Ogiek community has a close affinity with their environment: They live, eat, and cure ailments using natural resources within their ecosystem. To the Ogiek, the forest is like a supermarket—it provides food, medicines, and materials for building homes and other structures. Every shrub, tree, twig, tuber and all else that is in the forest has a meaning to the Ogiek community. The forest is also where spiritual and traditional rituals and ceremonies are performed. Ogiek shrines, “Mabwaita,” are where cleansing, performing sacrifices to the gods and making covenants as a community take place. Every family has a Mabwaita erected in their homestead facing the eastern side of the house where the sun rises. It is erected using specific sacred trees and shrubs, which are tied together; it is always redone during a new ceremony. Additionally, the Mabwaita is appeased with fresh plants and honey wine poured on it, accompanied by prayers offered by elders. Elders are mostly men accompanied by elderly women who are beyond childbearing age. Water as a Blessing from the Gods to Sustain Life The Ogiek believe water (peek) is supplied by the gods for the survival of biodiversity. Proper care of biodiversity ensures that the community never lacks water. Water is also believed to have a cleansing power. This is why, before circumcision, the initiate is taken to the river to bathe, ensuring he enters adulthood clean from any unwanted act committed during childhood. According to Ogiek beliefs, rainmakers are men blessed by elders to have the ability to stop rain. The Ogiek live in areas where it rains constantly. Therefore, they depend on rainmakers to stop the rain to allow ceremonies to take place. Similarly, during the occurrence of a drought, women gather at a designated point along the river and pray. A virgin girl or a virtuous married woman will stand in the river during the ceremony. This act causes the skies to open to accept the prayers and offer rain in return. The connection between water, forest, and livelihood of the Ogiek, portrayed through culture, traditions and norms, has been reckoned to follow international conventions, protocols and declarations. Traditional knowledge on conservation is embedded within the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as well as the Nagoya Protocol. There are three objectives of CBD: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. The Ogiek Livelihood and the Bee Culture For generations, Ogiek life revolved around hunting and gathering. But the 1970s wildlife hunting ban in Kenya forced the Ogiek lifestyle to undergo drastic changes, including adoption of subsistence agriculture. Despite the changes, however, the Ogiek community maintained its beekeeping culture. Honey is at the core of the Ogiek culture; it is the main component of their food and livelihood. At the turn of the 19th century, the Ogiek traded honey for ceremonial livestock from the Maasai. The Ogiek now use commercial practices, such as branding and packaging, to enhance the market value of their honey and capture a wider portion of the market. The Ogiek use their traditional knowledge to conserve the Mau Forest, thereby ensuring an abundance of flowers for bees to gather nectar and increase production of honey. Minimizing pressure on biodiversity The Ogiek community has traditionally lived in small groups or clans, which were distributed throughout their given territories in the Mau Forest. This division into small groups, as well as their seasonal migrations through their territories, ensured that little pressure was put on the forest’s biodiversity. The community also endeavored to minimize their disturbances to biodiversity through other means. For instance, they only hunted older game that were past young-rearing stage, and gathered roots sparingly to ensure that trees would not dry up or fall. Modern agriculture, however, has disrupted these kinds of practices. The clearing of large tracts of forest lands for agricultural activities has been a leading cause of biodiversity destruction within the Mau Forest. Additionally, the use of agrochemicals to maximize crop yields is interfering with honey production in the ecosystem; natural flora is cleared out while cultivated plants’ flowers are poisoned with agrochemicals. Conservation efforts Through the leadership of the Ogiek Peoples’ Development Program (OPDP), in partnership with the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and the Community Forest Scouts, the Ogiek community has been able to conserve and restore the Mau Forest. This initiative is focused on rehabilitating degraded forest areas and preventing destruction of forest biodiversity. This has led to the restoration of more than 40 ha (98 acres). Through this initiative, the Ogiek are restoring Mau to its former glory, step by step. Ogiek Prayer Tororo ripe-ech, Konech konye-eng Konyeg oop samak, Konech panda nemocheygei Tororo konech konye-eg op koriron Ripwech timtonyon, emenyon nepo Tirap, Tirap, Tirap nemi Tegeltit Emetop sasaondendet, Emenyon nepo Setyot, Emenyon mo-o netepes Tororo konech lagog, konech komeg Konech konyegap ongweg, Ripwech mosotig, poponik, murguywet, Ripwech moingonigchog po mogonjog Konech keldop kugo nimokinochiy Tororo rip kotop Ogiot Tororo tomoyon kotop SOGOOT Sere! Sere! Sere!) (Ogiek prayer by Daniel Kobei, 2009) (The prayer is asking God to bless their biodiversity, forest, and hunting grounds. It asks for protection against misfortunes and requests for food, biodiversity, bees, and their hunting and gathering protection. The prayer ends with a call of blessing, blessing, blessing!) *This is per the guidelines given by the Working Group on Indigenous Populations/Communities in Africa, a special instrument of the African Commission on Human and Indigenous Peoples Rights (ACHIPR). The claim to indigeneity was further echoed by the African Court on Human and Peoples Rights on 26th May 2017, in Arusha, Tanzania, during the landmark judgement in favor of the Ogiek community and its land rights, as well as cultural rights, to the forest’s ecosystem. *Daniel Kobei is the Executive Director and Founder of the Ogiek Peoples' Development Program (OPDP), an NGO based in Kenya, with ECOSOC Status since 2019, promoting the human and land rights of the indigenous Ogiek Community and other Indigenous Peoples (IPs) of Kenya and Africa. He is the focal point on IPs matters in the International Indigenous Forum for Biodiversity (IIFB) under the Collaborative Partnership for Wildlife Management (CPW) established by the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD). He has an MBA in Strategic Mgt. from Egerton University, Kenya, and a Post Graduate Diploma in Project Appraisal and Management from Maastricht School Management (MSM) in the Netherlands.

By Dr. Rohan S. Dassanayake* Capturing water from air is nothing new. It is believed, for instance, that the early Greeks who established Theodosia (currently known as Feodosia) in the 6th century BC utilized bowl-shaped stone condensers to capture water in the air to fulfil their daily water needs. Our circumstances, however, are vastly different. Though over 70% of Earth's surface is covered with water, only a tiny percentage of freshwater available today on the surface of rivers, wetlands, lakes, and swamps is considered potable for humans. Improper management of water reservoirs, contamination of drinking water sources, high industrial and domestic water demand, human conflicts, increasing construction, industrial and agricultural development, and climate change have been continuously contributing to the decrease in drinking water over the last few decades. According to the United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), approximately four billion people worldwide encounter severe water scarcity for at least one month each year. Over half of the world's population could be residing in countries where continuous water supply will be inadequate as early as 2025. Water scarcity has become a global challenge and is expected to be exacerbated over the next few years. As a consequence, there is considerable interest worldwide in sustainable solutions that provide safe drinking water for everyone. Several technologies, including wastewater recycling, seawater desalination, and rainwater harvesting, have been investigated for their capacity to alleviate water scarcity. However, each of these techniques possesses its own practical issues. Atmospheric water harvesting (AWH) technology has recently emerged as a promising alternative that decentralizes water access using the overlooked water available in the Earth's atmosphere. The potential of AWH could be tremendous. Earth’s water cycle plays a crucial role in the biosphere, and the Earth's atmosphere holds approximately 10% of freshwater found in all lakes and rivers, equivalent to 12,900 billion tons of freshwater, irrespective of the geographical area and hydrologic conditions. How Atmospheric Water Harvesting Works The AWH technology is a process of extracting and collecting freshwater from surrounding (ambient) air as water vapor or droplets. This technology is based on a bulk phenomenon where vapor or liquid molecules present in the atmosphere diffuse into solid materials or sorbents, altering the structure and volume of sorbents via physical interaction or chemical reaction with the sorbent. Modern AWH technologies can be divided into three main classes based on their energy utilization: 1) passive water harvesting systems that operate without additional energy input, 2) active water harvesting systems that work with additional energy input such as electricity, 3) and solar-driven hygroscopic water harvesting systems. Generally, passive water harvesting systems are easy to construct, but their water extraction capacity is extremely small. The active water harvesting systems, including systems involving membrane separation and thermoelectric cooling, are sophisticated, larger, and require relatively high amounts of electrical energy. However, their water extraction processes produce a relatively large amount of water. The solar-driven hygroscopic (absorbs water from air) water harvesting systems are considered the most promising due to their simple, easy installation, low cost, and environmental friendliness. These solar-driven AWH generators are based on the adsorption-desorption process, and use hygroscopic sorbents, including metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)—hybrid crystalline porous materials—polymeric and porous adsorbents and hydrogels. Among the many sorbents, hydrogels have attracted significant attention as atmospheric water harvesters owing to their superior hydrophilicity (readily absorbing or dissolving in water), tunable surface characteristics, mechanical and thermal properties, low cost, easy functionalization, relative abundance of raw materials, renewability, and eco-friendliness. Hydrogels are sorbents with high water absorption capacity, with advantages over other water harvesters in terms of their characteristics, properties, cost, and eco-friendliness. Hydrogels are three-dimensional (3D) cross-linked networks of a hydrophilic polymer that can absorb and retain water without deforming its structure. Generally, a hydrogel consists of approximately 10% water by total weight (or volume). Hydrogels can be categorized based on the source (natural or synthetic), polymeric configuration (crystalline, semi-crystalline or amorphous), polymeric composition (homopolymeric, copolymeric or multipolymeric), network cross-linking (chemical and physical), or network electrical charge (neutral, anionic, cationic and zwitterionic—having both positive and negative charge). Figure 1 shows the conceptual design of the hybrid hydrogel-based AWH. As shown in Figure 1, water can be extracted at nighttime and released during daytime with the assistance of solar energy. Zwitterionic hydrogels are a novel class of hydrogels that possess positively charged cationic and negatively charged anionic functional groups along with their polymer chain. In contrast to other hydrogels, zwitterionic hydrogels contain hygroscopic salts such as lithium chloride (LiCl) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) in their matrix, causing the coalescence of small water droplets into larger droplets. The hygroscopic salt coordinated with the polymer chain could potentially extract moisture via the anti-polyelectrolyte effect, or how a zwitterion’s polymer chains shrink in water but expand in salt solutions. First, the hygroscopic salts present in the matrix extract the water from the atmosphere and facilitate the in situ (on site) liquefaction; subsequently, the water is adsorbed to the hydrogel. The presence of hygroscopic salts also improves the swelling property of the zwitterionic hydrogels, leading to higher water storage. For instance, a zwitterionic hydrogel can expand a hundred to thousand-fold in the presence of desalinated water. The presence of positively and negatively charged functional groups on the zwitterionic hydrogels helps the salt become more stable and prevents leaching from the matrix and deterioration of its structure. Therefore, zwitterionic hydrogels are considered a promising strategy for AWH, as demonstrated by a recent study by Lei and coworkers, in which they achieved an AWH capacity of 0.62g of water vapor sorption per gram of their zwitterionic hydrogel (over 120 minutes at 30% relative humidity), with a daily freshwater production of 5.87L per kilogram of hydrogel. Another study by Aleid and coworkers also devised a solar-driven zwitterionic hydrogel with carbon nanotubes (CNT) as the photothermal component, which achieved an AWH capacity of 1.30g of water vapor sorption per gram of their zwitterionic hydrogel (at 25°C and 60% relative humidity). Figure 2 shows the schematic representation of the water adsorption mechanism of zwitterionic hydrogel loaded with LiCl. As shown in Figure 2, the presence of LiCl enhances the water adsorption and swelling of the zwitterionic hydrogel. Unlike many other hydrogels, zwitterionic hydrogels are suited for all-weather moisture harvesting, and can thus provide freshwater for arid and landlocked regions. The Potential of Zwitterionic Hydrogels In addition to its use in AWH technology, zwitterionic hydrogels have major implications for production of electricity. The zwitterionic hydrogels-based energy generator is driven by the mechanical movement that is based on the anti-polyelectrolyte effect. Hydrogels placed in a cylindrical piston can be continually moved upwards and downwards during the water adsorption and desorption of water by transforming the anti-polyelectrolyte effect into a mechanical force. In conclusion, hydrogel-based AWH technologies, including zwitterionic hydrogels, show great promise in extracting water from humid air, a large reservoir of water that is accessible in many areas of the world. Moreover, zwitterionic hydrogels can be used as all-weather water harvesters. Although hydrogel-based AWH technologies are at the developmental stages and showing significant promise, there is still much work to be performed to establish zwitterionic hydrogels as energy-efficient, sustainable, industrially scalable, and cost-effective AWHs. With widespread attention received, due to their high water-harvesting capacities, polyzwitterionic hydrogels could play an immense role in supplying water for arid regions, potable water production, and emergency post-disaster situations in the future. *Dr. Rohan S. Dassanayake is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Biosystems Technology, Faculty of Technology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Homagama 10250, Sri Lanka.

By Edwin Maria John* When Greta Thunberg at age 16 spoke at the United Nations and made a global impact for environmental concerns, what paved the way for her was not just her passionate determination. Growing up she found confidence, connections, encouragement, and backing. But not every child is lucky to have such an enabling background. Could we build a system similarly enabling every child to make a significant contribution to the solution of local or global problems—especially the environment-related ones? Could we also ensure a process whereby children leave schools not merely as academically qualified but as proactively contributing citizens and leaders empowered enough to ensure a sustainably developed world? So-called Inclusive Neighborhood Children's Parliaments (INCPs) in India are doing just that. What are they? What measures do INCPs employ that enable every child to grow up to be a proactive citizen and effective leader? Started in 1990s in the southernmost district of India, Kanyakumari, INCPs today are a bottom-up global movement that starts from neighborhood-level parliaments and reaches up to a Provisional World Children’s Parliament. Small-sized, Inclusive, and Neighborhood-based At the base, INCPs are units of about 30 children each, geographically and inclusively organized—every child in each neighborhood is reached out to and included. INCP units are kept deliberately small: the child parliament should be small enough that everybody can sit in one circle face-to-face and talk without a microphone. In such small forums, unlike in huge forums, every child gets attention and recognition, and has ample opportunity to be heard, to interact, to perform, and to lead. INCPs are organized in residential neighborhoods. Lately schools joined in. The school parliaments are, preferably, not based on the children’s courses, but on the geographic neighborhood children come from. Children respond more easily to persons, situations, needs, and problems in their neighborhoods. Also, a neighborhood-linked process continues even after the children complete their studies in school and go home. This enables them to continue to interact with their neighbors and together keep on contributing for the common good in their neighborhoods and beyond. The entire process is child-led. Each INCP does have an adult mentor, though not functioning as a “teacher” but assisting the children in finding their own solutions—he or she sits with the children in the circle or even behind the circle. Child parliamentarians at the neighborhood level meet every other week for an hour or so. The intervening week meetings are for the various ministries led by so-called child ministers. Child Leaders Aplenty Each INCP has its child leaders called “ministers” focusing on various concerns like health, education, child rights, and gender sensitivity. The child ministers—American children unused to “minister” might prefer terms like “secretary” and “director”—alert other child parliamentarians regarding issues related to their ministries and motivate them for action responses. Almost every child is made a minister. Assigning a child to be a minister is a great strategy to groom him or her to be a proactive leader. 17 of these ministries are for the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN. For example, if a girl becomes a minister for the environment, she is expected to report about the environment during the next parliament meeting. This would spur her to read about it, investigate, and listen to others on possible activities that the children’s parliament could initiate, and so forth. Over time she will become an expert, and a knowledgeable leader. When every child in a circle of 30 ministers in the child parliament focuses on a separate concern, each child gets a multi-sided awareness of social, environmental, and other issues affecting the world. Engaging children to have a wider and deeper awareness through a collective process is a core component of the INCP’s approach for creating action-leaders. Leaders are to know the way, go the way, and show the way. They observe, judge, and act. When children in groups understand together, evaluate together, and act together, their perspectives get mutually corrected, their views become more complete and objective, a value clarification process automatically takes place, and they become effective team workers and leaders. Actions for the Environment Child parliaments using this method have led campaigns for tree-planting, plastic-reduction, reduction of fossil energy, promotion of solar energy, recycling programs, and so forth. They have dug soak-pits ensuring both the recharging of ground water, and cleanliness of the village, avoiding water-stagnation and dengue-spreading mosquitoes. In another example, they joined the global movement of eco-brick making. First, they informed the houses in the neighborhood they would collect their single-use plastics like plastic bags. After they collected the single-use plastics, they filled them in the PET bottles they had already collected previously and packed them to the high density that becomes like a brick. Then these eco-bricks are ready to be used for making various building modules. Kovalam, a village in the southernmost part of India, received the national presidential award for cleanliness, due to the efforts of child parliamentarians. In New Delhi, child parliamentarians decided to use bicycles for distances up to three kilometers, and to opt for traveling by public buses for longer distances. When they have parliament sessions at state and national levels they invite or meet government leaders and submit memoranda alerting them on various environmental issues. Child parliamentarians also advocate for the environment through songs, drama skits, native dances, poems, rallies, exhibitions, and more to create awareness on environmental concerns, bringing to the process fun, color, and creativity. Building a Sustainable World INCPs can handle multiple concerns at the same time with wide impacts by electing ministers for specific concerns. For environmental concerns, they select a child minister for environment in each neighborhood parliament of children. These neighborhood level ministers join at the village level to form a child ministry for environment, and they will in turn form such environment ministries at sub-district, district, state, nation, international, and global levels. This helps child parliamentarians to advocate for sustainable growth at ever wider levels as they keep growing in confidence and competence. Swarnalakshmi Ravi, a visually challenged girl, was just 12 years old when she joined a children's parliament in Chennai, India, in 2002. The very next year she became the Child Prime Minister of the State Parliament of Children of Tamilnadu, India, and addressed meetings at the UN headquarters in New York. Later, as national child prime minister she would advocate for Sustainable Development Goals, submitting memoranda to national government leaders. Presently, she serves as a convenor for the PWCP. Jayalaxmi Ram Mohan, 18, joins her parents, her brother, and her sister in garbage collecting every day from 4 am to 12 noon. Afterward, she goes to her studies as a 12th grader. Four years ago, she joined the children’s parliament in the Singareny Colony slum, eventually became the prime minister of that parliament, and still later, the child prime minister of Hyderabad City parliament. Jayalaxmi led a team of child parliamentarians to submit memoranda to the Special Secretary for Women Development and Child Welfare of Telangana State, India, requesting that day care centers for poor children in slums provide also free breakfast every morning. It was approved. She met the governor of Telangana State in India and submitted a request to ensure that children’s parliaments are started in all schools, beginning with the state-run ones. Her various involvements earned her the ChangeMaker award given to just 15 persons a year in a nation of 1.4 billion people. She was also one of eight persons specially honored at the Women’s Day celebration 2022 at the Telangana State governor’s palace. In March 2022, she was elected the Prime Minister of the Provisional World Parliament of Children. Children of the Inclusive National Children’s Climate Parliament interacted with M. Venkaiah Naidu, the Vice-President of India, and Smriti Zubin Irani, Union Minister of India for Women and Child Development, and the Chair of the Parliamentary Group for Children, as well as with members of parliament from various Indian states. Global Connectedness The child parliament ministers for the environment at various levels are not to work in isolation, but to coordinate their activities with other similar, neighborhood-based global multi-tier child- ministers for concerns like human rights, women’s empowerment, health, sports, education, and so forth. What a wonderful thing to have such a bottom-to-top child-led federation for the environment working together with similar organizations for related concerns. Local INCP select representatives forming a second-level, larger area parliament who in turn elect representatives to form third-level, even larger area parliaments. By electing local representatives to the next wider area level, children’s parliaments are in the process to function at sub-district, district, state, nation, international, and global levels. Every two weeks the Provisional World Children’s Parliament (PWCP) brings together online child parliamentarians from five continents with focus on SDGs. It is “provisional” as many countries are yet to join in this representative process from below. This global connectedness aims to fight the feeling of helplessness that often cripples the enthusiasm of children wanting to effect changes. Children would now feel that what they say from one corner of the world would echo in every corner of the world—they have a global voice. Members of Neighborhood parliaments are prepared to become later members of youth parliament and neighborhood parliaments of the adults. Thus, they are set to usher in gradually a multi-level federation of neighborhood parliaments of adults. This will lead to a world organized from below. It will ensure a powerful ongoing voice and structure for all people, but especially for those at the socio-economic base and those affected by the environmentally destructive decisions of the big and the powerful. Children and adults from every corner of the world will fight together effectively for a sustainable world. Could the earth-lovers ask for more? *Edwin Maria John, 77, is the author of the book, Hello, Neighbourocracy! which presents the blueprint for a new political, economic and social world order. He has nearly fifty years of experience in organizing neighborhood-based, small-sized forums for children and grown-ups, and federating them at various levels. He promotes Inclusive Neighborhood Children’s Parliaments, Neighborhood Parliaments of People, Marketing from Below and Governance from Below. He can be contacted at neighbouroc@gmail.com.

By Nnamdi Anyadike* The lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery market has been growing at an extraordinary pace over the last 10 years and will continue to grow at least at the same pace over the next 10 years. Batteries in electric vehicles (EVs), both light and heavy duty, are among the main growth drivers. In 2030, they are expected to represent 77% of the total installed Li-ion battery capacity, up from just 51% in 2019, according to the latest reports. Over the coming years, several changes are expected in the EV market that will affect both the reuse and recycling of batteries. These include the introduction of new battery technologies, the emergence of autonomous vehicles (AVs), and new ownership models of both vehicles and batteries. However, the volumes that will reach end-of-life will grow slower than the volumes placed on the market, because new applications, and their batteries, will last significantly longer than previous applications. Inevitably, questions arise about the impact of the production, use, and recycling or final disposal of Li-ion batteries. The 2021 “lithium-ion battery life cycle report,” says that recycling “is complicated” and could become even more so if the task of disassembling the components is made too burdensome by heavy-handed regulations. It may also be wasteful. The report predicts, “In 2030 the total amount of Li-ion batteries that will go to reuse will be 145 gigawatt hours (GWh) or 799,000 tons, while 170 GWh or 820,000 tons will be available for recycling.” Nevertheless, while this might look like more batteries are going to recycling than to reuse, most of the recycling will be in batteries with shorter life cycles such as cells and packs in portable devices and personal mobility vehicles. Recycling Challenges Remain an Obstacle Six main types of lithium batteries are in use today, each with varying degrees of recyclability. The Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) battery is most used in small portable electronics, such as mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and cameras. In EV batteries, variations on Li-ion chemistry, including lithium iron phosphate (LIP), lithium-manganese spinel, and lithium vanadium oxide, predominate. The long-life LIP battery is increasing in popularity. These batteries are capable of lasting at least 10 years and undergoing more than 7000 charge/discharge cycles. Nevertheless, even longer life spans are in the pipeline. LG Chem claims that its lithium-manganese spinel battery can last up to 40 years. The lithium vanadium oxide battery is another example of long-life EV battery innovation with a 10–20-year lifespan that has already made its way into the Subaru prototype G4e. Although recycling Li-ion batteries will become hugely important as EVs continue to gain traction, there remain sizable logistical and safety challenges in battery recycling. Although recycling Li-ion batteries will become hugely important as EVs continue to gain traction, Zachary Baum, a Scientific Content Engineer at the Ohio State University’s College of Arts & Sciences (CAS), says that there remain sizable logistical and safety challenges in battery recycling. The first challenge is the transportation of end-of-life batteries from disposal sites to a recycling facility. “This can be expensive if long distances or international transport is required,” he told Supply Chain Digital. The second challenge is safety. “A 1,000-pound EV battery is highly flammable,” Baum pointed out. “Balancing these issues can make it extremely difficult for battery recycling to be both environmentally efficient and profitable,” he continued. Beyond these two considerations lies the problem of how to efficiently extract the battery’s most valuable metals. LI batteries are not typically designed with disassembly and recycling in mind and so crushing the device whole is often required. This can be hazardous even though the current generation of LI batteries contain nickel, cobalt, and manganese, which are less toxic than the lead-acid batteries found in most vehicles today. The emergence of the LIP cathode, made without nickel or cobalt, is enabling the creation of cheaper, more stable, and less risky solutions that address both the power and recycling aspects of Li batteries. Tesla has recently announced it will switch to this technology in its lower-range cars. New Li-Ion Battery Recycling Plants The German multi-metal supplier and recycling company Aurubis AG announced in March the start of test operations at a new pilot plant in Hamburg. The facility will process the “black mass” from Li-ion batteries. Black mass is a metal concentrate containing nickel, cobalt, manganese, lithium, and graphite that is suitable for hydrometallurgical refining. It comes in the form of a powdery residue. The recovered metals will then be used for new batteries and other products. Aurubis CEO Roland Harings anticipates an investment of approximately US $220 million in a full-scale commercial plant. "I'm firmly convinced that Aurubis will commission an industrial-scale battery recycling plant within the next five years," Harings says. The German car manufacturer Mercedes-Benz is to collaborate with Primobious to design and construct a battery recycling plant in Germany. The partnership will be conducted through Neometals, Primobious’ 50% owned subsidiary, and the Mercedes-Benz owned subsidiary, LICULAR GmbH. The new plant will be based at Mercedes’ operations in Kuppenheim, Germany, and will mark the automaker’s foray into battery recycling, making it less reliant on raw material supplies in the future. The recovered material will be fed back into the recycling loop to produce more than 50,000 battery modules for the Mercedes’ EQ (Electric Intelligence) range of vehicles. The plant will have a nominal capacity of 2,500 tonnes per year (or up to 10 tonnes per day) and will be built in two stages. The first stage is expected to commence next year, 2023. Neometals managing director Chris Reed said, “Lithium battery recycling supports the conservation of resources, decarbonization, and supply chain resilience and we are excited to assist Mercedes in its goal to reuse recovered materials.” Meanwhile, the French mining group Eramet announced in March that it could develop jointly with the environmental services group, Suez, a recycling facility in France for EV batteries by 2024. The company sees recycling as contributing to its potential to cover 20% of the European Union's nickel requirements, 25% of the bloc's lithium needs, and 12% of its cobalt demand for EV batteries by 2030. The two partners are to study various solutions for industrial-scale recycling this year, prior to building the Li-ion battery recycling plant. The facility will produce black mass metal concentrate, and Eramet will look separately at developing a refining plant by 2025-2026 to convert this black mass to battery grade products. Like the planned black mass facility, the refining plant would be located in France. Li-Ion Battery Recycling Prospects The rapid depletion of primary lithium and cobalt reserves will inevitably force battery manufacturers to move even more decisively in the direction of recycling. All current methods of Li-ion battery recycling are energy-intensive and inefficient. But an alternative approach that is now rising is to disassemble batteries at the end of their useful life instead of shredding them, thereby making new batteries from the old ones. The most recent breakthrough that shows promise in this direction was developed by a team at Princeton NuEnergy. This method to disassemble old batteries and extract their reusable elements relies on the use of low-temperature plasma (ionized gas). As reported by Azo CleanTech, “The Princeton NuEnergy team's strategy eliminates a major portion of international commerce and transportation needs, paving the way for other nations to boost local battery recycling.” Regulations will also play their part. Today, recycling is not considered a priority for battery manufacturers. But in both Europe and the US, regulations are in the pipeline that will compel battery manufacturers to fund the costs of collecting, storing, and recycling all collected batteries. Appropriate process chains are already being created to ensure the environmentally efficient management of used Li-ion batteries. This will pave the way for a more sustainable future for Li-ion batteries. *Nnamdi Anyadike is an industry journalist specializing in metals, oil, gas, and renewable energy for over thirty-five years.

A new study out of Université de Genève (UNIGE) and the University of Queensland's Sustainable Minerals Institute (SMI) in Australia suggests a novel solution to one of the world’s largest waste streams—waste leftover from mineral processing. In fact, according to the researchers, this novel solution could simultaneously reduce mineral-processing waste and the over-exploitation of global sand reserves, a practice that tends to occur in areas, such as shorelines, that are best left undisturbed. So, less waste and more sand? How is it possible? The researchers’ findings, released this month in the report, Ore-sand: A potential new solution to the mine tailings and global sand sustainability crises FINAL REPORT, refer to left-over waste from mining extraction that has been crushed and from which potentially harmful substances have been removed. The team coined the term, ore-sand, to describe this by-product and its suitability as a sand replacement in the cement industry, for instance. The research team examined tailings produced from iron ore mining in Brazil. After looking at chemical properties and refining operations, they could show that some of the waste stream destined to be mining residues could replace sand in construction and industry, in a manner similar to that of recycled concrete and steel slag. Follow-up will require collaboration with aggregate producers and other industry players to demonstrate ore-sand's ease-of-use, performance, and sourcing process. Other factors to be examined could be CO2 emissions from transporting the material, additional revenue value to ore producers, local demand and so on. With global sand usage at billions of tons annually, due primarily to demand from urban development, “ore-sand” production could significantly impact the environment by lowering the global need for sand mining and by turning harmful ore mining residues into industrial products, thus contributing to a more circular and sustainable economy. Source: Science Daily Release - Solution to world’s largest waste stream

The Hyo Jeong International Foundation for the Unity of the Sciences (HJIFUS), the sponsoring organization of The Earth & I, convened the Twenty-Eighth International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences (ICUS XXVIII) in a virtual format on April 12–13 EDT. The conference explored cutting-edge solutions to environmental problems, based on conventional scientific approaches. Attendees from across the globe, representing different scientific disciplines, were greeted with welcoming remarks by HJIFUS Chairman Dr. Douglas Joo and an address by Dr. Sun Jin Moon, representing her mother and HJIFUS Founder Rev. Dr. Hak Ja Han Moon. Both exhorted attendees to freely share their latest findings with a collective sense of responsibility for the Earth’s well-being. Said Dr. Moon, “Life as we know it hangs in the balance of our conscious choices and actions. The interdependent fate of humanity and the Earth is a direct result of not knowing who we are and why and how we are living. We need to have the knowing, enlightenment, the knowledge, and sacred wisdom to know the heart of all life on Earth is the heart of the Divine love of the highest power.” The overall conference theme was, Investigating Pathways to Resolve Environmental Challenges, and the session topics were grouped under three sub-themes: Addressing Climate Change: Strategies to Achieve “Net Zero”; Manufacturing Materials for Eco-Friendly Products; and Engaging the Public in Tackling Environmental Problems. The keynote speaker was Nobel Laureate, Dr. David MacMillan, James S. McDonnell Distinguished Professor of Chemistry at Princeton University, who presented novel catalytic methods that can help balance human needs with environmental sustainability. Prof. MacMillan led participants from different fields along his career path in organocatalysis, a journey that eventually led to his receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2021. “Organocatalysis,” he stated, “has found application in the recyclable plastics economy.” He cited the work of Professor Bob Waymouth of Stanford University and Dr. James Hedrick of IBM, who have developed organocatalytic processes that break down polymers to their “component monomeric building blocks.” These monomers, he explained, “can then be transformed back to polymers,” a process with the “potential to render plastics completely recyclable and sustainable.” Regarding the future of organocatalysis, he said it is critical that we “keep developing more and more sustainable catalysis. And in this context, this is going to have to be fueled by things such as organocatalysis and biocatalysis, but also photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, and even base metal catalysis, as an area that’s going to be extraordinarily important as we continue to grow as a population.” “The next big idea (based on catalysis),” he said, “can come from anywhere in the world.” In Session 1, Addressing Climate Change: Strategies to Achieve “Net Zero,” there was significant debate on the topic, “Negative Emission Technologies to Reduce Atmospheric Carbon,” which was presented by Dr. Eric Larson, Senior Research Engineer at the Andlinger Center for Energy and the Environment at Princeton University. Dr. Larson spoke on the importance of implementing various technologies, with a focus on carbon capture and storage, toward achieving net-zero by 2050 in the United States. Follow-up discussion on the topic began with Dr. Thomas Valone, President of the Integrity Research Institute, who stated the importance of removing the “excess 830 gigatons [of CO2] in the atmosphere now, which is contributing the most to global warming.” This was in contrast to a comment by Dr. Takahiro Hiroi, Senior Research Associate at Brown University, who stated how the Earth “temperature-wise, is in a small ice age right now” and that we should “be careful in trying to control CO2 levels artificially” and instead focus on more natural pathways to reduce atmospheric CO2. Prof. Larry Baxter, Professor of Chemical Engineering at Brigham Young University, responded by stating that it is “not the level as much as the pace at which the CO2 level is changing” and cited the necessity to be “aggressive in trying to manage it.” The focus of the third and final session moved from promising technological innovations to policy making and educational initiatives that can better engage the public. Speaking on the topic, “Promoting Grassroots Action on Environmental Issues,” Dr. Bruce Johnson, Professor of Environmental Learning & Science Education, and Dean, College of Education, University of Arizona, brought attention to the importance of basic attitudes toward nature that environmental education must address. “Preservation and utilization,” he stressed, “are not necessarily correlated.” In commenting on Dr. Johnson’s presentation, Dr. Dilafruz Williams added that “self-transcendent values rather than self-enhancing values are more effective for environmental action.” Environmental action, she added, “requires expansion of the notion of education beyond the four walls of formal schooling.” In closing the conference, conference chairs presented summaries of presentations and commentaries. Participants commented on the unique forum that the conferences provided for discussing interdisciplinary approaches to environmental issues. The convenience of the virtual global platform, provided by iPeaceTV, allowed them to attend from their homes and offices in India, the UK, Japan, Korea, Africa, Europe, and the US.

“I used to think the top environmental problems were biodiversity loss, ecosystem collapse and climate change. I thought that with 30 years of good science we could address those problems. But I was wrong. The top environmental problems are selfishness, greed and apathy … and to deal with those we need a spiritual and cultural transformation — and we scientists don’t know how to do that.” – Gus Speth, former United Nations Development Programme (UNEP) Administrator, 2014. Already globally recognized each year as Earth Day, April 22 was officially declared by the UN as International Mother Earth Day in 2009. This day is one of many days and initiatives, such as World Wetlands Day (February 2), that the UN has established to address environmental issues. One such environmental project, not widely covered by the mainstream media, is the UN’s Faith for Earth Initiative, a global coalition of interfaith actors that work together to focus faith resources on the environment. Referring to the UN’s resolve in 2008 to focus more attention on “interreligious and intercultural dialogue,” the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) declares on its Faith for Earth Initiative website that “spiritual values for more than 80% of the people living on earth have been driving individual behaviors.” It follows that spiritual values drive behaviors toward the environment, as well, and thus the Faith for Earth Initiative was born in November 2017. The initiative’s mission is “to encourage, empower and engage with faith-based organizations as partners, at all levels, toward achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and fulfilling the 2030 Agenda.” Its vision, “a world where everything is in balance,” is based on eight “shared values” that spell CREATION: C: Communication — Effective communication at all levels between all stakeholders. R: Respect — All spiritual and religious beliefs are respected. E: Empower — Empower and engage all stakeholders. A: Act — Act in coherence with individual reflection and communal beliefs. T: Transform — Transform people’s behavior for a more responsible lifestyle inspired by their own faiths. I: Inspire — Inspire innovative approaches to achieve the 2030 Agenda. O: Organize — Organize knowledge and other resources related to faiths and sustainable development. N: Network — Build a strong network between the UN and faith-based organizations. According to the UNEP, the initiative’s success will require trust-building between what the UNEP calls “the perceived secular values of the UN” and the values of the faith actors. Part of its strategy will be to engage local communities of faith, as well as establish a top-level “Coalition for Creation” to influence environmental policy. Sources: UNEP - Environment, Religion and Culture in the Context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, UN - Earth Day, UNEP - Faith for Earth Initiative

Refugees not only suffer trauma as they flee from war and disasters, but once they reach safety in a refugee camp, they face the need for a daily water supply. Here is how the UN catalogs those needs. Four liters is equal to a little more than one gallon (1.06 gal). A refugee camp should have one water tap for every 80 to 100 individuals. Otherwise, there should be one communal well or hand pump per every 200 refugees. Each camp household of five needs the following five water containers: one 20-liter, two 10-liters, and two five-liters. Camp schools need to stock three liters of water per student. Camp feeding centers should stock 20 to 30 liters per person. Camp outpatient health centers need to stock five liters per visitor. In-patient centers need at least 40 to 60 liters per patient. Wells should be located more than 30 meters (32 yards) from latrines and other possible contaminant sources. A minimum of one water source quality test should be administered per 5,000 beneficiaries per month. Source: UNHCR Water Brochure

CONTENTS NEWS SECTION International Science Conference Ushers in Earth Day The Earth & I Editorial Team New Heat Engine—with No Moving Parts—Turns High Heat into Electricity The Earth & I Editorial Team Environmental Scientists Share Cutting-Edge Research The Earth & I Editorial Team C.R.E.A.T.I.O.N: Faith and the Environment The Earth & I Editorial Team DATA SECTION Food Prices Continue to Rise Sharply The Earth & I Editorial Team What Transit-Oriented Development Can Do for You The Earth & I Editorial Team Refugee Camps and Clean Water The Earth & I Editorial Team Our Supreme Solar Community The Earth & I Editorial Team Global Assembly Takes on Plastic Pollution The Earth & I Editorial Team Red Clover: The Healing Power of Herbs The Earth & I Editorial Team Invasive Species: Unwelcome and Costly The Earth & I Editorial Team Time to Refresh Your Memory: The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) The Earth & I Editorial Team Martens Just Became More Lovable (in the UK) The Earth & I Editorial Team ECOSYSTEMS Squirrel Wars: May the Martens Be with You Gordon Cairns At Home and at Peace in the Mau Forest of Kenya—Understanding the Ogiek Experience Daniel Kobei FOOD Raw Veggies Offer Superior Health Benefits Julie Peterson Alice in a Wondrous Land—Malawi Women Farmers’ Quest for Sustainability Alice Kachere HUMAN HEALTH Breathe Deeply for A Better World Robin Whitlock Sweet Wormwood—Repurposing an Herb for COVID-19? Mark Smith CLIMATE CHANGE The “Doomsday Glacier” Jaqueline Sordi “Power for the People”—How Solar Mini-Grids Help the Disadvantaged Mark Newton NATURAL DISASTERS Can Healthy Soil Mitigate Natural Disasters? Natasha Spencer-Jolliffe ENERGY Russian Invasion Tramples Europe’s Energy Plans Rick Laezman Is Current Battery Technology Sustainable? Nnamdi Anyadike WATER QUALITY When Disasters Strike, Water Systems Follow Jean Thilmany Atmospheric Water Harvesting: Hope from Extracting Water from Air Dr. Rohan S. Dassanayake WASTE MANAGEMENT Japan’s Kamikatsu: A Model of Zero-Waste Living Yasuhiro Kotera ECONOMICS & POLICY Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) at a Political Crossroads Jonathan L. Wharton, Ph.D. EDUCATION Child-led Governance Builds a Sustainable World Edwin Maria John

Gender gaps in agricultural productivity arise not because female farmers are less efficient but because they lack access to agricultural resources such as male family laborers, high-yield crops, pesticides, and fertilizer. United Nations research in sub-Saharan Africa provides perspective on the region’s agricultural gender productivity gap. UN research in five sub-Saharan countries—Ethiopia, Malawi, Rwanda, Uganda, and Tanzania—shows that closing the agricultural gender gap could raise crop production nearly 20% and lift many thousands out of poverty. Gender gaps in agricultural productivity in the five countries range from nearly 11% in Ethiopia to 28% in Malawi, based on data from the World Bank’s Living Standards Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA). Similar studies find gender gaps in agricultural productivity that range from 8% in Kenya to over 30% in Nigeria. In Malawi, the gender gap in the use of farm equipment accounts for 18% of the productivity gap. The gender gap also accounts for a 28% difference in the planting of high-value crops in Malawi, 13% in Uganda, and 3% in Tanzania. In Tanzania, a lack of male farmers accounts for nearly the entire gap in agricultural productivity, whereas in Ethiopia and Malawi it accounts for nearly 45% of the agricultural productivity gap. – Source: UN Women